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L
y...
^lMUm:^
Ancient Egyptian Scribe.
V?* Qyri._ Mariettes Dis coverxe s, 1B52-4'.
(Lguvre Kiueuiti,)
INDIGENOUS KACES
or
THE EARTH;
OR,
"^tk ®|apte rf ft|Mbj[ual l^uirtj;
IBOLUDIIta
MONOGRAPHS ON SPECIAl DEPARTMENTS OF PHILOLOGY, ICONOGRAPHY,
CRANIOSCOPY, PALJ»NTOLOGY, PATHOLOGY. ARCHEOLOGY, COM-
PARATIYE GEOGRAPHY. AND NATURAL HISTORY:
OOVTEIBUTBD BT
ALFRED MAURY,
■BumstcAiu n l'iihtitw »b tbavcb; siatiTAiRi Btatu^i i>i la socifri m ofooRAFBn
M TAUMi MHIMM M LA tOdttt mrfUAU MtS AWnQUAIftlS 1»X nUKCS, Hn AGAOfMni
VB aOU>BAI7Z R SB CAKf. DM ACAOfMIBS BT BOdtriS I>'ABCBfoljOO» DB BnOIQUB,
W nCABSIB, SB MADRID. DBS •OClflifl AflAnQUB BT MCDICO-PSTCHOLOOIQUB
M PABIS, DB lA BOattt D'HIVTOIIIX DE LA SUiaBB-BOMA>DB ET DE LA
WOattt DB LrrriEATVBB NIeBLAMDAISSDBLBTDB; CBITAUBa
DB L'OBDBB DB LA LfiOlOH ]>'BOnrBUB, BTC BTa BTC,
FRANCIS PULSZKT, and J. AITKEN MEIGS, M. D.,
OV LUBOGZ AND CSBLTALYA,
fBiunr or nn uwqamiah acadbmt;
IfUBB—T m TBB IHWIHJ10 Dl GO**
■tOajmiA ABOraOLOQICA DI 10-
ma; late nrDBR •bcrbtabt
or iTATB HI BmraAiT,
■ra> BO. BTCy
norrmouL or thb marnmia or medionb nr tbb fhila-
DBLPDIA COLLBOB Or XBDiaifE; UBRARUN Or THB
ACADEMY or 5ATURAL SaENCflS Or PBILADEL-
fbia; rbcordiho bbtrbtart or tbb
PBa«DELPniA COU^TTT MEDICAL 80*
cbtt; riLLOw or the col-
LBOB or FHTBKSAHB, BTC.
(With CommonioationB ftom Profl Job. Leidj, M. D., ajad Prof. L. AgtBsiz, LL. D.)
PElBlKTIKa rmsBR
INVESTIGATIONS, DOCUMENTS, AND MATERIALS;
BT
J. C. NOTT, M.D., AND GEO. R. GLIDDON,
■OBLB, ALABAMA,
rORMBRLT V. B. COMBUL AT CAIRO,
AUTHORS Or**TTFBS OF MAMSHrD."
<♦•»»■
PHILADELPHIA :
J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO.
LONDON: TRtJBNER & CO.
1857.
51Z
7GD276
ram mman at vrAnomuP hail, bt nmufAnovAi. AUAvoBMnn wm m AimioAV nonxiTOBa.
Entered, aoeording to the Aot of Congreta, in the year 1867| hj
J. B. LIPPINCOTT A CO.,
in the Olerk't Offloe of the District Court of the United Sutet for the Eastern District of
Pennsylvania.
t •
•
TO
RICHARD K. HAIGHT,
NEW YORK.
I BATB presamed on oar long friendship, and the assooiations arisinjj^
from oor joint archsdologioal and ethnological parsaits — as well as on
mj having been your colleague in numerous scientific societies in
Tarious parts of the world, for a period of more than twenty years —
to dedicate this volume to you.
G. R. G.
PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT.
■»»^^^^V>»<^^«^^>^^^^»^^^l^^^^l»»<»^W^^^^^
"Xhrough the medium of a Prospectus, we have again invited
Pu>ilic co-operation in bringing out a second work on Anthro-
l^^logy ; and it is with no slight satisfaction that we now
P^V)lish a larger list of Subscribers than even that received for
l^ypes of Mankind."
Such testimonials of the interest taken by our fellow-citizens
^^ scientific researches, are regarded by ourselves, as they will
^Oobtless be by others both at home and abroad, as the best
Evidence of the love of knowledge developed in the United
States through our educational institutions.
Under this conviction, we have endeavored to augment the
Value of " Indigenous Races of the Earth," by sparing neither
exertion nor outlay to make the book itself worthy of the
patronage bestowed upon it. Whether in the number of the
wood-cuts and the lithographic plates, or as regards the amount
of letter-press, it will be found, by those who may choose to
compare the promises made in our Prospectus with their fulfil-
ment in the present volume, that we have really given much
more than could have been anticipated in a book the cost of
which, to the American Subscriber, is only Fwe Dollars per copy.
(V)
vi publishers' announcement.
It is to this practical consideration alone that we appeal,
should criticism allege that any of the mechanical part of this
work might have been more skilfully executed. Had the price
been higher, the performance would assuredly have been
superior
In justice to the labors of the Authors and the Contributors,
we will state, that no monetary compensation is equal to the
pains bestowed by each upon his part; and several of the
above have kindly furnished their quota without the remotest
pecuniary object; at the same time, let it be noted, that the
accomplished lady to whose single pencil four-fifths of the
entire series of illustrations herein contained are due, sponta-
neously volunteered, and for two years has employed it, in
behalf of her husband's literary interests.
Aside, also, from the communications made by Professors
Joseph Leidy and L. Agassiz, as well as by Lieut. Haber-
sham, U. S. N., the reader will find in this volume several
items of novelty, — altogether uncontemplated by us when
the first Prospectus was issued last autumn.
Among these may be mentioned the inedited Eskimo-cranium
derived from the late Dr. Kane's first Arctic Expedition, and
the equally inedited Tchukichi-cranium and portrait presented
by Mr. E. M. Kern, — artist in the recent North Pacific Expe-
dition of the " Vincennes," under Captain Bodgers, U. S. N.
We hope, therefore, that every Subscriber will feel satisfied
that we have fully redeemed our engagements in the premises.
J. B. Lippincott k Co.,
Publishers.
PKEFATORY REMARKS.
BT GEO. B. GLIDDON.
Thb title of the present volume, — "Indigenous Baces of the
Earth," as well as that of our former work, — "Types of Mankind,"
are due to mj colleague.
Dr. Nott possesses, beyond most men, the feculty of epitomizing
the gist of an argument in the fewest words. It is on that account,
and more especially for the disappointment readers may feel upon
finding my name substituted for my colleague's, in this part of our
joint book, that its opening page must contain an expression of my
regret at the only untoward event which, from first to last, has been
encountered in the literary undertaking now brought favorably to
an end.
Being unavoidable, however, such issue — unforeseen but a few
days ago — requires some brief explanation.
On my return from Europe last May, M. Alfred Maury's manu-
script for Chapter L was the only part of this book in a state of com-
pletion. Mr. Francis Pulszkt's, for Chapter 11., arrived in consecu-
tive portions by the mails from London; Dr. J. Aitkbk Meigs's, for
Chapter EDL, and mine for Chapters V. and VI., were written here,
daring the past summer and autumn ; while Dr. Nott, in the same
interval, prepared his for Chapter IV. at Mobile.
It having been deemed inexpedient to incur the risks of loss oi
these manuscripts by sending them hence to Mobile, Dr. Nott, except
through private correspondence and my oral report to hin. "chez
lui " last November, was necessarily unacquainted with theii several
tenor : but, when receiving from his hands the manuscript for Chap-
(TU)
viii PREFATORT REMARKS.
ter IV., I anticipated no difficulty in supplying Iiim with the ^^ proof-
sheets" of oar volume quite in time for one — ^to whom the subjects
developed in it are so familiar — ^to write the few pages of synopsis
desirable for its " Prefatory Remarks."
Under this expectation, the "proof-sheets" have been punctually
forwarded hence to Mobile by our Publishers ; and I took for granted
that, by the 15th February, at furthest, Dr. Nott's second manuscript
would have reached me here for the press. Unfortunately, we have
all " reckoned without our host" From the latter part of December
until, I may say, this moment, the wintry condition of the roads has
been such as to compel my colleague to write me, almost at the last
moment, that, having received but few of the " proof-sheets," and
these in no connected series, he must abandon the hope of editing
our "Prefatory Remarks."
My individual chagrin at this cantre-temps is so great that I will not
attempt to offer any substitute for Dr. Nott's frustrated intentions.
At a more propitious time, and through some other vehicle, I hope
that my colleague may publish his own commentary upon " Indige-
nous Races of the Earth," — which owes far more to his personal
science and propulsion than appears on its &ce. In consequence,
my part reduces itself to the editorship of three additional contribu-
tions,^— to three paragraphs about Egyptian ethnography — and to
succinct observations concerning my own Chapters V. and VL
The gratifying communications now presented afford much scien-
tific novelty and food for the reader's reflections. I append each in
its order of date.
" Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Jan. 20f A, 1857.
" Messrs. Nott & Gliddon,
"Dear Sirs: — Your communication in regard to the hairy race
who inhabit the Kurile Islands, and the red men of Formosa, has
been received.
"I take pleasure in forwarding you two * heads ' of the former, as
drawn by Mr. A. E. Hartman, the able artist of the United States
Surveying Steamer *John Hancock,* and only regret that I am
unable to furnish you with similar sketches of the latter, our opportu-
nities of examining them having been very limited. I take the fol-
lowing extracts in regard to these slightly known races fix)m a nar-
rative of our Cruise which I have now in press : —
"THB BSD MKN OF THS ISLAND OF FORMOSA.
*• I will say nothing more about Formosa for the present. We left its shores abont as
wise as wo were upon our arriyal, and it was not until our second visit that we picked up
PREFATORT REMARKS. IX
what little information now exists upon the files of the Expedition in regard to it. Upon
•eaTing Keilung (the port of the island of Formosa), for Hong-Kong, we kept along the
east coast of the island, in 4he yain search for a reported harbor. There was nothing to b«
seen but an iron-bonnd cosst with range after range of lofty mountains lifting themselTes
aboTO the heaTj surf that broke along the entire beach. One day we thought we had dis-
ooTcred it: we saw ahead the smoke of distant Tillages rising back of a bight in the coast
which looked Tery much like a harbor ; but, upon approaching it, we found ourseWes mis-
taken. We, howeTer, lowered a boat and attempted to land, but the surf was breaking so
tanojuHj that it would haye been madness to have entered it Besides, the beach was
crowded by naked and excited sayages, who it was generally reported were cannibals, and
into whose company we should consequently haye preferred being thrown with reliable arms
in onr hands. The two conyicts, whom the captain had taken in the boat to interpret in
case of his being able to land, became so frightened at the sayage appearance of those
reported man-eaters, that they went on their knees to him, protesting, through the steward,
that the islanders had eaten many of their countrymen, and that if he went any nearer they
would do the same by him and the boat's crew. Finding it impossible to pass the surf, the
boat returned on board, and we squared away for Hong-Kong." * » « « "And now, be-
fore I turn to my journal for a few pages in regard to our experience while coasting around
this island, let me enlighten the reader as much as possible in regard to it from other
sources. The Encyclopasdia Britannioa says, —
•< < The Dutch at an early period established a settlement on this island.
***In 1625, the viceroy of the Philippine Islands sent an expedition against Formosa,
with a yiew of expelling the Dutch. It was unsuccessful. . . . About the middle of the
serenteenth century, it afforded a retreat to twenty or thirty thousand Chinese from the
fury of the Tartar conquest ... In 1658, a conspiracy of the Chinese against the Dutch
was discoyered and suppressed ; and, soon after this, Coxinga, the goyemor of the maritime
Chinese proyince of Tehichiang, applied for permission to retire to the island, which was
refused by the Dutch goyemor ; on which he fitted out an expedition, consisting of six hun-
dred yessels, and made himself master of the town of Formosa and the adjacent country
The Dutch were then allowed to embark and leave the island. . . . Coxinga afterward en-
gaged in a war with the Chinese and Dutch, in which he was defeated and slain. But they
vere unable to take possession of the island, which was brayely defended by the posterity
of Coxinga; and it was not till the year 1688 that the island was yoluntarily surrendered
bj the reigning prince to the Emperor of China. ... In 1805, through the weakness of
the Chinese government, the Ladrone pirates had acquired possession of a great part of the
southwest coast'
** The Encyclopsedia Americana says, —
** ' The island is about two hundred and forty miles in length from north to south, and
sixty from east to west in its broadest part, but greatly contracted at each extremity.
That part of the ishind which the Chinese possess presents extensive and fertile plains,
watered by a great number of riyulets that fall from the eastern mountains. Its air is
pure and wholesome, and the earth produces in abundance com, rice, and most other kinds
of grun. Most of the India fruits are found here, — such as oranges, bananas, pineapples,
guavas, cocoanuts,-r Aii<l P&i^ of those of Europe, particularly peaches, apricots, figs, grapes,
chestnuts, pomegranates, watermelons, &c. Tobacco, sugar, pepper, camphor, and cin-
namon, are also common. The capital of Formosa is Taiouan, — a name which the Chi-
nese giye to the whole island.'
** In addition to the foregoing extracts Arom standard authority, we haye a most marvel-
lous account of this island from the pen of Mauritius Augustus, Count de Benyowsky, a
?oli8h refugee from Siberian exile, who yisited its east coast, in 1790, in a small armed ves-
id containing about one hundred men. The account by this nobleman is interesting in the
txtreme, but unfortunately he is guilty of one gross and palpable falsehood, which necessa-
lily throws a shade of distrust on his entire narratiye. He speaks * of anchoring in several
I
Z PBEFATORrnE-MABKS.
fluo harboni on the eut eoaat;' whereiui we of Ibe IliDcock grarcbed in Tuin for an; nieh
Jitaco of refhge along that entiro sbore. On the north and west coast* Uiey are quite
pleatifnL
" After snohoriog in one of thwo ' fine hHrhpra,' (be Count pT>es "" 'o giTe ns ■□ idea of
the people who received him : they were Indians. »a rages, aad terj ttnt, — so much bo
that they Boon atlampted Ibe munJor of a parly tbut had visited Iheir yilUge. He now
killed a gnil nuny of tbem, got up hi« anchor, and went to on adjoining harbor, where be
iraa most gracioual; roceired for having slain lo many of Iheir eDeaiica of the place Ibej
had just loft. HBro be fell in with a prince, who persuaded him into an alttanee against
another prince, and thus they fought for lame time. Finally, he drags himself from the
island, mueh to the dlBtroBS of the prince liSs ally, who loads him down with gold and ailTer,
11 is impoBBible (o read (be Cnnnt's narralire and Bay what bo did ttt. He was GTidenlly a
blood-relntiro of the Manchanaen faniily.
■■And now, baring abown what others Bay in regard to Fonnona, let ns retnm to tbe
•old John,' >ibom wo left at anchor under Bhelter of its weal coaal, nt tbe cloao of a Btormj
day. Here is what my journal says in regard to onr arriral, and to what we saw and did
upon the following days ; —
■' ' We eould see nothing that night save an eitensire strotcb of white sand-heacb baokcd
by a sloping green, in tbe rear of wbicb we imagined we saw a village slumbering under the
deepening abndowa of a high range of mDuntaina. But this village eiixled, mnny slid, only
in the vWid imaginationa of a few, and it was not notil darkness bad become anflicicntly
dense to rofleot its many lights, that the fnct was generally admitted. Tbe next morning,
however, «e had a moat refreshing view spread onC before ns, — green slopes and waving
Belds of grain, broken here and there by cTtcnaive tracts of lable-land, over which we oonid
Bee the cattle roving in tbeir laiy aeareh for the more tender monthnils of the abundant
grnsB.' • • • •
■■ ' Dnring the night the gale fortnoalely abated, and tbe next morning ■ buat-proof ' and
hiB master, several others of tbe meaa, and myself, ventured into onr best-pulling boat and
struck out boldly for tbe beach. It was a bard and wet pull ; but something over three-
quarters of an hour aufbeed to eroaa the stormy half mile that separated na, and, as the
ned rata! wo were still on
■■ ■ We landed upon this atrange and crowiled beach withont fear, simply fVom the foot
that, while yet some distance off, we bad readily recognised tbe naUveA as Cbineao, and,
although tbey were nil armd with cither the matchlock or bow and arrow, wo knew too
much of their race to anticipate violence. This Crowd, wbicb received ua in a most noisy
manner, waa composed of men, women, and children, — (he malos of almost every age being
armed. We bad taken tbe preoantion to bring one of onr Chinese meaa-boys with ua ; bnl,
tlieir language being neither the Mandarin, Canton, or Shanghs dialect, he at first found
great diflicnity in making himself underatood. After a while, however, by the aid of tbe
few words common to each, and a fearful emoont of violent pantomime on our part, we edo-
deeded in exchanging ideas with tolerable freedom.
■' ' From nil that wo could learn from them in this way, it seema that they eiist in a stsl*
of perpetual warfare with Iheir latagt nfighbori ef the eati coait. Tbe iaiand being verr
narrow there, tbe latter find no difficulty in crossing Ibe monnlain-ridge which, tike a boge
back-bone, divides the two lerritoricB, oaplnring eatlle, making prisoners, burning isolotod
habitations, and then retreating into their mounlain-rastneases, where they are never fol-
lowed by their unwarUke victims. Thtia we always found the latter armed with aword,
matchlock, or bow and arrow, and confining themaolves strictly to Ihoir fields and paatam-
gronnds. Whenever we evinced a disposilion to ascend the bushy sides of the neighboring
bins, they beearoe greatly alarmed, caught hold of our olothes, threw themselves in onr
^■(hs, Md made signs to d» tbat our throats wonld b« oerUinly oat and we roasted for
PREFATORY REMARKS. XI
tapper bj bid m«n who were rery strong and fierce, and who wore large rings in their ears.
We <i^d not know what to make of all this at first ; but Hartman, who had wandered off bj
^imelf in aeareh of siiipe> rejoined as shortly before dark, and opened onr eyes.
*" HaTing nnconscionsly wandered oyer the lowland and ascended a neighboring elera-
^OB, he had seated himself upon a firagment of rook, and was admiring the view which
vpened before him, when his ear suddenly caught a sound as of some animal making its
^y eaatioosly through the bushes. He turned quickly, and saw a party of three, whom
)m had no difficulty in recognidng as * bad men who wore large rings in their ears.'
***Hfr« was a fix for our innocent sportsman : he must either retire with an imaginary
tsl between his legs, or face boldly the unlooked-for danger. Fortunately, he was a man
o( nerre, and was moreorer armed with a shot-gun, bowie-knife, and revolyer. Choosing,
tWrrfort, the latter altematiTe, he arose with a great air of non-she-lan-cy (as I once
^ctrd the word pronounced by an American who had been to Paris), and adyanced to the
Basmt, a tall, fine-^king fellow, who rested upon his bow and fixed his gate curiously
vpon hun. Uartman says that he whistled with considerable success portions of a popular
lir as he thus went, as it were, into the lion*s month, but neyer before felt such a longing
^ he safely on the distant decks of the much-abused * old John.' He soon joined this
pnncely-looking sayage, and as the others drew near he made a careful but hurried suryey
^ their person/1 appearance, exchanged a Mexican dollar for tffe bow and arrow of one of
'^^m, eridently against the will of the surprised owner, and then leisurely retraced his way
"'^til an interyening clump of trees enabled him with safety to call upon his legs to do their
^°^. It is needless to remark that the yocal music and the air of ' non-sho-lun-cy ' expired
'° ^ich other's arms at this point He ran for a mile or more before eyincing the slightest
^^oaity to know if he was followed.'
'" He described them as being of large stature, fine forms, copper-colored, high cheek-bones,
^^^"^j jaws, coarse black hair reaching to the shoulders, and boasting no clothing saye the
*^>^, and a light cotton cloth oyer the shoulders, — very mtich Uke our North American Indi"
f"*^ be thought No wonder that such a miserable race as the Chinese should hold them
^ ^ii'cad: in fiact, the only wonder is that they haye the courage to remain on the same
^^*^iad. I suppose that our innocent sportsman is the first member of ciyilization who has
'^^ « close yiew of these reputed cannibals since Benyowsky, the Polish Count, cruised
AloD^ their shelterless shores in 1790, since which time they haye been more out of the
^'^Hd eyen than the Japanese. These singularly-captured bow and arrows are now in the
<^n«ction of the Expedition. ♦ ♦ ♦ « ♦
*' More than once, howerer, impelled by our exoessiye curiosity to learn more of these
^i^kiiown people, did we attempt to land ; and more exciting attempts at shore-going I neyer
Participated in. Upon one of these occasions we entered upon the dangerous trial with two
^^ OYir best boats ; but, upon nearly losing the inner one, with all who were in her, we
^9«ly returned on board. We got more than one near yiew of the sayages, howcTer, heard
^«lr Toiees, and answered their signs ; but $XL this only increased our desire to know more
^^ them, for now we saw that they were yeritable red men; and what were red men doing
^^ the island of Formosa?
** From what I could see oyer the distance which separated our boat from the crowded
^^^^ch, I found the preyious description of our * innocent sportsman ' snbstantinted by my
own eyes and those of others. We saw an excited crowd of fine-looking men and women,
^PP«r-edlored, and possessed of the slightest possible amount of clothing, — the former
boasting only a cloth tied around the head, while the latter had but a thin loose garment
^*t leemed to gather around the throat and extended no farther than the knee. Some of
the aea were arm^ with bow and arrow, others with yery senriccable-Iooking matchlocks;
^^« Women held yarious articles in their hands, probably for barter, and, as we pulled
^^V ifter our narrow escape, they erinced their sorrow and desire to trade by loud cries
^ the most yioleiit gestures. Our Chinese boy had almost fainted from fright as the inner
PKEFATOKV EEMARKS.
pt tolanil; bi
it btolied Iam Ute aarf !□ tlie ationipt to lanil; be oould mlj trembla m
'. nuui! dcf eat maDt' Hu frionilB on llie iillier aidi h»l eviddnllj iinprMM<l
it nnpleiumjit Dulioiul chnracteristio, noil heiio« hit bight when ■pparentlj' >'
rolltMl helpUBsIf la their feet b; a boiling surf.
"Tb« Biune da; upon which we made (bis our last attempt to laiu] luiiuDg tUl
sWkincd along up tLoir coast, keepiag af cloee us wna prudeut, — in fuel cloMr, — at
mioiiig with our glasses u) fi»r Imck aa we could eee. In thia way w
reiitlj eomfortabls slone honsoe, niMitlf-kept grounds, — what looked like fraitful g
and green fields, — sll i>eiDg cultivated by ' Chinees pneoners wbo bod Dot }et been ■
we were t«ld on tbe otiier eide ; or rather we were told that their frleadit, wh«n c
were mado to work until needed for cnlinnr; pnrpoieB.
■■ We were sarprised at this ntr of comfort among half-Doked eaiages, and im
wander bow tbej could haTS built suoh nice-looking honses, andl we finally oonclluj
their piisooen had ^cen mnde to turn their boods M masour; as welt ai
ended our Becoud and lost lisit to Fonnoaa."
PREFATORY REMARKS. xiii
"Cambridge, Feb. 1, 1857.
**Mt dear Sirs. — ^In answer to your queries respecting my latest
investigations upon the question of the primitive diversity of the
Wices of man, I have only a few general remarks to make. Most
of the difficulties which have been in the way of a more speedy
Bolution of that perplexing question, have arisen from the circum*
stance, that it has been considered too isolately, and without due
reference to the progress made in other branches of Zoology. I have
already shown, in the * Sketch of the natural provinces of the animal
world, and their relation to the different types of man,' which you
have inserted in * Types of Mankind,' that, so far as their geogra-
phical distribution upon the surface of the globe is concerned, the
races of man follow the same laws which obtain in the circumscrip-
tion of the natural provinces of the animal kingdom. Even if this
&ct; stood isolated, it would show how intimately the plan of the
aairnal creation is linked with that of mankind. But this is not all:
there are other features occurring among animals, which require the
most careful consideration, inasmuch as they bear precisely upon the
question at issue, whether mankind originated from one stock, or from
several stocks, or by nations. These features, well known to every
zoologist, have led to as conflicting views respecting the unity or
plurality of certain types of animals, as are prevailing respecting
tie unity or plurality of origin of the human races. The contro-
versy which has been carried on among zoologists, upon this point,
eliows that the difficulties respecting the races of men are not pecu-
liar to the question of man, but involve the investigation of the
whole animal kingdom — ^though, strange as it may appear, they
l^ve always been considered without the least reference to one
another.
"I need not extend my remarks beyond the class to which man
hunself belongs, in order to show how much light might be derived,
for the study of the races, from a careful comparison of their pecu-
^ characteristics with those of animals. The monkeys most nearly
*Uied to man afford even the best examples. The orang-outans of
^nieo, Java, and Sumatra, are considered by some of the most
eminent zoologists as constituting only one single species. This is
™ opinion of Andreas Wagner, who, by universal consent, ranks
^ one of the highest authorities in questions relating to the natural
™ory of mammalia ; while Eichard Owen, than whom no man,
^4 the exception of our own Jeffi:eys Wyman, has studied more
^^'^ly the anthropoid monkeys, considers them as belonging to
^ least three distinct species. A comparison of the full and beau-
*^y illustrated descriptions which Owen has published, «?f the
XIV PREFATORY REMARKS.
nkoloton and especially of the skulls of these species of orangs, witb
the descriptions and illastrations of the different races of man, to be
found in almost every work on this subject, shows that the orangs
differ from one another in the same manner as the races of man do;
HO much so, that, if these orangs are different species, the different
rfkces of men which inhabit the same countries, the Malays and the
Negrillos, must be considered also as distinct species. This conclu-
Bion acquires still greater strength, if we extend the comparison to
the long-armed monkeys, the Hylobates of the Sunda islands and
of the peninsulas of Malacca and Deckan, which extend over regions
inhabited by the Telingans, the Malays, and the Negrillos; for there
exists even a greater diversity of opinions among zoologists respect-
ing the natural limits of the species of the genus Hylobates, than
respecting those of the orangs, which constitute the genus Pithecus.
I have already alluded, on another occasion, to the identity of color
of the Malays and orangs: may we not now remember, also, a
similar resemblance between some of the species of Hylobates with'
the Negrillos and Telingans ?
" The monkeys of South America are also very instructive in this
respect, especially the genus Cebus. While some zoologists distin-
guiuh as many as ten different species, others consider them all as
one, and others acknowledge two or three species. Here we have
again, with reference to one genus of monkeys, the same diversity
of opinion as exists among naturalists respecting the races of man.
I Jut, in this case, the question assumes a peculiar interest, from the
tiirtMiinHtance that the genus Cebus is exclusively American ; for that
dirtiloHefl the same indefinite limitation between its species which
wii (»lmiTvo also among the tribes of Indians, or the same tendency
to Hplitting into minor groups, running really one into the other,
mitwithstaiuling some few marked differences, — in the same
iiiunnor, as Morton has shown, that all the Indians constitute but
onu rat^o, from one end of the continent to the other. This differen-
(iiition of our animals into an almost indefinite number of varieties,
in bpiuaos which have, as a whole, a wide geographical distribution.
Id iv t'tuiture which prevails very extensively upon the two continents
mI Amoriea. It maybe observed among our squirrels, our rabbits
kS\\\\ huroa, our turtles, and even among our fishes; while, in the Old
WmiM, notwithstanding the recurrence of similar phenomena, the
\\s\\^\^ mI' viu*lution of species seems less extensive and the range of
\\\\M ^\^s^g\^^\\*M^^ distribution more limited. In accordance with
\\\U ki^Mntinl i^lnunu^tor of the animal kingdom, we find likewise that,
^M^\^^M *»*^**^» ^^^^^ ^'^^^ oxception of the* Arctic Esquimaux, there is
\\\\\\ \^s\\^ ^\\\^W !'«**** <^f "^^n extending over the whole range of
PREFATORY REMARKS. XV
North and South America, but dividing into innumerable tribes;
whilst, in the Old World, there are a great many well-defined and
easily distinguished races, which are circumscribed within compara-
tively much narrower boundaries.
** This being the case, is it not plain that, unless we compare con
stantly the results of our ethnological investigations with the daily
increasing information we possess respecting the relations of animals
to one another and their geographical distribution, light will never
Bhine upon the question of the races of man ?
" There is another point to which I would simply allude. Much
importance is attached to the affinity of languages — ^by those who
insist upon the primitive unity of man — as exhibiting, in their
opinion, the necessity of a direct affiliation between all men. But
the very same thing might be shown of any natural femily of ani-
mal8,-^even of such families as contain a large number of distinct
genera and species. Let any one follow upon a map exhibiting the
geographical distribution of the bears, the cats, the hollow-horned
ruminants, the gallinaceous birds, the ducks, or of any other families,
and he may trace, as satis&ctorily as any philological evidence can
prove it for the human language, and upon a much larger scale, that
the brumming of the bears of Kamtschatka is akin to that of the
bears of Thibet, of the East Indies, of the Sunda islands, of Kepal,
of Syria, of Europe, of Siberia, of the United States, of the" Rocky
mountains, and of the Andes ; though all these bears are considered
as distinct species, who have not any more inherited their voice one
from the other, than the different races of men. The same may be
said of the roaring and miawing of the cats of Europe, Asia, Africa,
jmd America ; or of the lowing of the bulls, the species of which
are so widely distributed nearly over the whole globe. The same is
true of the gackeling of the gallinaceous birds, and of the quacking of
the ducks, as well as of the song of the thrushes, — all of which pour
forth their gay and harmonious notes in a distinct and independent
dialect, neither derived nor inherited one from the other, even though
all sing thrusht«A. Let any philologist study these facts, and learn, at
the same time, how independent the animals are, one from the other,
which utter such closely allied systems of intonations, and, if he be
not altogether blind to the significance of analogies in nature, he
must begin himself to question the reliability of philological evi-
dence as proving genetic derivation.
" Ls. Agassiz."
Messrs. Nott & Guddon.
I
^^^ Neithe
PREFATORY KEMAliKS.
_ „ Philadllpuu, Feb. lOtli, 1857.
Dr. Nott and Mr. Qliddon,
Dear Sire : — Yon have frequently expressed the desire that I should
give to you a Chapter on some ethnographic suliject, which I would
gladly have done liad I made Ethnography an especial study. After
the death of Dr. Morton, it was proposed to me to take up the inves-
tigation of the cranial characteristics of the human races, where he
had left it, which I omitted, uot from a want of interest in ethnogra-
phic science, but because other studies occupied my time. Having,
as curator of the Academy of Natural BcienecB the charge of Dr. Mor-
ton's extensive cabinet of human crania, I confided the undertaking
to Dr. Mkigs, who has shown his capability for investigating the intri-
cate subject of Ethnography in the excellent Chapter he presents
as a contribution to your work. To the paper of Dr. Meigs it was
proposed that I should add not-es; l)ut after a diligent perusal it
appeared to me so complete, that I think I could not add anything
to enhance ita value.
While engaged in palseontological researches, I sought for earlier
records of the aboriginal races of man than have reached us through
vague traditions or through later authentic history, but without being
able to discover any positive evidences of the exact geological period
of the advent of man in the fauna of the earth.
The numerous facts which have been brought to our notice touch-
ing the discovery of human bones, and rude implements of art, in
association with the remains of animals of the earlier pliocene
deposits, are not conclusive evidence of their contemporaneous
existence.
It is not from the land of their birth, and upon which they moved
and died, that we learn the history of lost races of terrestrial animals ;
it is in the beds of lakes and inland seas, and in the deltas of rivers,
at the boundaries of their habitation. In reflecting upon the present
condition of the habitable earth, with ita teeming population and the
rapid succession of births and deatlis, we might be led to suppose
the surface of the earth had become thickly strewn with the remains
of animals. It is, however, no less true than astonishing, that, with
comparatively trifling exceptions, the remains of each generation of
animals are completely obliterated. Penetrate the forests, traverse
the prairies, and explore the mountain chains and valleys of America,
and seek for the bones of the generations of red-men, of the herds of
bison, and of other animals, which have lived and died in past ages.
Neither upon nor beneath the surface of the earth are they to be
PREFATORY REMARKS. XVU
found ; for devouring successors, and the combined influence of air
and moisture, have completely extinguished their traces. An occa-
sional swollen carcase, borne by a river current, and escaping the
jaws of crocodiles and fishes, leaves its remains in the bed of a lake,
or in a delta, to represent in future time the era of its existence.
Since the Glacial Period, or rather since the subsequent emergence
of the northern zones of America and Europe from the Great Arctic
Ocean, the general configuration of the continents has remained
nearly unchanged down to the present time. In consequence of
this circumstance the deposits or geological formations in which we
could most advantageously study the earliest traces of primitive
man, are, in the greatest degree, inaccessible to our investigations.
These deposits are the beds of modern lakes and inland seas, and
fluviatile accumulations or deltas. Marshes, in many instances,
have served as the depository of the larger quadrupeds, which have
perished in the mire ; but these are places in which the remains of
man would be rarely found, because they are naturally avoided.
Coeval, perhaps, with the Glacial Period of the northern hemi-
sphere, which at the present time exhibits its similitude in the
Great Antarctic Ocean, primitive races of man may have already
inhabited the intertropical regions ; and in the gradual emergence
of the northern zones of the earth he may have followed the receding
waters — traditions of which, in after ages, when conjoined with the
view of the accumulations of drift material, may have given rise to
the idea of a universal deluge, which appears to have prevailed
among the aborigines of the western as well as of the eastern world.
No satisfactory evidence has been adduced in favor of this early
appearance of man ; but I am strongly inclined to suspect that such
evidence will yet be discovered.
Many animals, which we may infer to have existed in association
with the Mastodon and Megalonyx, have so thoroughly disappeared
from the face of nature that no trace of them is to be discovered.
Near Natchez, Mississippi, there have been found together in the
same deposit, the remains of the Elephant, Mastodon, Mylodon,
Megalonyx, Ereptodon, Bison, Cervus, Equus, Ursus, Canis, the
lower jaw of a lion, and the hip bone of a man. All the bones are
infiltrated with peroxide of iron, and present the same appearance.
The lower jaw of the lion, the tjT)e of the Felis atroxj is the only
relic of the species yet discovered, though the animal most probably
at one period ranged America as freely and for as long a time as its
present congener of Africa and Asia. The human hip-bone alluded
to, has been supposed by Sir Charles Lyell to have been subsequently
2
• ••
XVIU PREFATORY REMARKS.
introduced among the remains of the other animals mentioned ; and
this supposition I deem highly probahle, although the bone does
present the same appearance as the others with which it was found.^
We cannot, however, positively deny that it was contemporaneous
with those of the extinct animals.
When America was discovered by Europeans it was thickly popu-
lated by a race of man, which appears already to have existed for
many ages, and it is quite as probable that he had his origin on this
continent as that men originated elsewhere;' and further, it is
probable that the Red-man witnessed the declining existence of
the Mastodon and Megalonyx, in the later ages of the glacial
period.
The early existence of the genera to which our domestic animals
belong, has been adduced as presumptive evidence of the advent of
man at a more remote period than is usually assigned. It must be
remembered, however, even at the present time, that of some of
these genera only a few species are domesticated: thus of the exist-
ing six species of Equus, only two have ever been freely brought
under the dominion of man.
The horse did not exist in America at the time of its discovery by
Europeans; but its remains, consisting chiefly of molar teeth, have
now been so frequently found in association with those of extinct
animals, that it is generally admitted once to have been an aborigi-
nal inhabitant. When I first saw examples of these remains I was
not disponed to view them as relics of an extinct species; for
1 Bones of recent animals, when introduced into older deposits, may in many cases Tery
soon assume the condition of the fossils belonging to those deposits. Fossilisation, petri-
faction, or lapidification, is no positiTe indication of the relatiye age of organic remains.
The miocene Tortebrate remains of the Himalayas are far more completely fossilised than
the like remains of the eocene deposits of the Paris basin ; and the remains of the tertiary
Tertebrata of Nebraska are more fossilized than those of the secondary deposits beneath.
The Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia contains bones of the
Megalonyx and of the extinct peccary, that are entirely unchanged ; not a particle of gelatin
has been lost, nor a particle of mineral matter added, and indeed some of the bones of the
former eyen have portions of articular cartilage and tendinous attachments well preserved.
* It is not at all improbable that man (strictly the genus Homo) may have first originated
in central Asia. When we reflect upon the gradual advance in intelligence in the scale of
living beings, through successive geological periods, may we not infer that the apparently
earlier civilization of the human race in Asia is indicative of its earliest advent in that
portion of the world T Various races of man, in different geographical positions, may have
acquired their peculiar characteristics (their specific origin) at successive periods long dis-
tant firom each other. Perhaps when the aboriginal progenitors of the civilized Mexicans
and Peruvians roamed as savage hordes through intertropical America, the great Arctic
Ocean yet concealed the present northern United States in its depths, and Asiatic civilisa-
tion was then just dawning from ages of night
PREFATORY REMARKS. XIX
although some presented characteristic differences from those of pre-
viously known species, others were undistinguishable from the cor-
responding parts of the domestic horse, and among them were
intermediate varieties of form and size. The subsequent discovery
of the remains of two species of the closely allied extinct genua
Bipparion, in addition to the discovery of remains of two extinct
equine genera (Anchitherium and Merychippus) of an earlier geolo-
gical period, leaves no room to doubt the former existence of the
horse on the American continent, contemporaneously with the Mas-
todon and Megalonyx ; and man probably was his companion.
Some time since. Prof. F. S. Holmes, of Charleston, submitted
for my examination a collection of fossil bones from a post-pleiocene
deposit on Ashley Eiver, S. C. Among remains of the extinct horse,
the peccary, Mylodon, Megatherium, Mastodon, Hipparion, the tapir,
the capybara, the beaver, the musk-rat, &c., were some which I con-
sidered as belonging to the dog, the domestic ox, the sheep and the
hog. Prof Holmes observes that these remains were taken from an
extensive deposit, in which similar ones exist abundantly; and he
further adds, that he cannot conceive that the latter should have
become mingled with the former since the introduction of domestic
animals into America by Europeans. It is not improbable that the
American continent once had, as part of its fauna, representatives
of our domestic animals which subsequently became extinct — though
I am inclined to doubt it; but what we have learned of the extinct
American horse will lead me carefully to investigate the subject.
My letter is much extended beyond what I designed, but I hope its
facts and suggestions will have sufficient interest with you to relieve
its tediousness.
I remain with respect,
at your further service,
Joseph Leidt.
Mr. Pulszkt {infra. Chapter 11., p. 109) has referred to Dr. Nott's
experienced consideration some very interesting points of Egyptian
ethnology, based upon fresher discoveries than any with which we
were acquainted on the publication of our last work in 1854. I
have no wish to interfere with the latter's specialty of research, in
which I trust tlie future may rank me also among the taught: but,
taking for granted that the reader can verify accuracy in Egyptolo-
^cal works (abundantly cited in this as in our preceding publica-
tion), I may here sketch some archaeological facts as preliminary
headings for my colleague's elaboration hereafter, — being general
results in which he and myself coincide.
ZX PREFATOBT REMARKS.
The Ugi/ptianSj eldest historical branch of the Hamitic group of
races, now appear to science as terras genitiy or autochthones, of the
lower valley of the Nile, — and this, of course, from a period incalcu-
lably beyond all " chronology." Upon them, at a secondary phase
of the existence of the former, but prior even to the erection of the
earliest pyramid of the Illd Dynasty, Semitic races by degrees
became infiltrated and, at a later period — ^Xllth to XXTTd Dynasties
— superposed. From about the twenty-second century b. c, down to
the seventh, Hj/ksos invasions, Israelitish sojourn, Phoenician com-
merce, Assyrian and Babylonish relations, greatly Semiticized the
people ; at the same time that frequent intermarriages of the phara-
onic and hierogrammatic families with princesses and noblesse of the
Semitic stock in Palestine, Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia, mate-
rially affected the original type of the ruling class of Egyptians.
About B. c. 650, PsAMMETiCHUS I., by throwing open the army and
the ports of Egypt to the Greeks, introduced a third element of
amalgamation, viz : the Indo-European ; which received still stronger
impetus after Cambyses (b. c. 525) and his successors held Egypt
prostrate under Arian subjection. Alexander (b. c. 332), and the
Ptolemies, then overwhelmed Lower Egypt with Macedonians and
other Grecians ; C-esar (b. c. 39-30), and the Eoman emperors, in-
jected streams of Indo-Germunic, Celtic, and some Sarmatian blood,
through legionaries drawn even from Britannia et Dacia antiquasj
into the already-altered Egyptian veins. Lastly, b. c. 641, Arabia
sent her wild dromedary-riders along the Nile from its mouths to its
Abyssinian sources.
Now, at this period of Egyptian life, about twelve centuries ago,
no population, in the world perhaps, had undergone such transforma-
tions (individually speaking) of type as had these Ilamites through
Semitic and Lido-European amalgamation with their females, — never
famous for continence at any time. Besides, a certain but really
infinitesimal and ephemeral quantum of Ethiopian and Nigritian
blood had, through importation of concubines, all along, from the
Xnth Dynasty, been fiowing in upon this corrupted mass from the
south. Preceded, under the Khalifates, by occasional Turanian
captives; increased during the period of the "Ghuz" through contact
with the Mongolian offshoots of Hulagou ; and stimulated daily by
fresh accessions, of "Caucasian" Memlooks, — the Ottomans, about
a. d. 1517, commenced despoiling the fairest land amidst all those
doomed to their now-evanescent dominion. But, — and here is the
new point in ethnology to which the reader's attention is solicited —
from and after the era of the Saracenic conquest, a revulsion in the
order of these conflicting amalgamations began to take effect. On
PREFATORY REMARKS. XXI
the advent of lel^m and its institutions, which were received with
rapture by the Egyptian masses, unions between the Mohammedan-
ized Fel]£h women and any males but Mussulmans became unlawful
[twill also be noted, too, that neither the "Caucasian" Memlooks,
aor the Turanian Turks, could or can raise hybrid ottspring (penna-
aent, I mean to say), in Egypt: and again, that all these importations
>f foreign rulers, since the time of Cambyses, consisted in soldiery^ —
yery disproportionate in numerical amount to the gross bulk of the
indigenous agricultural population.
Hence, under Islamism, the people began to pause, as regards
my important effects, in this promiscuous intermixture with alien
races; except (in cities chiefly) with their congeners the Arabs.
But, on tlie other hand, among the decaying mongrels termed
^Copts'* (Christian Jacobites) — no Muslim law forbidding their
intercourse with any nation — the action of hybridity has never
rtopped from that day to this: which is the simple rationale of the
liscrepant accounts of tourists in respect to the multiform varieties
beheld in this small section of the Egyptians. Now, from the com-
mencement of that pause, in the 7th century of our era, down to
the present time, some thirty-six generations have elapsed ; during
s^hich the Muslim peasant population — that is, between two and
three millions — intermarrying among themselves, have really ab-
sorbed, or thrown off, those alien elements previously injected into
their blood, — and thus, the Fellahs of the present day have, to an
amazing degree, and after some fifty centuries, actually recovered
the type of the old IVth dynasty. Indeed, one might almost Ussert
that, from blank centuries before Christ down to the XlXth century
sAer, the greatest changes which time has wrought upon the bulk
rf the indigenous Egyptian race reduce themselves, — in religion, to
Mohammed for Osiris ; in language, to Semitic for Hamitic ; in insti-
tutions, to the musket for the bow; but, in blood, to little if any.
See again Mr. Pulszky's Chapter (I, pp. 107-122), and our plates
[I and n, infra).
One word more, as concerns my individual contributions in
Chapters V and VI.
With the exception of Chapter IH, which Dr. Meigs has been so
food as to revise himself, the entire labor of editorship has fallen
Qpon me ; and, as an inevitable consequence, I have not had the
time, even supposing possession of the ability, to bestow upon my
own contributions the verbal criticism they might, otherwise, have
received. Furthermore, apart from a few pages of my manuscripts
regarding the natural history of monkeys submitted last summer to
the obliging perusal of my friends. Prof. Leidt and Dr. Meigs, I
XXn PREFATORY REMARKS.
have neither consulted anybody as to the subjects' upon which I
proposed to treaty nor has any one seen the ^^ revises" until the
plates were stereotyped. Consequently, for whatever I may have
written, with a free pen and open utterance, no person but myself is
responsible.
If the reader will complaisantly bear in mind that the Chapters,
severally chosen by my colleague Dr. Nott, and our collaborators,
had already covered a vast range of " Ethnological Inquiry," — upon
which, whether acquainted with the themes or not, delicacy forbade
my trenching — he will perceive the reason why, under the caption
of ^Hhe Monogenuts and the Poli/genistSy** I have endeavored to
fill up some gaps in what I deem to be ethnographical desiderata.
Such as these facts or deductions of my own may be, I submit them
unreservedly to public criticism ; at the same time that, although not
advanced with indifference to either, they must take their chance,
without courting approbation, or deprecating blame.
G. R. G.
Philadilphia, 20th Feb., 1857.
CONTENTS.
PREFATORY REMARKS — vt 0»>. R Ouddok Tii
LETTER FROM LIEUT. A. W. HABERSHAM, U. S. N., (with 1 wooihjut)., yiii
LETTER FROM PROF. L. AGASSIZ xiii
LETTER FROM PROF. JOSEPH LEIDY xn
Cbap. I. — On thi Distribution and Classification of Tongues, — thiir rela-
tion TO THE Geographical Distribution of Races ^ and on the
inductions which mat be drawn from these relations — BT
Alfred Maurt 25
n. — loONOORAFHIC RESEARCHES ON HuMAN RaCES AND THEIR ArT — BT
Francis Pulszkt, (wUh 98 wood-cuts and IX lUhographic Plates,
Z colored) 87
IIL — The Cranial Characteristics of the Rages of Men — bt J. Aitkeh
Meigs, (with 87 woodrciUs.) 203
lY. — Acclimation; or, the comparatiye influence of Climate, Endemic
AND Epidemic Diseases, on the Races of Men — bt J. C. Nott. . . 353
T. — The Monogbnists and the Poltoenists ; being an exposition of the
doctrines of schools professing to sustain doomaticallt the
Unitt or the Diybrsitt of Human Races ; with an inquiry into
THE Antiquity of Mankind upon Earth, yiewed Chronologicallt,
Historically and PALiSONTOLOGiCALLT — bt Geo. R. Gliddon,
(with 4 wood-ctUs. ) 402
TL— Section I. — Commentart upon the principal distinctions obsert-
ABLE among the Yarious Groups OF HuMANiTT — (with a iinied litho-
graphic Tableau containing 54 human portraits,) 603
Section II. — On the Geographical Distribution of the Simije in
RELATION TO THAT OF SOME INFERIOR TtPES OF MeN (with 0 tinted
Map containing 54 Monkeys and 6 human portraits) — bt Geo. R.
Gliddon 638
(xxiii)
I
LITHOGRAPHIC PLATES.
^M^«^^n«^^^«WW^^>MWWWWW«A^rf^M4^
Plate I. — Frontigpieco, eclored, "Ancient Egyptian Scribe. Vth Dynasty. —
Mariitte's DiscoTeries, 1852-4/' (Louvre Museum.) Ill
IL — Fig. 1. "Ancient Scribe (ante, PI. I)— Profile."— Fig. 2. "Same bead
altered into a modern Fellllh." Ill
^^••"l^'o-"v^'-',' t (Louvre Museum) 110
Fig. 2. " Nesa." J ^ '
rV.— " Skhem-ka," (Louvre Museum) 110
^- ■" r.^' « " Tf u'^T"''^! „ 1 (Louvre Museum) 110
Fig. 2. " Skhem-ka. Profile." ) ^ '
YI. — Egyptian bead (Louvre Museum) Ill
VII. — " Men-ka-her — Vth Dynasty," (Louvre Museum) 112
VIIL - Fig. 1 " Aahmes-nofre-ari." | ^g^^j.^ ^^^^„„ j J JIJ
Fig. 2. " Nefer-hetep I." j ^ ' i 113
IX. ~ Fig. 1. "Etruscan Vase." ) (B^j^.^h Museum) 190
Figs. 2, 3, 4. " Etruscan drinking-jars." j ^ '
Ethnographic Tablxau. — " Specimens of Various Races of Mankind." 618
Chart. *-" Illustrative of the Geographical distribution of Monkeys, in their
relation to that of some inferior Types of Men." 641
(xxiT)
INDIGENOUS RACES
OF
THE EAKTH.
CHAPTER I.
^^ THB DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OP TONGUES, — THEIR RELA-
TION TO THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OP RACES ; AND ON THB
INDUCTIONS WHICH MAY BE DRAWN FROM THESE RELATIONS.
BT ALFRED MAURT,
Librarian of the French Imperial JruHtuU, Secrdary-Oeneral qf(k$
BOClixi DE O^OORAPHIB Dl PABI8.
[OOXMUHIOAnD TO DR. KOTT AITD MB. OLISDOV.]
SECTION L
la
-Authors who have occupied themselves with the comparison of
^^ages have been inclined sometimes not to distinguish, in the
mmar, that which belongs to the very constitution of speech (itself
^^^tihing else than the constitution of the human mind), and that
^^ich appertains to such or to such another given form of utterance.
is here, however, that an important distinction should be made :
"^^<^ause, if the difference between generic and specific characters be
^^^"t perceived, a man is incapable of analysis ; and instead of making
^ classification he loses himself in a synthesis vague and indefinite.
Xanguages are organisms that are all conceived upon the same
?ian,— one might almost say, upon the same skeleton, which, in their
^^^elopment and their composition, follow fixed laws : inasmuch as
^riese laws are the consequence of this organism itself. But, along-
*^^e of this identity in the procedure, each family of tongues has its
^^ special evolution, and its own destinies. They all possess among
(25)
26 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
themselves some particular analogies, which are made evident upon
comparing these families one with another ; but such resemblances
are never the same amongst many families ; and two groups, that
have a given characteristic in common, differ through some other
which, notwithstanding, links one of them to a group more remote.
In brief, the specific characters of languages are like those of ani-
mals; no characteristic taken singly possesses an absolute value^
being merely a true indication of lineage or of relationship. It ia
their multiplicity, the frequent recurrence of grammatical forms alto-
gether special, which really constitutes families. The closer affinity-
becomes grasped when words are discovered, either in their " ensem*
ble," or for uses the most customary and most ancient, to be iden*
tically the same.
Thus, then, we recognise two d<3grees of relationship among the
idioms spoken by mankind, viz : the relationship of words coupled
with a conformity of the general grammatical system ; or, this con-
formity without similitude of vocabulary. Languages may be termed
datighters or sisters when they offer the former degree of relationship,
and allied when they are connected through the latter.
Do all languages proceed from a common stock — from one primitive
tongue, which has been the {souche) trunk of the branches now-a-
days living isolately ?
This, for a long time, was believed. Nevertheless, such belief was
not based upon an attentive comparison of tongues that had either
not yet been attempted, or which was hardly even sketched out : but
it arose simply from confidence reposing upon the recital of Genesis,
and owing to the servile interpretation that had been foisted upon
its text Genesis, indeed, tells us, at the beginning of its Xlth chap-
ter,^— " There were then upon all the earth one single language and the
same words.'*
This remark of the sacred historian has for its object to explain,
the account of the Tower of Babylon. The nature of his narrative
cannot occasion doubt in the eyes of criticism the least practised*
We have here a myth that is certainly very ancient, and which thd
Hebrews had brought back again (after the Captivity) from their*
mother-country. But it is impossible to behold in it an exposi really
historical. The motive given for the construction of the tower is
that which would suggest itself to the mind of a simple and ignorant
population, unable to comprehend the reason why the Assyrians
should erect this tower destined for astronomical observations, inti-
1 Vene 1 ; Hebrew Text (Cahen, La Bible, Traduction nouvdU^ Paris, 1881, i. p. 28) —
*< And now [KuL— H-AReT«] the whole earth was of [SAePAeH AKAaT^] one lip and of
[DeBeRIM AKAaDIM] one (set of) words."
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 27
m&lelj woven with their religion. And the explanatiim of the name
of BaBeL (Babylou) itself completes the evidence that the recital had
been written ex poat facto; and, like so many niytha, suggested by
the double acceptation of a word,^
The confounding of the speech of the whole earth, could have been
but the work of time, and of time very prolonged ; because we now
know what lengthened persistency, what vitality, is the property of
tflngues! One perceives in this antique legend a remembrance of
tie confusion which prevailed among the divers peoplee, and amid
the different races, who visited Babylon for political or commercial
int«rest£. As these populations must liave been already very divided,
their languages were parcelled out, at the period of the narrative,
into a great number of dialects ; and the simultaneous employment
of aU these idioms in one and the same city appropriately gave it the
uaine of Citi/ of coiifutum. Babylon, moreover (like its modern suc-
cessor, Bagdad of the present (lay), was situate almost at the point of
i^^artition of the two great branches of the white race, viz : the Shb-
■^iiTES, or Syro-Arabians, on the one side, and of the Japetid*, or
r^i^no-Arians, on the other. The valley of ShinSr was then, there-
'^ore, as the frontier-line betwixt two races who possessed some tradi-
-Ciotis of a common origin ; and the Biblical mythos of the " Tower "
"t^ad for its object an explanaUon of the forgotten motives of their
reparation.
Certainly, if one were to take the account of Genesis to the letter,
it would be necessary to suppose that the first men had not yet
attained more than the first degrees of speech, and that their idiom
vas then of great simplicity. Now, this primitive idiom ought to
' [It i« >u KmaBing coincidenoe that, while the nhoTe scientific put^nges by my Frndite
^enil, M. Mmibt, ure in the stcrgotj'per'ii hnnda, the religious uid pror«nc presi of
the Ueitwi SUtei iboald bo ringing with tfae jojfiil news of Ihe ■clnal diMoTeTy, on Iha
rinaiie pUin of ArbeU too, of "tbot Tilanic stniclure" (as (be entKusinslic penny-a-liner
waDlvmi it), the " T^vir 0/ Babtl" ! "SarpriBing," iDdeeci, would il bo were aaoh disao-
v«ry uthootie. It bccames still more "suqirising" in view of the palpnhle anacbraniinni
l>7 wbichtbia pious writer betrnje hia total ignornnce of the nature, epoehas, nnd reeults,
of omeiform researcbes : but, what seems moat " Burpriaing " ia, that IhJi newest canard of
■"»«n( tdoleaosnt miaaionary writing to BoBlon (tno ■' modern Athens") from -Beirut, Deo.
^ ISiS," (houid trarel tbe roonds of the wbolo pre«B of Ameriaa without (so far as I can
^««Ri| one word of critical caniioentarj, or exposure of ita preposleroiu fallacies. Tbose
*ho, even in this oonntr^. follow atop by el«p eacb discoTery made in AsBj^a, for UMOnnt
<^ the Imperial Ooremment, by the emdila and indefatignble MoNsiana pLxri, ac it ia
^tinaanoed at Paris, are perfectly awnre that erery newlj-examined ■■ lower" in that region
(liefideB being long poalerior in age to the lait huilt of 87 EgypMan pyramids) only affords
^dltiawal " conGrmatione " of the ni(i</u> through which, — during tbe BabyinDish captiiity,
%sd duly registered in pasaagos of Hebrew literature written af'rr the "Bcliool of Esdms"
•rtabtiahCT) ilwlf at Jerasalem— this myth nf the ■' Tower of BnBieL." as shown nhoie. nro»e
b lb« bnelitiah taiud. Compare Typa o/Manimd, I8u4, pp. 2U7, 60e, 6S9-C0:— Q. R. G.]
28 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
have preserved itself the least altered in that very country where lan^
guages had been one at the beginning. And yet, the Hebrew and
Chaldsean tongues, which were those of these countries, are very fitr
from belonging to what may be called the first floor in the formation
of language. The Chinese, and the languages of Thibet as well as
of the trans-Qangetic peninsula, have held to much more of the type
of primitive tongues, than have those of the Semitic stock. Analo-
gies infinitely greater ought to be perceived among the most ancient
languages — Hebrew, Egyptian, Sanscrit, Chinese ; inasmuch as they
should be much nearer to the source. Albeit we meet with nothing
of the kind ; and the style of Genesis no more resembles that of the
Chinese " jfiTm^*," than the language of the Rig-veda approaches that
which the hieroglyphics have preser\'ed for us. Amidst these idioms
there exists nothing but those identities that are due to the use of
onomatopees, which was more frequent in primitive times than at
the present day. The grammatical forms are different. Now, let us
note that — such is the persistency of these forms in languages — ^the
Greek and the German, which have been separated from the San-
Bcritic stem for more than 3000 years, have preserved, notwithstand-
ing, a common stock of grammar. How much richer should not
this stock have been amongst those languages of which we cited the
names above.
Besides, even were the similar words of these primitive idioms
much more numerous than a few biliteral and monosyllabic onoma-
topees, this would be far from sufficing to establish unity. Many
similar words result, in tongues the most diverse, from the natural
{liaisona) connections that certain sounds have with such or such
another sensation. Between the word and the perception, there are
very many secret analogies that escape us, and which were more de-
cided when man lived in closer contact with nature. This is what
the learned historian of Semitic tongues, M. Ernest Rp]nan,^ has judi-
ciously remarked. Primitive man endeavored to imitate everything
that surrounded him ; because he lived altogether externally. Other
verbal resemblances are the effect of chance. The scale of sounds in
human speech is too little extended, and the sounds themselves merge
too easily one into another, to prevent the possibility of the produc-
tion of a fortuitous affinity in a given case.
Similitudes, to be veritable, ought to be grounded upon principles
more solid than a few rare analogies. And these resemblances do
not exist among those languages carried, according to the ipse dixit
of the slavish interpreters of Genesis, from the valley of Shinar to
the four comers of the world. The constitution of the tongues of
* Hittoire $t Syatime compari det Languea Simitiquetf Parifl, Svo., Ire par tie, 1S56.
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 29
each &mily appears as a primitive fact, of which we can no more
pierce the origins than we can seize those of the animal species. In
the same manner that creation has sported amid the infinite varieties
of one and the- same type, so human intelligence has manifested
itself through a multitude of idioms which have differently rendered
its conceptions and its ideas.
SECTION n.
The ancient grammarians, who submitted speech to a logical and
reasoned analysis, had figured to themselves that, in its formation, the
human mind must have followed the rational march indicated by
reason. An examination of tlie facts has proved that there happened
nothing of the sort
Upon studying a tongue at the divers epochs of its grammatical
existence, it has become settled that our processes of logic and of
analysis were unknown to the first men. Thought presented itself
at first under a form at one and the same time confused and complex,
m which the mind had no consciousness of the elements of which it
was composed. Sensations succeeded each other so rapidly that
memory and speech, in lieu of reproducing their signs separately,
reflected them all together in their simultaneous action. Thought
was wholly sympathetic. That which demonstrates it is, that the
most ancient languages offer this character in the highest degree.
In them the word is not distinguishable from the phrase, — otherwise
speaking, they talked by phrases, and not by words. Each expres-
sion is the complete organism, of which the parts are not only
^pendices one of another, but are inclosed within each other, or are
tightly interlocked. This is what philologists have termed agglulir
^'^ion, polt/81/nthetism. Such manner of expressing oneself is doubt-
'^ little favorable to perepicuity ; but, besides that the first men were
^r from possessing the clear and precise ideas of our time, their
^'Qception was sufficiently simple to be seized without great labor
^^ reflection. Furthermore, men, without doubt, tlien understood
^*h other rather by intuition than through reasoning. What tliey
^^ght for was an intimate relation between their sentiments and
"i^de vocal signs, by the help of which the former could be manifested;
^^^i these relations once established, they were perceived and com-
prehended like the play of the features, like the meaning of a gesture,
'^ther spontaneously than through analysis of their parts.
Iii whatever method we would explain to ourselves, however, this
pumiUve characteristic of human speech, it is now-a-days not the
30 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
less determined. The history of languages is bnt the continual
march from synthesis towards analysis. Everywhere one beholds a
first idiom giving place to a vulgar tongue, that does not constitute,
to speak correctly, a different idiom, but which is a vernacular in it»
second phasis, that is, at a period more analytical. Whilst the
primitive tongue is overloaded with flexions in order to express th^
more delicate relations of thought, richer in images if perhaps pooreir
in ideas, the modem dialect is clearer, more explicit^ — separtiting
that which the ancients crowded together ; breaking up the mechan-
isms of the ancient tongue so as to give to each idea, and to each
relation, its isolated expression.
And here let not the expressions be confounded with the words.
The ufordsy otherwise called the elements, that enter into the expres—
sion, are short, generally monosyllabic, furnished nearly all with —
short vowels or with simple consonants ; but these words disappear^
in the expretsions within which they enter ; — one does not seize them
more than can the eye, in the color green, distinguish the blue and
yellow. The composing words are pressed {imbrieatedy to speak with
botanists), to such degree, that one might call them, according to
the comparison of Jacob Grimm, blades of herbage in a grass-plot
And that which takes place, for the composition of the expressions,
happens also as regards the pronunciation of the words that so strin-
gently cling to them, viz : the same simplicity of sounds, inasmuch
as the expression must nevertheless allow all the parts of its organ-
ism to be seized. " No primitive tongue," writes M. Jacob Grimm,
in his memoir on the origin of speech, "possesses a duplication of
consonant. This doubling arises solely from the gradual assimilation
of different consonants." At the secondary epoch there appear the
diphthongs and breakages {brUements) ; whereas the tertiary is char-
acterized by softenings and by other alterations in the vowels.
Above all, it is the Sanscrit which has made evident these curious
laws of the gradual transformation of languages. The Sanscrit, with
its admirable richness of grammatical forms, its eight cases, its six
moods, — its numerous terminations and its varied forms enouncing,
alongside of the principal idea, a host of accessory notions — was emi-
nently suited to the study of the growth and decline of a tongue. At
its dibuty in the Rig-veda, the language appears with this synthetic
character; these continual inversions, these complex expressions that
we just now signalized as conditions in the primordial exercise of
thought. Afterwards follows the Sanscrit of the grand epopees of
India. The language had then acquired more suppleness, whilst
preserving, nevertheless, the rigidity of its pristine processes : but
soon the grammatical edifice becomes decomposed. The Pali^ which
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 31
^OlTeHponds to its first age of alteration, is stamped with a remark-
ible spirit of analysis. **nie laws that presided over the formation
>f this tongue," writes EugIinb Burnouf,* "are those of which the
ipplication is discernible in other idioms, at diverse epochas and in
j-ery different countries. These laws are general, inasmuch as they
ire necessary. Let the Latin, in fact, be compared with the lan-
^ages which are derived from it; the ancient Teutonic dialects
^th the tongues of the same origin ; the ancient Greek with the
[nodem ; the Sanscrit with the numerous popular dialects of Lidia ;
aind the same principles will be seen to develop themselves, the same
laws to be applicable. The organic inflections of the mother tongues
subsist in part, but in an evident state of alteration. More generally
they disappear, and are replaced ; the cases by particles, the tenses
by auxiliary verbs. These processes vary from one tongue to
another, but the principle remains the same. It is always analysis,
whether a synthetical language finds itself suddenly spoken by bar-
barians who, not understanding the structure, suppress and replace
its inflexions ; or whether, abandoned to its own course, and by dint
of being cultivated, it tends towards decomposition, and to subdi-
vide the signs representative of ideas and of the relations them-
selves.*'
The Prakrity which represents the secondary age of alteration in
ancient tongues, is submitted to the same analogies. On the one
hand, it is less rich ; on the other, simple and more facile. Finally,
the Kawi, ancient idiom of Java, is a corruption of the Sanscrit ;
wherein this language, deprived of its inflexions, has taken in their
place the prepositions and the vernacular dialects of that island.
These three tongues, themselves formed through derivation from the
Sanscrit, soon undergo the same lot as their mother : they become,
each in its turn, dead, learned, and sacred languages, — the Pali, in
the isle of Ceylon and in Lido-China ; the Prakrit among the Djainas ;
the Kawi in the islands of Java, Bali and Madoura ; and in their
place arise in India dialects more popular still, the tongues Goursj
Hindefj Cashmerian^ Bengalee, the dialect of Guzerat, the Mahrattc^
ic, together with the other vulgar idioms of Hindostdn, of which
the system is far less learned.^
Languages of the regions intermediary between Lidia and the
Caucasus offer, in their relation and affiliation, differences of the
same order. At the more ancient periods appear the Zend and the
PoTft, bound together through a close relationship with the Sanscrit,
but corresponding to two different developments of the faculty of
* Eitai tur U Pali, par E. Burn ouf et Cbb. Lassin .
* Emmemt RmAH, Op. cU,, ** de rorigine da langage,*' p. 22.
32 OK THE DISTRIBUTION AND
speech. The Zend, notwithstanding its trdte of resemblance with
the Vedic Sanscrit, allows our perceiving, as it were, the first symp-
toms of a labor of condensation in the pronunciation, and of analysifl
in the expression. It wears all the external guise of a tongae with
flexions {langue h JUxion) ; but at the epoch of the Sassanides [a.d.
224 to 644] as M. Spiegel remarks, it already commences to dis-
robe itself of them. The tendency to analysis makes itself by fer more
felt in the old Persic, or Parsi ; and, in modem PerMn^ decompofii-
tion has attained its ultimate term.
We might reproduce the same observations for the languages of
the Caucasus, the Armenian and the Georgian; for Semitic tongues,
by comparing the Rabbinical with the ancient Hebrew; but what has
been already said suffices for the comprehension of the fact-
The cause of these transformations is found in the very condition
of a tongue, in the method through which it moulds itself upon the
impressions and wants of the mind, — it proceeds fix)m its own mode
of generation. An idiom is an organism subject, like every organ-
ism, to the laws of development One must not, writes Wilhelm
VON HuLMBOLDT, cousidcr a language as a product dead and formed
but once ; it is an animate being and ever creative. Human thought
elaborates itself with the progress of intelligence ; and of this thought,
language is a manifestation. An idiom cannot, therefore, remain
stationary ; it walks, it develops itself, it grows up, it fortifies itself
it becomes old, and it reaches decrepitude.
The tongue sets forth with a first phonetic radical, which renders
the sensation in all its simplicity and its generality. This is not yet
a verb, nor an adjective, nor a substantive ; it is a word that expresses
the common sensation that may lie at the bottom of these gramma-
tical categories ; which translates the sentiment of welfare, of plea-
sure, of pain, of joy, of hope, of light, or of heat In the use that
is made of speech, there is doubtless by turns a sense verbal or
nominal, adverbial or qualifying; but nothing, however, in its form
indicates or specifies such a part (role). Very simple languages are
still nearly all at this elementary stage. It is at a later day only that
the mind creates those forms which are called members of a discourse.
These had existed without doubt virtually, but the intelligence did
not feel the need of distinguishing them profoundly by an essential
form. Subsequently there forms went on multiplying themselves;
but their abundance no less than tlieir nature has varied according
to countries and to races. Sometimes it is upon the verb that
imagination has exhausted all the shades of expression ; at others it
19 to the substantive that it has attributed these modifications. Mind
has been more or less inventive, and more or less rational : it has
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES.
33
seizeiJ here upon delicacies which completely escaped it tnero; aud
iu the cIuTQsieat tongues one remarks shadowings, or gradations,
that are wanting to the most refined. Of this let us give an example:
—the Sanscrit is a great deal richer than Greek in the manner by
the aid of which it expresses the relationship of the noun to a phrase,
and the relations of words hctween themselves. It possesses a far
deeper and much pnrer sentiment of the nature of the verb and of
its intrinsic value: yet, notwithatanding, the conception of the mood
in a verb, considered as distinct from time, escaped it, — the verbal
nature of the infinitive remained to it unknown. Sanscrit in this
respect, therefore, yields to Greek, which, moreover, is united to it
by very tight bands.
Thus then, human intelligence did not arrive in every language
tx> the same degree, and consequently it did not create the same
secondary wheel-work. The general mechanism presented itself
everywhere the same ; because this mechanism proceeds from the
xntemal nature of our mind, and this nature is the sanie for all
xuankiud.
The genius of each tongue, then, marked out its pattfim ; and thin
^nioa has been more or less fecund, exhibits more or leea of mobility.
Worde have constantly represented the same order of objects, because
these objects do not change according to countries or according to
r»cea ; but they are offered under aspects the most varied, and these
wtpectB have not always been identical under different ekies and
amid diverse societies. Hence the creation of words in unequal
number to represent the same sum-total of known objects. The
brilliant imagination of one people has been a never-failing source
of new words, of novel forms ; at the same time that, amongst
others, the idea has remained almost embryonic, and the object ever
preseuted itself under the same aspect. If given impressions were
f>aratnount, the words by which they were translated became greatly
^Multiplied.
In tie days of chivalry there was a host of expressions to render
"the idea of horge. In Sanscrit, the language of HindostJln, where the
^Itphant plays a part as important as the horse among ourselves,
"^worda abound to designate this pachyderm. Sometimes it is de-
I viomiuated as "the twice-drinking animal," sometimes as "he who
~bas two teeth ;*' sometimes as "the animal with proboscis." And
'that which happens for substantives occurs also for verbs. Among
the American tongues, spoken by populations who had few objects
l>efore their sight, but whose life consisted altogether in action and
feeling, verbal forms are singularly multitudinous. On the opposite
hand, in Sanscrit and in Greek, which were spoken iu the presence
ON TUB PIST Bllt U TIUN A N U
Df productiohr "
I
of a civilization already adviineed, amid an infinitude of productid
of nature or of iiiduHtry, tlio nouns take precedence over the vorbs.
Here the richnesa of the cases dispenses witii the rigoroua sense of
prepositions, as occurs in Greek; whereas among ourselves, wlio in
French possess no louger any cases, the uitiaiung of the phrase exacts
that our prepositionB hIiouM be well defined. Ilcnce, then, the life
itself of a people has been the source of the modifications operated
in its tongue, aud each idiom has pursued its development afler itis
own iashiou.
Two causes combine towards effecting an alteration of languages,
viz : their development within themselves, and their contact witii
foreign idioms, — above all with such as belong to families altogether
distinct; hut tlie second, compared to the first, is of small account.
The influence of neighboring foreign tongues introduces some new
words and sundry locutions, certain " idiotisms;" but it cannot, without
difficulty, inject into alien speech those grammatical forms which are
its own heritage. Its influence re-acts much more upon the stylo than
on the grammar. If two languages of distinct tamilies arc spoken by
neighboring populations, or by those living in perpetual contact, it or-
dinaiily happens that the most onaljtical tongue forces its processes to
penetrate into that which is the loss so. Thence it is that the German,
brought into contact with the French, loses a portion of its syntheti-
cal expressions, aa well as the habitual uso of those compound
phrases which it received from the Asiatic speech whence it issued;
and that the French, when spoken by Negroes, is stripped of it*
grammatical richness, and becomes simplified almost to the level of
an African tongue. In tlie same manner the Armorican, or Sai-
Breton, whilst preserving the ground-work of Celtic grammar, is
now-a-days spoken under a fona that recalls more of French than of
the ancient Armorican.
One sees, therefore, that the crossing of languages, like that of
races, has really not been very deep. Once invaded by a stranger-
tongue, one of a nature more logical in its processes, the old lan-
guage either has not undergone more than superficial alterations, or
has disappeared entirely, without bequeatliing to the idiom which
followed it any inheritance but that of a few words. Such is what
happened to Latin as regards the Gallic (Qauloii). This Celtic
tongue is completely supplanted by the idiom of the Koniaus, and has
left no other vestiges of its exiBtence than a few words, together with,
doubtless, some peculiarities of pronunciation also that have passed
into the French, One perceives equally well in English, here and
thei-e, words and locutions that appertain to the Welsh ; and which,
CLASSIFICATION OP TONGUES. 36
in ooDM^Dence, must be a heritage of the tongue whilom spoken by
the Saba of AlbioQ.
if die gramtnatical dispoaBession of a language could have been
wrOQght gradually, one ought to find some mixed phraBes at the
living period of those tongues that have been driven out by others.
,Vow, such is not the caae. The Basque, for example, foreign in
origin both to French and Spanish, has indeed been altered through
the adoption of a few words and a few locutionfl borrowed from these
languages, by which it is surrounded, and, as it were, invested ; bat
it evermore clings to the basis of its structure, the vital principle
of its organiem ; and a Franco-Basque, or a Basco-Spanish, is not
epoken, nowhere has ever been spoken. Modem Greek has appro-
priated many words from Turkish, no less than from Italian, as well
as some expressions of both tongues; but its entire construction
rcruBios fundamentally Hellenic, nohvithstanding that it belongs
to the analytical period, and that the ancient Greek was still
emerging fi-om the synthetic. Again, the Persian, which is so
imbued with Arabic words that writtrs of this language often inter-
calate Bentences wholly Arabic in tlieir discourses, remains, never-
theless, completely Indo-Germanic as concerns its grammar. Bnt
we have not seen that this tongue has ever associated the Persian
declension with the Arabic conjugation, or yoked the Persian pre-
positions to Semitic affixes and suffixes. Finally, the Osm&nlee
Turkish, besides incorporating words of every language with which
the Turks have been in contact for more tlian a thousand years, has
purloined all its scientific nomenclature from the Arabs, most of its
poUt« diplomatic phrases from the Persians; but, whilst fusing
Remitic as well as Indo-European exotic words into its eopia ver-
Aorum, the radical structure of its so-called Tartarian [or, Turanian]
grammar, no less than its original vocabulary, is still so tenaciously
preserved, that a coarse Siberian YaJcut can even now, after ages of
ancestral separation, communicate his simple ideas to the intelligence
of a Constantinopolitan Turko-Sybarite.
All these considerations show us, therefore, that the families of
'ttongnes are assemblages {des entembUs) very distinct, and the results
«f a diversified order of the creative faculty of speech. This faculty
does not, then, appear to us aa absolutely identical iu its action ; and
■we must necessarily admit tliat it correspondfl, under its different
forms, to races of mankind posseesiag different faculties, as well for
speech OS for ideas. This is what the study of the principal classes
or families of tongues will make still more evident; seeing that we
ehall find them in a relation suiEciently striking to the lUfiereut
human races.
lu^
36 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
One of the most skilful philologists of Gtennany, M. A. V. Pott,
Professor of Linguistics at the University of Halle, has recently
combated (in a work entitled, " The Inequality of Human Baeei^
viewed especialh/ a$ regards the Oonetitution of their Speech/) the hypo-
thesis of a unique primitive language, whence all others are supposed
to have issued ; and he has shown that it has no more foundation than
that which would make all the species of one and the same genuB
issue from a single individual, and all varieties from one primitive
type. He has claimed for languages an ethnological character, suited
to the classification of races, not less certain than the physical type
and the corporeal forms. Perhaps even, he observes, the idiom
is a criterion more certain than the physical constitution. Does not
speech, in fact, reflect the intelligence better, — is not language
more competent to give the latter's measurement, than can be gath-
ered from the dimensions of the facial angle, and the amplitude of
the cranium ? A powerful mind may inhabit a slender and mis-
shapen body, whilst a well-made tongue, rich in forms and nuaneei^
could not take its birth among intellects infirm or degenerate. This
observation of M. Pott is just ; but it ought likewise to be allowed
that the classification of languages offers, perhaps, more uncertainty
than that of races considered physiologically. The truth of this
remark of M. Pott must, nevertheless, be restricted ; because speech
is not the complete measure of intelligence, taken in the aggregate.
It is merely proportionate to the degree of perception of relationships,
of sensibility, and of memory : because we shall see, further on, that
some peoples, very far advanced in civilization, could have a language
very imperfect in its forms ; at the same time that some savage tribes
do spet^ an idiom possessing a certain grammatical richness.
SECTION m.
Philologists who have devoted themselves to the comparative study
of the languages of Europe, MM. P. Bopp and Pott, in particular,
have established the more or less close relationship of these tongues
amongst each other. All, with the exception of some idioms, of
which we shall treat anon, offer the same grammatical system, and
a vocabulary whose words can be attached one to another through
the rules of etymology. I say the ruksj because etymology now-a-
days possesses its own, and is no longer governed by arbitrary, often
ingenious, but chimerical distinctions. Through the attentive com-
* Die UngUiehheit metuehUeher Rataen hauptSchJUch vom Sprachwintmchafdiehm SiandpvnkU,
muter beaonderer BenS^hMUigung i»cn daa Cfr^fm voir Qobuiiau gUiehnatnigen Werke; Lemgo
k DetmoM, 8to., 1866.
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 37
ptfison of the changes that well-known words have undergone in
Musing fix>m one language into another, modem philology has he-
,H)me enahled to grasp the laws of permutation as regards tiie letters,
ind the regular processes for the exchange of sounds. These facts
)nce settled, it has hecome possible to trace backward words, in appear-
ince strangely dissimilar, to a common root which stands forth as the
ype whence modifications have produced all these derivative words.
It is in the Satuerit that this type has been discovered ; or, at the
^ery least, the Sanscrit presents itself under a form much more
indent than the European formations ; and, in consequence, it ap-
>ioache8 nearest to that type of which we can no longer grasp any
out the diversified derivatives.
In like manner, the grammar of the languages of Europe, in its
fundamental forms, Lb recognized in the Sanscrit grammar. This
grammar, of which we specified above the character and richness,
ncloses, so to speak, in substance, those of all the European idioms.
rhe elements which compose these idioms are like so many dSbris of
i more ancient tongue, whose model singularly approximates to the
Sanscrit. It is not, however, that the languages of Europe have not
iach their own riches and their individual genius besides. In cer-
:ain points they are often more developed than the Sanscrit But,
:Jcen in their collective amplitude, they are certainly branches more
impoverished than that which constitutes the Sanscrit These
[>ranches appertain to a common source that is called Indo-European
>r Indo-Germanie. The sap seems, nevertheless, to have exhausted
itself little by little ; and those branches most distant from the trunk
nave no longer anything like the youth, fulness, and life, which flow
m the vessels of the branches of primary formation.
Hence the languages of Europe belong to a great family, that, at
m early hour, divided itself into many branches, of whose commoQ
mcestor we are ignorant, but of whom we encounter in the Sanscrit
iie chief of one of the most ancient collateral lines. We have pre-
riously stated that the Persic {Parai) and the Zend were two tongues
^ery intimately allied to the Sanscrit They are consequently sisters:
md, whilst certain tongues of Europe, such as the Greek and the
Shlavic languages, recall, in a sufficiently striking manner, the Sans-
rtit ; others, the Germanic tongues, hold more closely to the Persic
uid the Zend.
Comparison of the languages of Europe has caused them to be
grouped into four great classes, representing, as it were, so many sis-
ters from the same mother, but sisters who have not been called to an
equality of partition. The more one advances toward the East, the
more are found those tongues that have partaken of the inheritance.
ON THE DISTRIBUTION KKD
WiiUt the Sclavonic idioms, and in particular the Lithuanian family,
have proBervcd, iilmoat without alteration, the mould of which Banti-
crit yields ub the most ancient product, the Celtic languages, driven
away to the West, remind us only in a sufBciently-romote manner of
the mother-tongue ; and, for a long time, it was tliouglit that they
constituted a group apart.
This distribution of languages in Europe, eo-relative in their affi-
nity with the antique idioms once spoken from the shores of the Cas-
pian Sea to the banks of the Ganges, in an incontestable index to the
Asiatic origin of the peoples who speak them. One cannot hei-e snp-
poso a fortuitous circumstance. It is clearly seen that these tribeR
issuing from Asia had impinged one against another; and Uie Celts,
as the mmt ancient immigrants on the European continent, have
ended by becoming ita most occidental inhabitanta.
We have been saying that the European languages of Indo-Qop-
manic stock are referred to four families. We have already enume-
rated the Celtic, the Indo-Germanic, and the Shlavic tongues. The
fourth family, which may be called PtJatgie, comprehends the Greek,
the Latin, and all the languages that have issued from them, Let _
us examine separately the charaeteristics of these Hnguislic families,
whose destinies, posteriorly to the populations which spoke them,
have exereised such influence upon those of humanity.
The Greco-Latin group has received the name of Pelasgic, Greec^v
and Italy having been peopled originally by a common race, the J'e —
laagi, whose idiom may bo considered as the (louche) source of th^
Greek and the Latin. The first of these tongues is not, in fact, a**
had been formerly imagined, the "motlier" of tlie other. They ora
simply two sisters: and if a different age is to be assigned to them,
the Latin possesses claims to be regarded as the elder. Indeed, thie
language presents a more archaic character than the elaasieal Greek.
The most ancient dialect of the Ilollenic idiom, that of the Medians,
resembles the Latin much more than the later dialects of Greek.
Whilst, in this last tongue, tha presence of the article announces the
secondary period, at the same time that contractions are already nu-
merous, the synthetical character is more pronounced in Latin; its
grammatical elements have not yet been separated into bo many dif-
ferent words; and the phraseology, as well as the conjugation and the
most ancient forma of declenBiona, possess a striking resemblance
to that which we encounter in the' Sanscrit. The Latin vocabu-
lary contains, over and above, a multitude of words whose archaic
form is altogether Sanscrit. This language has moreover passed, in
its grammatical forms and its syntax, through a series of transforma-
tiona that we can follow from the most ancient epigraphic and poeti-
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 39
cil montiments back to the authors of the IVth and Yth century before
oar era. Latin itself was nothing, more than one of the branches of
the ancient &mily of Italic tongues, and which comprehended three
branches, — ^the Japygian^ the Etruscan^ and the Italiot. These again,
in their turn, subdivide themselves into two branches : the first con-
stituting the Latin proper, and the second comprising the dialects of
the Ombrians, the Marses, the Volsciaus, and the Samnites.
We are acquainted with the Japy^an tongue solely through some
inscriptions found in Calabria, and belonging to the Messaprine dia-
lecL Their decipherment is as yet littie advanced ; notwithstanding
the labors that comparative philology has undertaken in these latter
days :^ but, what of it is understood suffices to exhibit to us an Indo-
European tongue, which becomes recognizable in a much more certain
manner in the inscriptions of the Italiot languages ; that is to say, of
tongues somewhat^losely allied to the Latin, and whose forms
approximate already, in sundry respects, more to the Sanscrit
The comparison of these last idioms to their Asiatic prototype per-
mits us not merely to seize the relationship of the tribes that spoke
diem. It enables us to judge, also, of the degree of civilization which
diey had attained when they penetrated into Europe. In fact, as has
been remarked by one of the most accomplished philologues of Ger-
many, M. Th. Mommsen, those words that we discover at once with the
same signification, in the difterent Indo-European tongues,— except,
be it well understood, the modifications which became elaborated ac-
cording to the inherent genius and the pronunciation of each of these
languages — give us the measure of the social state of the emigrant
race at the moment of its departure. Now, all the names of cattle,
of domestic^animals, for ox, sheep, horse, dog, goose,® are the same
in' Sanscrit, in Latin, in Greek, and in German. Hence, the Indo-
European population knew, upon entering Europe, how to rear cattle.
We see also that they understood the art of constructing carts, yokes,
and fixed habitations ;* that the use of salt^° was common with them ;
* See on this subject the learned works of F. 0. Gbotefend, entitled, — Rudimenla lingua
Umhriett ez uucriptionibtts antiquii tnodata (Hanover, 1835) ;— of S. Th. Aufrecht, and A.
KkBCHUOFF, Dis UmbiiMehm SpraehdenkmaUr (Berlin, 1839) ;— ondof Th. Momsisen, Die Un-
ttntalitchtn DiaUcU (Leipzig, 1850).
• Saoserit gaui, Latin 6o*, Greek /JoCf, French Ixguf, English beef: — Sanscrit avis, Latin
•ill, Qreek m(, English theep : — Sanscrit avas, Latin equtts, Greek trrof , English horse. The
Butation of P into Q is again met with in passing from the Umbrian and the Sanscrit into
Latin ; for example, pis for guis ; Sanscrit hansas, Latin anser, Greek j^^ ; and the same for
psems^ tevntf, eanis, &o.
• Sanacritywyam, Latin /ti^m, Greek ^Cyov, French joug, English yoke: — Sanscrit akshas,
Utin crit, Greek i^uv whence i^ta^ay French eAar, English car: — Sanscrit datnas, Latin
imus, Greek iSftt : — Sanscrit vieas, Latin vieus, Greek ^xet ; English house,
* Sanserit saraSf Latin sal, Greek iXat, French sd, English sail.
40 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
that tliey all divided the year into lunar months, and counted regu-
larly up to more than 100," according to the decimal system ; and
that they professed a worship similar to that depicted for us in the
Big-veda.
"But, as a counter-proof, — ^the words that we simply encounter both
in Greek and Latin, but which do not exist in the Sanscrit in th«j
proper sense, and of which only a remote etymological radical can
be discovered, become witnesses, in their own turn, for the progres-
sions that had been accomplished in Europe. They unfold to ui
what had been the acquirements in common, which the Pelasgi pos-
sessed prior to their complete separation into Hellenic and intc
Italic populations." We thence learn how it is that from this Pe
lasgic epoch dates the establishment of regular agriculture, — the
cultivation of the cereals, of the vine and the olive. Finally, thoM
words possessed by the Latin alone, but which the Greek has not
yet acquired, display the progress accomplished by the Italic popula-
tions after they had penetrated into the Peninsula. For instance,
the word expressing the idea of " boat" {navis^ Sanscrit nfiu»), and
which was subsequently applied to a " ship" (French navtre, and bj
us preserved in navy^ &c.), belongs to the three languages as well sa
that which renders the idea of " oar." The Pelasgi had, therefore,
imported with them from Asia, acquaintance with transportatione
by water; but the words for «ai7, mast^ and yard, are exclusively
Latin. It was, consequently, the Italic people who invented (foi
themselves) navigation by sails; and this circumstance completee
the demonstration, that it was through the north of the Italian
peninsula that the Pelasgi must have penetrated into it"
We are, unfortunately, still perplexed as to what was^ the precise
idiom of these Pelasgi. It is, perhaps, in the living tongue of the
Albanians, or Skippetars^ that the least adulterated descendant of
11 The names of numbers are the same up to a hundred, and the numeral system is iden-
tical.
1' [My colleague, M. Maubt, writes me that Ms Hittoire det Religioru de la Oriee A ntiqui
(2 vols. 8yo., publishing by Ladrange, Paris), is on the point of issue — Feb. 1857. It ii
the fruit of long years of research, and cannot fail to throw great light upon ante-Hellenic
events. In another equally - interesting field, the M^langet Huloriquet of our friend M
Ernest Rbnam (now in press) will explore many points of contact, or of disunion, between
Sanscritio and Semitic languages and history. — 0. R. G.]
^ [This interesting method of resuscitating facts long entombed in the ashes of ante-
history, confirms the accuracy of Db. David F. Wkikland's yiews, ** On the names of
animals with reference to EUinology," in a paper read before the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, last August But I know of it only through a very condensed
report {New York Herald, Aug. 26, 1856). —G. R. G.]
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 41
this idiom most be sought for.^^ Kotwithstanding the quantity Buf-
ficisndy noteworthy of Greek and Shlavic words that has penetrated
into the Albanian, a grammatical system, nearer to Sanscrit than the
Qieek affords, is encountered in it Such, for example, is the de-
clension of the determinate adjective through a pronominal appendix,
—which is observed likewise in Sclavonic tongues, so approximate,
on the other hand, to Sanscrit The conjugation of the verb is very
^tinct from that in Qreek, and denotes a system of flexion less
developed.
I shall say nothing about the neo-Latin tongues, born from the
decomposition of Latin, and which lost little by little the synthetical
character and the flexions of their mother. I will but remark, that
it is very curious to establish how the languages issued from this
stock that have been spoken by populations whose national life is
very slightly developed, are those which present an analytical con-
Btitution the least pronounced, and wherein the flexions have not
became so greatly impoverished. The Valaq or Roumanicy the
^heto-Romain or dialect of the country of the Grisons, are certainly
more synthetic, and grammatically less impoverished than French or
Spanish. But, at the same time that these tongues have preserved
their more complex character, they have become still more altered
ifl respect to their vocabulaiy ; and one feels in them very strongly
the influence which intermixture of races exerts upon languages ;
otherwise called, the mingling of different tongues. The verb in the
fiheto-Romain, for instance, is conjugated now-a-days in the future
tense and in the passive form like a German verb.
The Sclavonic, or Letto-Shlavey tongues decompose themselves into
several groups that correspond to different degrees of linguistic
development The Lettish group, or Lithuanian (which comprehends
the Lithuanian^ properly so called, the Borussian or ancient Prus-
sian, and the Lettic or Livonian), answers to a period less advanced
than the Shlavic branch ; for example, the Lithuanian substantive
has hut two genders, whilst the Shlave recognizes three. The Lithu-
anian conjugation does not distinguish the third persons of the
angular, of the dual and the plural. The Shlavic conjugation, on the
contrary, clearly distinguishes seven persons in the plural and in the
singular. But, by way of amends, the Lithuanian keeps in its
decleusion the seven cases and the dual, so characteristic in Sanscrit
^ See on this subject the Audet Albanaitet of M. J. yon Hahn pablished at Vienna in
*S&4. M. A. F. Pott has made the obserration, that the Valaq idiom preseryes probablj
▼tttiges of this antique language of DlTria ; the use of the definite article, notab^,
in WaBachian to proceed from sources foreign to Latin.
42 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
Those cases are even occasionally identical with those of this last
tongue. The Sclavonic, or Shlave, idioms properly so denominated,
subdivide themselves into two branches, that of the south-west and
that of the west. The first comprises the Buitianj the Bulgarian which
furnishes us with the most ancient Shlavic form (approximating very
much to the idiom termed CyriUic or ecclesiastical, in which are
composed the most ancient monuments of the Christian literature of
this race), the J7Zyrurn, the Serbe or Servian^ the Croats and the Slovine
spoken in Carinthia, in Carniola, a part of Styria, and in a canton
of western Hungary. The Shlavic tongues of the west embrace the
Lekh or Polish, the Tcheq or Bohemian, the Sozab or Wendic (popu-
lar dialect of Lusace), and the Polaby — ^that has disappeared like the
ancient Prussian, and which was spoken by the Sclavonic tribes who
of yore were spread along both banks of the lower Elbe.
The Germanic languages attach themselves (we have already said),
more to the Zend and the Persic than to the Sanscrit. The Persic
and Zend are part of a group of tongues that is designated by the
name of Iranian languages. It embraces again many other idioms,
of which several have disappeared. To it are attached notably the
Affghiin or PuahtUy the Behodchi spoken in Beloodchistiln, the Kurd,
the Armenian^ and the Oasete — ^which seems to be nothing else than
the language of those people known to the ancients by the name of
Albanian, the Aghovhm of Armenian anthors. This narrow bond
between the Germanic and the Iranian languages tells us plainly
whence issued the populations which spread themselves over central
Europe, and that very likely drove before tliem the Celts. Th©
affinity that binds these Germanic tongues amongst each other, —
that is to say, the ancient OothiCj or dialects of the German properly
so called, to which cling the Flemish and the Dutchy the Frison and.
the Anglo-Saxony and lastly the old Icelandic and its younger sisters
the Danish and Swedish — is much closer than that observable between
the Shlavic and amongst the Pelasgic languages. Four traits in com-
mon, as Mr. Jacob Grimm has noticed, attach them together, viz:
variation of sound, which the Germans call "ablaut;** metathesis, or
transposition ; and finally, the existence of two different forms of
verbs and of nouns, that are denominated "strong declension or con-
jugation,*' and "weak declension or conjugation."
An attentive comparison of the laws of the Sanscrit grammar and
vocalization, with those of German grammar and vocalization, has
revealed some curious analogies which explain those resemblances
that had been, even anciently, perceived between German and
Greek.
Celtic languages are known to us, unhappily, only through some
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 43
doabtless very degenerate representatives of that powerful fiimily,
m\ the Oixt»e or Welsh, and the Armoriean or Ba»'breton (which are
in reality no more than dialects of the Kimrie tongue), the /rttA,
the Ene or Gadhelic idiom spread over the Scottish Highlands, and
the Manx or idiom of the little isle of Man, — not forgetting the lost
Cornish dialect. We hardly know anything of the tongue spoken
of erst by our fitthers, the Gauls {Q-auloU or Qalli) ; except that the
small number of words remaining to ns suffices to classify it with the
same &mily. Of all the branches of the Indo-European family this
Celtic is, in fact, the one whose destinies have been the least happy,
and the most confined. Its tongues have come to die along the
shores of the Ocean that opposed an impassable barrier to renewed
emigration of those who spoke them. Invaded by the Latin or
German populations, the Keltic races have lost, for the most part,
the language that distinguished them, without, on that account,
losing altogether the imprint of their individuality.
The history of the Indo-European languages is, therefore, the surest
guide we can follow in endeavoring to re-construct the order of those
migrations that have peopled Europe. This community of language
that unveils itself beneath an apparent diversity, can it be simply the
effect of a commonality of organization physical and intellectual ?
The inhabitants of Europe, — do they belong solely to what might
be termed the same formation ? It would, if so, become useless to
go searching in Asia for their common cradle. The fact is in itself
but little verisimilar ; but, here are some comparative connections of
another order that come to add themselves to those which languages
have offered us, and to confirm the inductions drawn from the pre-
ceding data.
On studying the mythological traditions contained in the Vedas, as
well as in the most ancient religious monuments of India and Persia,
there has been found a multitude of febles, of belieft, of surnames of
gods and some sacred rites, some variants of which, slightly altered,
are re-encountered in the legends and myths of antique Greece, of
old Italy, of Germany, Scandinavia, Russia, and even of England.
It is only since a few years that these new analogies have been
brought to light; and the Journal directed by two distinguished
Orientalists of Berlin, MM. Th. Aufrbcht and Adalbert Kuhn,
has been the chief vehicle for their exposition. One of the first
Indianists of Germany, M. Albert Weber, has also contributed his
portion to this labor of [rapprochement) comparison ; of which, in
France, the Baron d'Eckstbin learnedly pursues the application.
I have already said that the names of gods met with in Greek and
Latin indicate to us a worship (culte) among the Pelasgi altogether
44 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
similar to that of which the Rig-veda is tlie most ancient monument
It cannot, of course, be expected that I should here enumerate all
these names. I will, however, select out of their multitude, some of
a nature suited to cause these analogies to be understood.
The God of Heaven (or of the sky) is called by the Greeks Zeu$
Pater ; and let us here notice that the pronunciation of Z resembles
very much that of D, inasmuch as the word Zeui becomes in the geni-
tive Dio8. The Latins termed the same god Dies-piter or Jupiter.
]S'ow, in the Veda, the God of Heaven is called Dyaushpitar. The
Greeks designated the sky as OuranoSj and invoked it as a supreme
god. And, it must again be noted that, in their tongue, the V does
not exist, but is always rendered by OU. In the Veda, on the other
hand, it is termed Varouna. The Earth always receives — among
the Greeks, the Latins, and the Germans, — ^the epithet of " mother;"
and likewise under this surname is it invoked in the Yedic hymns.
But these are, after all, only similitudes of names : some complete
myths connect amongst each other all the Germanic populations.
These myths, too, have become invested, amid each one of the latter,
with a physiognomy slightly distinct; because every thing in
mythoB is shifting and changeable: and, even among the same people,
myths modify and transform themselves according to times and
according to places ; but^ a basis, — a substratum, of ideas in common
remains ; and it is this residue which permits us to grasp the originaL
relationship of beliefs. Well, — we might cite a host of these fable»
that have run over the whole of Europe, but ever preserving th^
same traits. I will give one of them, just by way of specimen : —
• Grecian antiquity has recorded various legends concerning a mar-
vellous artisan yclept Ao/JaXog (the "inventive") who occasionally
becomes confounded with the God of fire, personification of light-
ning (and the thunderbolt), JSephcestos ; whom we call, after the Latins,
Vulcan. The Aryas (proper name of those Arians who composed the
Sanscrit Vedas) also adored, as a blacksmith-god, the personified
thunderbolt. They termed him Twachtrei; and the physiognomy of
this personage possesses the greatest analogies with that of Vulcan.
Twachtrei is called the " author of all works ;** because fire is the
grand agent of human industry ; and he is Ignipotene, as says Virgil
speaking of Vulcan. And, in the same manner that this divinity had
forged tlie thunderbolt of Jupiter, and executed the cup out of which
immortals quaffed ambrosia, Twachter* had forged the thunderbolt
of Indra, god of the sky (or Heaven) in the Vedic pantheon ; and
was the maker of that divine cup whence was poured out the $ofn<ij
— which was, at one and the same time, ambrosia and the libation.
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 45
Twaehter* has for assistante, or for rivals, the Ribhavas,^ — other
divine artists, who play a considerable part in the songs of the Yeda
and in Hindostanic history; wherein one recognizes numberless
traits common to the Hellenic legend of the Cyclopians, the Cabin,
the Telchines, and in particular to that of Dmdalui. ISTow, these same
legends are picked up here and there from different points of Europe,
in localities the most distant, and between which no interchange of
ideas could anciently have occurred. The celebrated blacksmith
** Wieland," or Velantj so &mous in ih^ traditions of northern Gter-
many, — ^Vvho, in Scandinavia, is termed Volund — is a compound^f
Vulcan and Dsedaluiy no less than another heir to the Yedic tradi-
tions about TwcLchter\
The adventure so classically-renowned of the Cretan hero, and of
lu8 son IcaruSy reproduces itself, with but trifling variations, in that
of Volund. He is also shut up within the labyrinth ; but Scandi-
navian tradition no longer places in Crete (Candia) this marvellous
edifice. It is on an island named " Savarstadr." The Greek feble
gives to Dmdalui wings, in order that he may escape from his
prison. In the story of the people of the north, it is a shirt of
feathers with which he clothes himself. His brother Higily here
substituted for Icarus, wishes to try the power of this feathery dress;
and perishes like the son of Dadalus — victim of his rashness.
A scholiast teaches us, that the celebrated Greek voyager Pytheas
had found at the islands of ^olus, now the Lipari-isles, tiie singular
custom of exposing, near the volcano (Stromboli) in which it was
believed that Vulcan made his residence, the iron that one desired
to see fashioned into some weapon or instrument. The rough metal
was left during the night thus disposed, and upon returning on the
morrow, the sword, or other implement, was found newly manufac-
tured. An usage of this kind, founded upon a similar credence, is
q)read through a number of Germanic countries. It is no longer
Vulcan, but Wielandy a cripple like him moreover, who becomes the
mysterious blacksmith. In Berkshire (England) they used formerly
to show, near a place called White-Horse hill, a stone, whereupon,
according to the popular notion, it was enough to deposit a horse-
shoe with a piece of silver, and to tie near it the animal to be shod ;
and, on coming back, the operation was found done. The marvel-
lous farrier WaylandrSmith^ as he was called, had paid himself with
the ralver money ; and the shodden brute was ready to be led away.
In many cantons of Germany, analogous stories used to be told : only,
* On this jMrfni conralt tht learned work of M. F. Niyb, enttUed Bum tur U myth^ da
BU««M, Ptarie, 1847.
I
ON THE DISTHIBOTKIN AND
the name of the invisible blackemith imdcrweiit changes, and OaAgF
oatioD emhroidered upon the common web some particular dftails,
Wieland, who is also named " QeinkcnBchmid," is associated in
certain localities, with a bull ; which recalls to mind that one manu-
factured by Dwdalua, to satisfy the immodest passion of Pusiphue,
the "all-iiluniining" spouse of Min08 — whom Hellenic tradition
makes a king of Crete, but who is encountered both amidst the
Arians and the Qeraians. Among the Arj'as ho bears tho name of
Manou, or rather of Manua. He is a legislator-king ; having for his
brother Yama, the god of the dead; just as Minos'e brother was
Rljadamanthus (Uhada-man-thus). This lost, as well as Yama, is re-
presented with a wand in hia hand, and judging in the lufenial
regions. Among the Germans, Manui ie called Mannus. He is
also (a man and) an ancient king, who, like the Indian Manut, is an
Adam, the first author of mankind,
I must refer to the learned work of M. A. Kuhb those who wish
to penetrate deeper into these curious comparisons. The glimpse I
have juat given, shows how much of authority they add to those
analogies that tho comparative study of languages has furnished us.
Our German philologists have felt this, inasmuch as tliey insert, in
the same periodical repertory, mythological rcBearchee of tliis kind,
purely linguistic. I would add, that such comparative examinationa
enable us to comprehend better the nature and the hiatoiy of the
Hellenic religion in particular, and the religions of autiquity ia
general, This method yields us the key to a multitude of mytha
which we could not decipher did we not mount up to their Asiatic
originea. Allow me yet agaia to ofl'er a short example.
According to the Grecian fable, Acmon was the father of Ouranot.
The motive for this filiation had not until now been pierced through.
Why should the most ancient of the gods, their supreme father,
have had an "anvil" for his own father? such being tlie Greek
signiiication of this word. Sanscrit can alone t«ll us, — as M. R.
RoTU, one of the most ingenious and skilful Orientalists of Germany,
has remarked. The Sanscrit form of this Greek name is A^man,
and the word signifies, at one and the same time, "anvil" and "sky"
[or heaven). The myth becomes intelligible. Here, as in innumer-
able other cases, the god receives for his progenitor another personi-
fication, from the'aame part of nature that he represents. And, in
the same manner that Rhea has engendered Demeter, — that is to say,
tho "mother-earth," because Rhea {as the meaning of her name
indicates) is a pcrsonificatioD of the Earth; so, likewise, as Heliot
(the sun) had for his father Hyperion, that is to say, again the sun, —
did Ouranot (the aky) receive birth from Acmon, — whose name
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 47
has the same acceptation. But, whilst the word Acman passed into
Greek with the sense of " hammer," — against which that of " anvil "
was easily interchangeable — ^it lost, among the Hellenes, the meaning
of ^^sky," and thus the myth, transported into Europe, ceased to
possess significance any more.
In the presence of analogies and connections so conclusive, it is
impossible to suppose simply that a population of the same race, and
with the same fundamental stock of language, was spread from India
and Persia to Britain and Erin : we must necessarily suppose that the
peoples coming from Asia had imported into Europe their idiom and
their traditions. Must it hence be admitted that this portion of the
earth had not then been already populated ; and that those Asiatic
tribes, which took the leadership of this long defile of conquerors,
found nothing before them but solitudes ?
It b agahx the study of languages that will furnish us with the
reply.
I have stated that all the idioms of Europe belong to the Indo-
European stem ; three groups (or if you wiU, three languages), form-
ing the only exception ; without speaking, be it well understood, of
the Turkish, scarcely implanted on this side of the Bosphorus, and
whose introduction dates but from a few centuries ; nor comprising,
either, the Maltese, — solitary vestige of Saracenic dominion in Italian
lands.
The first group is represented by the Bcuque tongue, or the EUhariy
which embraces but two dialects. The second is the Finnish group,
comprising the Lapponicy the Finnic or Suomij and the Esthonian
spoken in the northern part of Livonia, as also at the islands of (Esil
and Dago. Lastly, the third group reduces itself to the Magyar ^ or
Hungarian, which links itself to the Finnish group through an indi-
rect relationship.
We know how the Magyar introduced itself into Europe. It is
the tongue of the ancient Huns, who, mingling with the populations
of Dacia and Pannonia, gave birth to the Hungarians ; but we are
less advanced as regards what concerns the history of the Finnish
and the Basque languages.
WiuiELM VON Humboldt, who devoted himself to researches of
great interest upon the Basque tongue, has shown that this language
had of yore a much more extensive domain than the little comer of
land by which it is now confined. Names of places belonging to
the whole of southern France, and even to Liguria, prove that a
population of Euscarian idiom was anciently spread from the Alps
to the occidental extremity of Spain. These people were the Ibere%,
Iberiana, wanderers ; and the Basque is the last relic of their tongue.
48 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
The labors of the skilful philologue of Beziers, M. Boudard, have
put the finishing stroke in bringing this fact to light
The Celts, or Kelts, encountered before them, therefore, the Iberes;
whom they pushed onward into the south of Gaul, where we find
them established in the time of Ceesar. T]^ey amalgamated with
them, as the name of Celt-Iberia teaches ; and very certainly in Lan-
guedoc also, no less than in Aquitania. These Iberians — a nation
lively and impressionable, vain and stirring — ^may well have infused
into the Keltic blood that element of restlessness and levity which
one perceives in the Gauls, but which is alien, on the contrary, to
the true Kelt, — at once so attached to his traditions, and ever so
headstrong in his ideas.
The Basque tongue, otherwise called Iberian, resembles in nothing
the Indo-European idioms. It is "par excellence" a polysynthetical
language, — a tongue that, in its organism, reminds one, in a suffi-
ciently-striking manner, of the languages of America. It composes "de
toutes pifeces** the idea-word; suppresses often entire syllables; and, in
this work of composition, preserving sometimes but a single letter df
the primitive word, it presents those adjunctive particles that by phi-
lologists are termed postpositions — ^as opposed to prepositions — ^which
serve to distinguish cases. In this manner is it that the Basque
constructs its declension. This new characteristic re-appears in.
another great family of languages which we shall discuss anon, viz t
the Tartar tongues belonging to central Asia.
The Basque, consequently, denotes a very primitive intellectual
state of the people who occupied western Europe previously to the
arrival of the Indo-Europeans ; and, were it allowable to draw an
induction from an isolate characteristic, one might suppose that the
Iberes were, as a race, allied to the Tartar.
But this hypothesis, daring as it is, receives a new degree of
probability from the study of the second group of European Ian-
guages, foreign to the Indo-Germanic source, viz: the Finnish group.
This group is not restricted to a few idioms on the north-east of
Europe. It extends itself over all the territory of northern Russia
even to the extremity of Kamtschatka. Comparison of the numerous
idioms spoken by tribes spread over Siberia has revealed a common
bond between them, as well of grammar as of vocabulary. These
tongues, which might be comprehended under the general appellation
of Finno- Japonic (from the name of those occupying upon the map the
two extremes of their chain), offer this same characteristic of agglutina-
tion that has just been signalized in the Basque ; but in a much less
degree. They make use of that curious system of postpositions
which appertains also to the ancient idiom of the Iberes. Those ten-
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 49
ininations destined to represent cases are replaced by prepositions
dUtinet from the word, — which, in our languages, precede, on the
contrary, the words of which they modify the case. It must be
noted that the apparition of these postpositions invariably antecedes,
in the gradual formation of tongues, the employment of cases ;
whereas, prepositions replace these when the tongue becomes altered
and simplified. Cases are nothing, indeed, but the result of the
coupling of the postposition to words. The organic march of the
declension presents itself, therefore, throughout the evolution of lan-
guages, in the following manner, viz : at first the root (or radical),
ordinarily monosyllabic ; next, the radical foUowed by postpositions,
— corresponding to the period of agglutination ; again, the radical
submitted to the flexion,^-corresponding to the ancient period of our
Indo-European tongues; and, finally, the preposition followed by the
radical, — corresponsive to the modem period of these same lan-
guages. It is to be noted that the postposition (in relative age)
never returns subsequently to the preposition, — any more than can
the milk-teeth grow again in an old man after the loss of his molars.
Thus, then, the age of the Finnish tongues and of the Basque is
fixed. They were idioms of analogous organization, and of which
the arrest of development announces a sufficiently feeble degree of
intellectual power.*® The brethren of the Aryas and Iranians, upon
penetrating into Europe, had only, therefore, to combat populations
living in a state analogous to that in which we find the hordes of
Siberia, — species of Ostiaks or of Vogouls, of Tcheremiss or of Mord-
vines. "With their intellectual superiority, the people coming from
occidental Asia had no need of being very numerous to vanquish
such barbarous tribes ; with whom, doubtless, they frequently amal-
gamated, but of whom they ever constituted the aristocracy. This
warrior and haughty spirit of those Asiatic conquerors preserved
itself above all among the Germans, and it is to be perceived also
amid the Latins and the Greeks.
Let it not, however, be imagined that, beneath the influence of the
neighborhood which new migrations created for them, such tribes
of Finnish stock thrown oS to the north-east of Europe, and those
* The study of the Toeabnlary of the Finnish tongues, and eyen that of the Tartarian,
pmres to as that those populations were wanting in a quantity of knowledge that we find,
from the Tery beginning, amidst the Indo-European populations, and which the former were
tfiarwarda forced to borrow from the latter. For example, the name of «a//, in all the
Kfioms of that family as well as in Hungarian, expressed by a deriyatiye of the Sanscrit,
Qrcek, or Latin name. Indeed, it is certain that the use of salt remained for a long time
oknown to the inhabitants of Northern Europe ; and that Christian 11, king of Denmark,
W guned 0T«r the Swedish peasants by bringing to them this precious condiment.
4
50 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
Iberian peoples repulsed to the south-west, have remained absolutely
stationary. Their languages tell us the contrary ; because these lan-
guages have improved : but such perfectioning haa not been able to
step beyond certain bounds. The Finnic spoken in Finland, for in-
stance, has drawn nearer to tongues d flexions (with flexions); but
never has it been able to attain that degree of force, of clearness and
energy, which makes the merit of our Indo-European idioms.
As concerns sounds, notwithstanding their homogeneity, the Fin-
nish tongues, — or, to qualify them more exactly, the Ougro- Tartar
languages — vary considerably. There are some very soft ones, like
tiie Suomi or Finlandish; and some very harsh, like the Magyar;
but a principle of harmony dominates them. This principle is
especially perceptible in the Suomi. Indeed, this idiom seeks above
all for sweetness and euphony. It avoids, in consequence, mono-
syllabic radicals, and nearly always attaches to the root a final vowel
tliat bears no accent Hence M. Schleicher has remarked how this
gives to the words of this tongue the measure of a " trochee." "
We meet again with this harmonic tendency equally in the Tartar
tongues, which the "ensemble" of their characteristics and words
attaches also as closely to the Ougro-Japonic languages, as the Tartar
type attaches itself to the Finnish, or Ougrian, tiirough the interme-
diacy of the Tungouse type. The separation is not more decided
(tranchie) between the races of Siberia and those of central Asia,
than between the idioms which they speak. The Mongol^ the Mand-
chouy the Ouigour, the Turkish, are not fundamentally distinct from
the Finnish tongues ; and this explains why some philologers had
been struck with the resemblance between Turkish and Hungarian.
We are here referring to the primitive Turkish, to that which was
spoken in Turkestdn, and of which some dialects yet subsist in cer-
tain parts of Russia and of Tartaiy ; because, as to that which is now
European Turkish, it is altered almost as much as the Turkish blood
itself. It is imbued with Arabic and Persian words ; it has become
singularly softened down: in the same manner that the Asiatic
Turks, by dint of crossing themselves through marriage with Georgian
girls, with Greek, Arab, Persian (occasionally with an Abyssinian
or negress), Sclavonian and other women, have ended by taking a
physiognomy altogether different from that of their ancient progeni-
tors,— which has been gaining in nobleness and regularity what it
loses in singularity. European blood has so well infiltrated itself
into that of the Hunnic hordes which conquered the country situate
between the Danube and the Theis, that it is now-a-days impossible
IT The Greeks and the Latins called trochee a foot composed of along and a short syllable.
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 51
to descry any more of the Mongol, anylMng of that hideonsness so
celebrated among the Huns, in the expressive traits of the present
Magyar.
One may, then, designate this vast iamily of languages under the
denomination of Ougro-Tartar. All of them, at divers degrees, are
sabject in their words to the law of euphonic transformations of vow-
els in the partides suffixed, that is to say, joined on at the ends of
words. In order that nothing should come to injure the clearness
of the radical's pronunciation, everything is combined so that its
vowel renuuns immutable ; and hence, accordingly as this vowel is
hard, soft, or intermediary, the vowels of the suffixes are submitted
to modifications having for object to prevent the asperity or the
heaviness of the latters' sound from smothering the sound of the
radicaL This law, so remarkable, is precisely the reverse of what
happens in languages A flexions (with flexions), for the case ; because
in them it is the suffixes that act upon and influence the vowels of
the radicaL
All these tongues proceed equally through the path of agglutina-
tion. The radical is, indeed, at bottom monosyllabic. Its almost con-
stant junction to a particle-suffix makes it, in reality, a dissyllable^
whose monosyllabic origin is nevertheless recalled by the presence
of the accent upon the first syllable. Never does the radical suffer
any foreign syllables to place themselves at its head (or commence-
ment) ; and we still behold in Magyar how, notwithstanding that it
has largely undergone the influence of the Indo-European tongues by
which it is surrounded — ^as in Finnish, as in Turkish, as in Mongol, — a
word can never begin with two consonants ; and lastly, the generical
employment of the postposition to designate the relations of the
snlMrtantive. The number of these postpositions varies according to
the development and the richness of the tongue. In Suomi, for
example, the adjunctive particles are very numerous, not less than
fifteen being counted, which makes in reality fifteen cases ; without
iocluding the nominative, that forms itself without suffix : and still,
notwithstanding, the Finnish does not recognize the distinction of
one of the most natural cases, viz : the accusative, which it renders
through indirect cases.
The whole of these languages, maugre their apparatus of forms,
are nevertheless poor. It is clear that this heap of postpositions results,
in reality, from a powerlessness of the mind to reduce to simple and
regular expressions the relations of words betwixt each other. We
must not, therefore, wonder at finding, in the Ougro-Tartar tongues,
dmoet always the same terminations,^ as well in the plural as in the
nngular.
52 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
One may partition, according to their degree of development, these
tongues into four groups, — the Ougrian group, that comprises tbe
Ostiak, the Samoyede, the Vogoul, and divers other dialects of Sibe-
ria : the Tartar group properly so called, which comprehends the
Mongol that occupies in it the lower rung, the Ouigour, the Mand-
chou, and the Turkish, whose position is on the highest : the Jafmc
group, to which belongs the Corean; and the Finno- Ougrian j that
embraces the Suomi or Finlandic, the Esthonian, the Lapponic, and
the Magyar ; all which latter tongues are superior to those of the pre-
ceding groups, as concerns the grammatical system and ideology.
The FinnO'Ougrian family prolongs itself into North America,
where we encounter its most widely-spread branches in the most
boreal latitudes. And in like manner it is to be noted, that the li-
kimaux race, and the septs thinly scattered over those frozen conn-
tries, approximate in their type to that of the Ougrian.
The idioms spoken in the entire sub-Arctic region present the
same uniformity, therefore, as the /awna of this region.'® Indeed, wc
know that animal species are found to be very nearly the same along
the boreal latitudes both of the Old and the New world.
Whilst one body of the great Indo-European migration from Asia
was advancing by detachments into our temperate countries, another
corps descended through the defiles of the Hindoo-Kosh, and by the
basin of the Indus, into the vast plain of the Ganges ; and spread
itself bit by bit over the whole peninsula, of which this river laves the
northern provinces. This is what we are taught not merely by the
traditions of the Hindoos, but also by the study of the languages
spoken in this peninsula. In fact, while we encounter, at the north
of HindostSn, idioms emanating from the Sanscrit family, we meet,
further to the south, with an " ensemble " of tongues, absolutely
foreign to it, as well in vocabulary as in grammar.
These languages appertain all to the same family, and they are
denominated, after the Hindoos, by the epithet of Dravirian or Dra-
vidian. Hence, the Arian tribes had been preceded in India by popu-
lations of a wholly distinct family ; in the same manner that the
sisters of the former had encountered in Europe another race, differ-
ent likewise from themselves. And, what is remarkable, the two
categories of languages spoken by the autochthones of Europe and
the indigenous peoples of Hindostiln belong, in classification, to lin-
guistic families having many traits in common.
The Dravidian tongues subdivide themselves into two groups ; one
u Agassis, <* Sketch of the Natural ProTinces of the Animal World, and their relation to
the different Types of Man" — in Nott and Oliddor's Typtt of Mankind^ 7th edition, 18M,
pp. lz.»ziii.
CLASSIFICATION OP TONGUES. 53
the northern, and the other southern. The first embraces the lan-
guages spoken by the dispersed native tribes, whom the descendants
of the invading Aryas have repelled into the Vindhya mountains,
viz : the Male or Badjmahali, the Uraon, the Cole^ and the Khond
or Gk>nde. The second comprises the Tamoul or Tamil, the Telougou
or Telenga (called also Kal%nga\ the Talava^ the Malayalam^ and the
Carnatie or Camataka. As the populations at the soutii of the penin-
sula have preserved, during a longer time, their national indepen-
dence, and even have attained a civilization of their own, one can
understand that the idioms of the southern group must be far richer
and more developed than those of the northern group, Nevertheless,
despite this inequality of development, one discovers, in a striking
manner, the same characteristics in the whole of these tongues.
Another branch of the same family, which extends to the north-east
of the basin of the Ganges, indicates to us through its presence, that
a fraction of the indigenous population was thrown towards the
north-east ; so that, it must now be admitted, the great Dravidian
nation, cut through its centre (by the intrusive Aryas), was, like the
primitive population of Europe, driven off to the two opposite extre-
mities of its vast territory. The Bodo and the Dhimal are the two
principal representatives of this cluster separated from the stem,
whose most advanced branches continue onward until they lose them-
selves in Assam.
All the characters appertaining to the Ougro-Japonic tongues are
found again in these Dravidian languages, of which the Gonde may
be considered to have preserved to us their more ancient forms. All
manifest in a high degree the tendency to agglutination. The law
of harmony, that we have perceived just now in the Finnish lan-
gaages, re-appears here with the same character. The foundations of
the grammatical system, which are identical in all these tongues,
doubtless constitute them as separate families from Tartarian ; but this
(Dravidian) £Eunily is very close, certainly, to those idioms spoken by
the Tartars. The same contrasts exist, as regards the vocalization,
between the Ougro-Japonic and the Dravidian tongues. The Mag-
yar may be compared to that Dravidian idiom richest in consonants,
—for example, to the Toda or Todara, which is spoken by an ancient
aboriginal tribe established in the Nilgherri-hills ; and the Finnish,
with the Japonic, correspond in their softness to the Telougou talked
at the south-east of HindostiLn.
These Dravidian populations were spread even to the islands of
Ceylon, the Maldives and the Laquedives ; inasmuch as the idioms
there still spoken attach themselves also to the Dravidian group.
Comparative philology demonstrates to us, therefore, that a popu-
64 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
lation in race very approximate to the Tartar, and which was, con-
sequeutly, itself allied to the Finnish race, did precede the Aiyas in
old Hindost^n.
One must not judge of the intellectual and social condition of
these aborigines from the literary movement that has been wrought
in the body of the Tamoulj which was the counterblast of that grand
intellectual movement represented to us by the Sanscrit, and was
certainly due to the Aryan influence. In order to judge what these
primitive populations of Hindostiln had been, one must go and study
their scattered remains. This has been done, quite in recent times,
by the English, to whom we owe some most interesting details about
these antique tribes. These cUbris of primeval Indian nationality are
now distributed in three distinct parts of the peninsula. The first
are met with in the heart of the' Mahanuddy, as far as Cape Comorin;
being the Bhecls, the Tudas, the Meras, the' Coles, the Gondes oi
Khonds, the Soorahs, the Paharias, &c. The second inhabit the
northern section towards the Himalaya; such arc the Radjis oi
Doms, and the Brahouis. The third occupy the angle that sepa-
rates the two peninsulas of India, and which is designated by the
name of Assam, as well as that mountainous band constituting th<
frontier between Bengal and Thibet
The whole of these tribes live even now as they lived very many
centuries ago. They are agricultural populations, who, from time to
time, clear with fire a portion of the jungle or the forest. The word
which, amongst these people, renders the idea of culture, signifies
nothing else than the cutting down of the forest. The Aryas, on the
contrary, were a pastoral people ; and in India, as in many other
countries, the shepherds triumphed over the farmers. Everything,
furthermore, announces among these Dravidian people much gentle-
ness of character, which is again a distinctive trait of the Mongols
and of the Finnish populations. Their worship must have been
that naturalistic fetishism which remains the religion of the Bodos,
the Dhimals, and the Gondos. They adored objects of nature. They
had deities that presided over the different classes of beings and the
principal acts of life ; and they knew naught of sacerdotal castes
or of any other regular organization of worship. Some usages,
preserved even at this day among several of these indigenous tribes,
show us that woman, at least the wife, enjoyed among them a very
great degree of independence.
The facts accord, then, with linguistics to show us how, within
that portion of Asia comprehended between the Euphrates and
Tigris, and the Indus, there had existed a more intelligent and
stronger race, that, at a very early day, divided itself into two
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 55
branches, of which one marched into Europe, and the other into
Hindost&n ; both encountering, in each new country, some popula-
lations of analogous race, and possibly allied, whom they subjci-
gated, and of whom they became the superior caste — the aristocracy.
The two inferior castes of India, the Vaisyas and the Soudras, are
but the descendants of such vanquished nations, — the anterior type
of India's autochthones being even yet represented in a purer state
by some of the Dravidian "hill-tribes" above described.
But, alongside of this grand and powerful race of Aryas and
Iranians, there appears, from the very remotest antiquity, another
race, whose territorial conquests were to be less extended and less
durable, but of whom the destinies have been glorious also. It is the
Semitic (Shemitic, ShemitishJ or Syro-Arahian race. From the banks
of the Euphrates to the shores of the Mediterranean, and to the
extremity of the Arabic peninsula, this race was expanding itself.
Its great homogeneity springs from the close bonds which combine
together the different dialects of its tongue. These dialects are the
Aramasan^ the ffehreWy the Arabic, the Chaldsean and the JEthiopic.
By their constitution, all these idioms distinguish themselves
sharply from the Indo-European languages. They possess neither
the same grammatical system, nor the same verbal roots. In Se-
mitic languages, the roots are nearly always dissyllabic ; or, to speak
with philologists, triliteral, that is to say, formed of three letters : and
these letters are consonants ; because, one of the most distinctive
characteristics of the Semitic tongues is, that the vowel docs not
constitute the fundamental sound in a word. Here vowels are
vague, or, to describe them otherwise, they have not any settled
fixed-sound, distinct from the cousonant. They become inserted, or
rather, they insinuate themselves between strong and rough conso-
nants. Nothing of that law of harmony of the Ougro-Tartar or
Dravidian tongues, nothingof that sonorousness of Sanscrit, of Greek,
and neo-Latin languages, — exists in the Semitic. Man speaks in
them by short words, more or less jerked forth. The process of
agglutination survives in them still; not^ however, completely, as
in the Basque. There are many flexions in them, but these flexions
do not constitute the interior of words.
Since the publication of M. Ernest Kenan's great labors upon the
history of Semitic languages, we are made perfectly acquainted with
the phases through which these languages have passed.
■ They have had, likewise, their own mould, which they have been
unable to break, even while modifying themselves. The Rabbinical^
the "Nahwee" or literal Arabic, in aspiring to become languages
more analytical than the Chaldee or the Hebrew, have remained, not>
56 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
withstanding, imprisoned within the narrow bars of an imperfect
grammar. This is the reason, as M. Ernest Kenan has remarked,
that, — whilst the Indo-European tongues continue still their life
in our day, as in past times, upon all points of the globe — Semitic
languages, on the contrary, have run through the entire circle of
their existence. But, in the more circumscribed course of their life,
they have presented the same diversities of development established
for all the preceding families ; and, at the same time that the Ara-
maean which comprises two dialects, — the pagan Aramaean or Sabian^
and the Christian Aramaean or Syriac — is poor, without harmony,
without multiplied forms, ponderous in its constructions, and devoid
of aptitude for poetry, the Arabic^ on the contrary, distinguishes
itself by an incredible richness.
The Semitic race, of which the birth-place must be sought ia.
that peninsular space shut in, at the north by the mountains of
Armenia, and at the east by those which bound the basin of the Tigris,,
has not gone outside of its primitive father-land. It has only travelled^
along the borders of the Mediterranean, as is proved to us by thet
incontestable Scmiticism of the Phoenician tongue, whose inscriptions
show it to have been very close to the Hebrew. Africa has been
almost the only field for its conquests. Phoenician colonies bore a
Semitic idiom into the country of the Numidians and the Maori;
later again, the Saracenic invasion carried Arabic — another tongue
of the same family — into the place of the Funic, which last the Latin
had almost dispossessed. In Abyssinia, the Gheez or Ethiopic does
not appear to be of very ancient introduction, and everything leads
to the belief that it was carried across the Red Sea by the Joktanide
Arabs, or HimyariteB, whose language, now forgotten, has left some
monuments of its existence, down to the time of the first Khali&tes,
in divers inscriptions.
The Semites found in Africa upon their arrival a strong popula-
tion, that for a long period opposed itself to their conquests. This
population was that of the Egyptians; whose language now issues gra-
dually from the deciphering of the hieroglyphics, and which left, as
its last heir, the Coptic, still living in manuscripts that we collect
with avidity.
This Egyptian was not, however, an isolated tongue. The Berber
— otherwise miscalled the "Kabyle,** which name in Arabic only
means ''tribe,'* — studied of late, has caused us to find many conge-
ner words and " tournures.** And this Berber (whence Barhary) itself,
yet spoken by the populations Amazirg, Shillouh, and Tuareg, was
expelled or dominated by the Arabic. Its domain of yore extended
oven to the Canary-isles. Some idioms formerly spoken in the north
CLASSIFICATION OF TOKGUES. 57
Africa attached themselves to it through bonds of relationship
jrnore or less close. The presence, throughout the north of Africa,
^Df inscriptions in characters called Tifnagy and which seem to have
l3een conceived in Berber language, makes known to us that this
-tongue must have reigned over all the territories of the Barbaresque
States ; and was most probably that of the Kumidians, Qsetulians, and
C^aramantes.
Egyptian civilization was very proftise in aspirates. Its gramma-
-tical forms denote a more advanced period than that of the Semitic
^tongues : its verb counts a great number of tenses and moods, formed
-through the addition of prefixes or of suflSxes. But its pronoun and
its article have still an entirely Semitic physiognomy, notwithstand-
ing that the stock of its vocabulary is absolutely foreign to tliat of
those languages.
We have already caused it to be remarked that, in the Galla (of
Abyssinia) one re-encounters the Semitic pronoun. The influence
exerted at the beginning by the Semites over the race to which the
Egyptians were proximate — ^and whom we will call, with the Bible,
Samitic — was, therefore, in all likelihood, very profound. When
the Semites entered into relations with the Hamites, the language of
the latter must have been yet in that primitive stage in which essential
grammatical forms might still be borrowed from foreign tongues.
^n intermixture sufficiently intimate must have occurred between
tJae two races ; above all in the countries bordering upon the two
^^eTTitories. Such is what occurred certainly for the Phcenicians,
.^i^liose tongue was Semitic, whilst the stock of population belonged,
evertheless, to the Hamitic race. For Genesis gives Canaan as the
^n of Ham ; and Phoenicia, as every one knows, is " the laud of Ca-
ftan." The whole oriental region of Africa as far as tiie Mozam-
ique coast aftbrds numerous traces of Semitic influence. Along-
de of the Gheez, that represents to us, as E. Renan judiciously
rrites it, the classical form of the idiom of the Semites in Abyssinia,
several dialects equally Semitic arrange themselves ; but all more or
less altered, either by the admixture of foreign words, or through the
absence of literary culture. ^Amid these must be placed the Amharic^
the modem language of Abyssinia.
Semitic tongues underwent, in Africa, the influence of the lan-
guages of that part of the world ; and, in particular, of those of the
Hamitic family, spoken in the countries limitrophic to that inha-
Wted by the Semites.
African languages cannot all be referred to the same family : but
they possess among themselves sundry points of resemblance. They
constitute, as it were, a vast group, whence detaches itself a femily
58 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
that may bo called the African family " par excellence," and which
extends from the Occidental to the Oriental coasts, re-dcscending
even into the Austral portion.
All the languages that form part of tljiis group, and in general the
tongues of the whole of this portion of the globe, possess one system
of vocalization, otherwise termed, a powerful phonology ; and some-
times even a disposition almost rhythmical, which gained for them, on
the part of some philologists, the name of alliteral tongues. Thus,
although the consonants in them be often aspirated, and aflFcct odd pro-
nunciations, they are never accumulated together. Double letters are
rare, and in certain tongues unknown. For example, in Cafftj the
vowels have a pronunciation clear and precise. In the major number
qi the languages of Southern Africa, and in some few of those of Cen-
tral Africa, the words always terminate with vowels, and present regu-
lar alternations of vowels and consonants. This is above all true of the
Caffrarian languages.*® M. d'Avbzao writes about iha YihoUy or Ebo,.
tongue spoken in Guinea : in regard to euphony, this language may^
be considered as one of the softest in the world ; vowels abound in
it; and it is in this respect remarkable that (except, perhaps, some
rare and doubtful exceptions) not merely all the words, but even all
the syllables end in vowels : the consonants offer no roughness in
their pronunciation ; and many are articulated with a sort of quaint-
ness (mignardise), which renders it difficult to seize them, and still
more difficult to express graphically by the letters of our alphabet.*
Among some other African tongues, on the contrary, the termination
is ordinarily nasal. Amid the majority of the languages of northern
and midland Africa, the words finish with a vowel. Such is what one
observes in the Wolocy the Bulomy the Temmani, the Toumali, and the
Faioql.
As concerns the system proper of sounds, and the vocabulary,
ihey vary greatly in African languages : and the harmony, sonorous-
ness, and fluidity of speech, frequently meet, in certain sounds, with
notable exceptions. It is the character of these various sounds that
may serve as a basis for the classification of the tongues of Africa.
All present compound vowels and consonants ; amongst which, m /?,
m 6, are of the frequentest employment. The duplex consonants
n Ar, n <j, appear likewise. Finally, in some African idioms, one en-
counters the consonants dg, gby kb, bp^ bm, * e, kk^ rk, pmb, b Zm."
^ See on this subject T^e Kafir Language; comprising a tkeieh of it* history f by the RlV.
John W. Appletard (King William's Town, 1860), p. 65 seqg,
*> Mimoira de la Soeiiti Ethnologique de Parity ii. part 2, p. 60.
^ In these illustratiye notations no attempt is made, of course, to foUow anj of the
dlTersified ** standard alphabets" recently dcTised for the use of Missionaries. On this
question of the expediency of such alphabets, and their success so far, I coincide entirely
with the criticism of a yery scientific friend, Psor. S. S. Haldiman (Report on the FreemU
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 59
^.^^iBpirates and the sibilants are not rare, any more than the nse,
pie or compound, of the w . Among some languages of this
mily, the palatal and dental letters are confounded, or at least are
:3iot clearly distinguishable. Several tongues are completely devoid
-of certain letters : for instance, the Odji^ and divers others, are want-
ing in the letter l\ and replace it, whenever they meet with it in what
foreign words they may appropriate, by r, or i, or tL
The accordances, of different parts of the discourse, are often
regulated by a euphonic system which is felt very strongly in sundry
idioms, notably in the Tazouha. The radicals are more frequently
monosyllabic. It is the addition of this radical with a modifying
particle (which is most commonly a prefix) that gives birth to the
other words. The relations of cause, of power, of reciprocity, of re-
flectivity, of agent, &c., as well as those of time, number, and sex, are
always expressed through a similar system. The radicals, thus united
to formative particles, become, in their turn, veritable roots, and con-
stitute the source {souehe) of new words. One can comprehend, never-
theless, how very imperfect is such a system, for defining clearly the
relations, at once so multiplied and so distinct, existing between
i^ords. There exist above all some for which African languages
&Te of extreme poverty; for example, the ideas of time and motion.
.jdLnd this character approximates them, in a manner rather strildng,
the Semitic tongues. As in these latter idioms, African languages
o not distinguish the present from the future, or the future from
past : otherwise, they express both these tenses by one and the
particle. The penury and the vagueness of particles indica-
of the prepositions,— or to speak with grammarians, of the pro-
es to prepositions — are again far more pronounced in the majority
f African idioms than amidst the Semitic. They enunciate, by the
e particle, ideas as different as those of movement towards a
iait of our knowledge of Linguistic Ethnology ^ made to the American Association for the
dTuicement of Science, Aag. 1856). My experiences of the hopelessness of arriving at
ly exact coanterralaes in European characters for Arabic intonations alone, so as to
^r^uble a foreigner, who has not heard Arabs speak, even to pronounce correctly, render me
-^^Tj sceptical as to the ultimate possibility of transcribing, through any one series of
.Alphabetic signs, the infinitude of distinct vocalizations uttered by the diverse groups of
Imman types ; which articulations, as Prof. Aoasbiz has so well remarked, take their
ovi^nal departure Arom the different conformationt of the throat inherent in the race-cha-
n^ter of each distinct group of mankind.
Should any one, however, desire to put this universal ** Missionary Alphabet" through
•A experimentum cruds^ he need not travel far to test its applicability to remote, abnormal, and
bttrbarons tongpiee, by trying its efficacy upon three cognate languages close at hand. Let
Ik Frenchman, wholly unacquainted with English, transcribe into the *' Missionary Alpha*
\Mt," a short discourse as he heart it fh)m the mouth of a Londoner. . Then, pass his manu*
•eript on to a German (of course knowing neither French nor English), and let him read it
to an Englishman. « Le diable mdme ne s'y reconnaitrait pas I" — G. R. G.]
60 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
point, or the departing from a point ; of position in a place, toward
a place, or near a place. The same poverty is observable in the
conjunctions: copulative particles being employed frequently tc
render the idea of possession and of relationship ; those which ex-
press the idea of connexion being often replaced by pronouns or bj
definite particles.
Per contra, African languages, as well as the Semitic, are ex-
tremely rich in respect to the changes (votes) of the verb, that is to say.
in forms indicating the manner in which a verb may be employed
These changes — ^which are so numerous, notably in Arabic — are not th<
less so in the majority of African languages; beyond all, in the prind
pal group that extends frx>m the Mozambique coast to Cafiraria on on<
side, and to Congo on the other. Although these changes are com
posed, in the major portion of such tongues, by the addition of pre
fixes, they form themselves in others through the aid of suffixes.
The number of these changes varies singularly according to th<
tongues. Thus, in the Sechuana language, and in the Temnehj then
exist six changes ; in the SooahSeli seven, in the Caffr eight, and ii
the Mpongwee eleven.
To give an idea of the opulence of these changes in a single verb
we borrow an illustration from the language of Congo. Sal a, 6
labor ; s alii a, to facilitate labor ; salisia, to labor with somebody,
salanga, to be in the habit of laboring; salisionia, to labor the om
for another; salanyana, to be skilful at laboring.
All verbal roots are susceptible of similar modifications througl
the help of certain particles that may be added to them. In thii
method, by the sole use of the verb, an expression is attained indicating
whether the action be rare, frequent, difficult, easy, excessive, &c. Anc
this richness of changes does not prevent the language from being
as regards its verbs, and viewed in respect to tlieir number, of grea
poorness. For instance, — the idiom of Congo, from which we hav<
just borrowed the proof of such a great richness of changes, does no
possess any word to express the idea of "living," but is obliged tA
say in place, to conduct one's soul, or being in one's heart.
Anotlier very characteristic trait of tlie majority of Africai
tongues is, that they do not recognize the distinction of genders
after the manner of the Semitic idioms or the Indo-European. The^
distinguish, on the contrary, as two genders, the animate and the in
animate ; and in the class of animate beings, the gender man or tn
telligent, and the gender brute or animal. Others of these languages
in lieu of distinguishing numbers after the fashion of Indo-Europeai
and Somitic idioms, recognize only a collective form which takes n<
heed of genders, and a plural form that applies itself to beings of th(
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 61
sane genders. This is a particularity that we sliall again encounter
b the elieking languages, or the Hottentot.
We do not possess snfficient elements as yet to give a complete
classification of the languages of Africa. It is only since the recent
publication of the Polyglotta Africana of Mr. 8. W. Koelle that we
have acquired an idea of the reciprocal affinities which link together
the tongues of Western Africa.
The classification proposed, however, by Koelle is freely intro-
duced into the following schedule.
L— AiniAHnC languages, or of the north-west of Africa.
These tongues have, with those of southern Africa, for a
common characteristic, the mutation of prefixes. They
comprise the following groups, viz :
1st — The Fonloap group, which embraces the Fouloup or
Floupe, properly so called, spoken in the country of the
same name, — the Filham, or Filh6l, spoken in the canton
which surrounds the city of Buntoun; this town is situate
upon the river Koya, at about three weeks' march from the
Oambia.
2d. — The Bola group, which comprises the Bola talked in the
land of Qole and tiiat of Bouramay — ^the Sarar, idiom of the
country of this name stretching along the sea to the west of
Balanta and to the north of the district where the Bola is
spoken, — the Pbpil spoken in the isle of Bischlao or Bisao.
3d. — ^The BiafiEida group, or Dohola, spoken at tlie west of
N'hahou and north of NaloUy — the Padschade, which is an
idiom met with at the west of Koniadschi and east of
Kabou.
4th. — The Bnlom group, comprehending the Baga, a tongue
spoken by one of the popoulations of this name which
inhabits the borders of the Kalum-Bagay eastward to the
islands of io«,^ — the Timne talked at the east of
Sierra-Leone, — the Bulom spoken in the country of this
name that bounds on Timniy — the Mampua, or Manpa
Bulom, called also Scherbo, idiom of the region extending
westward of the Ocean, between Sierra-Leone and the land
of Bouffiy — ^the Kisi, spoken west and north of Qhandi^ and
east of Mendi.
U'-KANlllNOO fiimily — spread over the north-west of Upper
Soodin.
* It is unkaown to what fiunily of tongues belong the idioms of the other populations
'"^ B^o, who dwell upon the banks of the Rio-Nonet and Rio-Pongas.
62 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
This very extended family comprehends the MandillgOi
properly so termed, or better the Mbnd^ — the Kabunga,
Mandingo dialect spoken in the land of KabotL^ — and
several other dialects of the same language, such as the
ToRONKA, dialect of Toro; the Dchalunka, dialect of FautO'
djahn ; the Kankanka, dialect of Eankan ; the Bambaba,
the KoNO, talked westwards and northwards of the Kiri;
the Yei, in the country of this name situate to the east of
the Atlantic and north of Q-bandiy which embraces several
dialects, viz : the Ten^, spoken in the land so called, that
has Souwekourou for its capital ; the Gbandi, spoken at the
north of Gula and at the west of Nieriwa; the Landoro,
talked west of lAmba; the Mendb, spread over the west
of Kono and the JTwi, and east of Kara; the Gbbsb,
idiom of the borders of the river Nyua; the Toma, called
likewise Bouse, spoken in the land of the same name
situated to the south of that of the Q^bene; and the Gio,
talked westward from Fa.
lEL — TJFFER-OUJLMISAN — that is, the languages of the Pepper,
Ivory, Gold and Slave, coasts, decompose themselves into
three groups, viz :
1st. — The Kroo tongues, comprising the Dewoi, spoken on
the banks of the river Di^ or St Paul's ; the Bassa, talked
in a portion of the Liberian territory ; the Era, or Kroo,
spread south of the Bassa along the coast; the Krebo,
spoken in a neighboring canton ; the Gbe, or Gbei, whose
domain lies east of the Great Bassa«
2d. — The languages of Dahomeyy of which the principal are
the Dahom^, or Popo ; the Mah]6, spoken eastward of the
Dahom6; and the Hwida, talked in the country of that
name, located to the south of the Q-eUfe islands.
8d. — The languages Akou-Igalay embracing the numerous
dialects of the speech of the Ak(m^ among which the
Yozouba, spoken between Egba and the Niger, — and the
Igala, language of the country of that name — are the most
important^ We shall revert further on to the Yozouba.
IV, _ The languages of the Tuyrth-went of UPPER SOODAN divide
themselves into four groups :
Igt. — The group Ouzen, represented chiefly by the idiom of
a very barbarian people, the Chtzeiehoy who inhabit to the
west of Ton ;
* The Y^ou, of which M. D'Atbsao has pnbliihed the grammar (Mimoires d« la SoeiiU
EthnoUffigui de Pant, II, part 2, pp. 106 ttqq.), appcHftins to thii group.
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 63
2d. — The group L^ba, which embraces the Legba and the
Xiamba;
3(L — The group KoftTnn^ to which belongs the Bagbalan ;
4tli. — And lastly, the group Kasniy spoken westward of the
land of the Guzescha.
v.— The tongues of the DELTA of the Niger are divided into three
groups : — the first represented by the Ibo dialects, — the
second by the Egbele and several other idioms, — the third
by the dialect of Okonloma, the name of a maritime dis-
trict near the country of the Ibo and that of Ovicho.
VI— The NUPE family, or languages of the ba^in of the Tchaddoy
— a family embracing nine idioms, of which the principal
are the Nup^, or Tayba, spoken in a country neighboring
Raba on the Niger ; and the Goali, or Gbali, talked to the
east of the Nupe.
VH— The family of CENTRAL-AFBICAN languages is composed
of t\^'o groups :
Ist — The tongues of BomoUy which comprise also those of
the Eakam, and the Budouma, spoken in the lake-isle of
that name. The main language of Bomou is the Ejlnouri,
which attaches itself by close relationship to the three
tongues of O^uinea, — the Ashanteb, the Fantee, and the
Odji.
2d. — This group comprehends the Pika, or Fika, and the
BoD^ dialects spoken west of Bomou.
Vm — The WOLOF, or JIOLOF, spoken by the populations of
Senegambia^ distinguishes itself with sufficient sharpness,
from all the preceding tongues ; and offers a grammatical
system that has more than one trait in common with the
Semitic languages.
tt— In the same region, another family of tongues has the FOO-
LAH, or PEULE, for its type; one dialect of which is
spoken by the Fellatahsy and very probably also by the
Uausay or HaousanB. The vocabulary of these divers idioms,
and notably that of the Peuley has presented a remarkable
analogy with the Malayo-Polynesian* languages, of which
we shall treat anon. It seems, therefore, that the Penle
family might not, perhaps, be attachable to African tongues.
The Wolofy although constituting a separate femily, ap-
proaches in certain points the Yozouba, spoken to the
QciTAvi D'EicHTHAL, HUtove tt Oriffitu <Ut FmdahM ou Feilant^ Paris, 1841 (Tirage 4
^^ ^ I'Kxtrait des Mimoiret de fa SoeUU JBthnologipte).
64 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
north of the Bight of Benin, — between the 2d and Sd
gree of W. long., and the 6th and 10th degree of IT. latiti
The WoLOP demarcates itself by its final inflexions. T<
other idioms, seemingly, have to be attached : such as
BiDSCHAOO, or BiDSHORO, which is spoken in the island
TTun, — the Gadschaya, idiom of a tribe called also &
ruUy or Serawouli, — and lastly the Goura.
X. — Another group, which is characterized by initial inflexion
spread over the basin of the Q-amhia^ and is representee
the Landobca, that is spoken in the land of Kahondi^ —
the Kabou, used in the canton of Kakondan.
The WoLOP verb is susceptible of seventeen modificati
that consist in adding to each radical one or two
lables, and which extend or restrict its acceptation,
something like the forms of the Arabic verb. The an
follows the substantive, and embodies itself with it, a
agglutinate languages. The plural lurticle exhibits eqn
an especial characteristic that makes it participate <
demonstrative pronoun. In general, the Wolof offers, i
phonology, that same harmonical disposition which beh
to all the African languages.
XL — Although the Wolof approximates to the YOZOUBA n
than to any other African tongue, these two idioms stil
main separated by a difference sufficiently defined.
YozouBA possesses, in its grammatical system, a g
degree of perfection and regularity. One observes in i
" ensemble '* of prefixes complete and regular, that, i:
joining themselves to the verb, give birth to a multitud
other words formed through a most simple process,
radical thus passes on the abstract idea of action intc
derivative concrete ideas; and thus reciprocally by the a
tion of a simple prefix, a noun becomes a possessive ve
Another peculiarity of the Yozouba is, that the same
verb varies in form and even in nature according to
species of words it qualifies.
The Yozouba system, notwithstanding its individuality,
nects itself tolerably near with that of the tonguei
Congo. The M'pongwk, for example, spoken on the Gal
coast, forms its verbs by adding a monosyllabic prefix tc
substantive ; by opposition to certain Senegambian languj
such as the Mandingo, in which they employ sufBxc
modify the sense of the verb or the noun.
2JLL — The CONQO-languages appertain to that great formatio
CLASSIFICATION OP TONGUES. 65
African tongues of which we treatted above, and that divide
themselves into many groups, united incontestably by close
bonds.
Ist. — The first group is that of the tongues of Congo ; the
whole of them characterized by the initial flexion. They
embrace the languages of the tribes named Atam, of which
one of the chiefest is the Udom, spoken in a country of this
name, which has Ubil for its capital, — the languages of Mo-
A;o«-tribes, that subdivide themselves into several groups,
embracing a great number of idioms, — ^the tongues of Congo
and of Angola that comprise three groups ; the first, repre-
sented above all by the Mbamba ; the second, by the Ba-
HUMA, or MoBUMA ; and the third, by the N'gola, speech of
Angola.
2d. — The second group, comprehends the tongues of South-
West AMcaf viz : the-KiHiAU, that also forms its verbs by
means of nrefixcs, and attaches itself very nearly to the
Congo-languages. It appears to identify itself with the
MuNTOU-tongue, spoken by the Veiao, whom one encounters
in the country of Knyasy about two months' journey west
from the Mozambique coast. To this group, likewise, be-
longs the Mara wi, the Niamban, and many other languages.
8d. — ^Tho third group is represented by the Souahflee-toDgues ;
comprising the SouahIli properly so-called, spoken by the
inhabitants of the coasts of Zanzibar; and the languages
of neighboring peoples who dwell to the south of the Galla-
country; such as the Wanika, the Okaouafi, the Wakamba,
A good deal of the KiniAU-language is met with in the Sou-
ahIli; wliich indicates well the affinity of the two groups.
4th. — The fourth, the group-Caflfr, comprehends the Zoulou,
or Caffr proper, — the Temneh, the Sechuana, the Damara,
and the Kinika. All these languages offer the same organ-
ism, and a great richness of changes (votes) together with an
extreme poverty of verbs.
XDl — The tongues of the preceding formation approximate in a
very singular manner, as regards certain points of their
organism, to that family that may be termed HAMITIC
(from E[him^, Chemmia^ the ancient native name of Egypt);
and which has for its type the Egyptian, of which the
Coptic is but a more modern derivative. To it may be
attached, on the eastern side, the Galla ; and on the western,
the Berber.
The Egtptian is known to us from a high antiquity, thanks
6
06 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
to its liieroglyphical system of writing, of which the employ-
ment mounts up to at least 8500 years before our era. This
writing, — wherein are beheld the figured and metaphysical
representations of objects (mostly indigenous to the Nile)
gradually passed into the state of signs of articulation —
permits us to assist, as it were, at the formation of speech.
Through the use of these signs, one seizes the first appa-
rition of verbal forms, as well as of a host of prepositions.
The basis of Egyptian seems to be monosyllabic; but the
employment of numerous particles very soon created many
dissyllables. This language recognizes two articles, two
genders, two numbers. The verb through its conjuga-
tions,— which is are made by the aid of prefixes and suflixes,
and tliat counts many changes, — participates more of the
Indo-European grammatical system than of the Semitic.
Eg3T)tian vocalization seems to have been very rich in
aspirates.
This linguistic family, to which the Egyptian belongs,
would appear to have been very widely extended at the
beginning. The Berber, vulgaric^ Kabyle, now almost re-
duced to the condition of a "patois," has a tolerably rich
literature, and comprehends several veiy distinct dialects,
viz : the Algerian Berber, spoken by the Kahail — moun-
tain tribeB of the Atlas — imbued with Arabic words; the
MozAbee, the Siiillo&ii, the ZenatIya of the province of
Constantine, and the Towerga, or Touarik.
XIV. — The HOTTENTOT family of tongues — or "lanques 1
Kliks," clicking languages — is characterized by the odd
aspiration, so designated, which mingles itself (as a sort of
glucking) in the pronunciation of the greater number of
words. Hottentot languages bear, above all in the conju-
gation of their verbs, the character of agglutination. Like
Semitic tongues, they are deprived of the relative pronoun.
They distinguish two plurals for the pronoun of the first
person, the one exclusive and the other inclusive; the
former excluding the idea of the person to whom a dis-
course is addressed ; and the latter, on the contrary, inclo-
sing it. In their nouns, there exist two genders in the sin-
gular, and three in the plural number, — this third one,
called common, has a collective value. It follows that when
an object be designated in the singular, its gender always
becomes indicated. These tongues distinguish three num-
bers, but they are unacquainted with the case ; whilst the
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 67
adjective remains completely indeclinable, and takes neither
the mark of gender nor of number.
This family of cliehing languages comprehends the Hottentot,
or QuAiQUAi, — and the Bosjesman dialects, Kabiaqua and
KORANA.
Notwithstanding its strange phonological system, the family
of Hottentot tongues is not altogether so profoundly dis-
tinct from African languages, as one might be tempted to
suppose at first sight. It is incontrovertible that these
Bounds, in nature at one and the same time nasal and
guttural, which we term Kliksj constitute a special charac-
teristic ; but the foundation of the grammatical forms in
Hottentot idioms is met with among the tongues of Africa.
Thus, the verb presents, like them, a great richness of
changes: it has a form direct, negative, reciprocal, causative ;
and all these voiei are produced by the addition of a particle
to the end of the verbal radical. Their double plural, a
common and a particular, is a trait which assimilates them
to the Polynesian and even to the American languages.
The double form of the first person plural, indicating if the
personage addressed be comprised in the "we," or is ex-
cluded from it — ^writes Wilhelm von Humboldt — has been
again met with in a great number of American tongues,
and had been assumed until now to be an especial characte-
ristic of these languages. This character is encountered,
howevej, in the majority of the languages that we are here
considering ; in that of the Malays, in that of the Philip-
pine isles, and in that of Polynesia. In Polynesian tongues,
it extends even to the dual; and such, moreover, is its
particular form, in them, that, were we to guide ourselves
by logical considerations merely, it would become neces-
sary to view these tongues, as being the cradle and the
veritable fether-land of this grammatical form. Outside
of the South Sea, and of America, I know of it nowhere
else than among the Mandchoux. Since Wilhelm von
Humboldt penned these words, the same grammatical pecu-
liarity, which exists in the Malgache (of Madagascar), has
been discovered in an African tongue, — the VEi-language.
African languages present, therefore, to speak properly, but
a very feeble homogeneity. The same multiplicity of
shades, that is particularly observed among the Blacks,
reappears in their idioms.
On studying the grammars and the vocabularies of the
latter, one seizes the tracing-thread of those numberless
68 ON THE DISTKIDUTION AND
crossings which have made, of the branches of the Ncgrc/-
race, populations very unequal in development of faculties,
and in intelligence exceedingly diverse. One perceives a
Semitic influence in the speech, as one sometimes discovers
it in the typo of face. The Hottentots, who are more dis-
tinct from Negro-populations than any other race of Austral
Africa, separate themselves equally through their tongue.
The Foulahs and the Wolofs, so superior to the other
Negroes by their intellect and their energy, distinguish
themselves equally through the respective characteristics ,
of their idiom. And in like manner that, maugre the ^
variety of physical forms, a common color, differently shaded^
(nuancie), reunites into one group all those inhabitants of
Africa whose origin is not Asiatic, a common charactetr-
links together the grammars of their languages; — or, iiK
. other words, African idioms have all a family-air, withou%
precisely resembling each other.
There is one important remark to be made here. It is, that
some African languages denote a development sufllciently
advanced of the faculty of speech, and consequently of the
reflective aptitudes of which this is the manifestation. In
this fact we have a new proof that tells against the unity
of the origin of languages. Because, if African languages
were the issue of other idioms, fallen in some way among
minds more narrow (homh) than liad been those of the
supposed-elder nations tliat spoke them, they ought neces-
sarily to have become impoverished, to have altered them-
selves ; and the laws, which have been established above in
the history of one and the same tongue, would lead us to
expect that these last ought to be at once more analytical
and more simple.
Now, their very-pronounced characteristic of agglutination
excludes the idea of languages arising from out of the
decomposition of others; and the complex nature of their
grammar attests a date extremely ancient for their forma-
tion. The idioms of Africa carry, then, the stamp both of
primitive and complicated languages; and, as a conse-
quence, of tongues which are not derived, at an epoch
relatively modern, from other languages possessing the
same parallel character. Hence it must be concluded, that
these African languages are formations as ancient as other
linguistic formations ; possessing their own characteristics ;
and of which the analogies correspond with those that bind
up togetlier the great branches of the Negro-race.
CLASSIFICATION OT TONGUES. 69
We have seen that a few of the Afncan languages recall to mind,
either through their vocabulaiy, or by peculiarities of their grammar,
the Polynesian idioms.
These idioms constitute, as it were, a grand Zone, that extends
l)€twixt Africa and America : and this position explains how migra-
tions of the race that spoke them, and which we shall call Malayo-
jPolyne^iattj may have come over to blend themselves with the negroes
of Africa. From Madagascar as &r as Polynesia, we find a family
of similar tongues that has become designated by the name of Ma-
layo-Polynesian, after that of the race.
It decomposes itself into two groups, viz : the Malay group, com-
prehending an " ensemble " of idioms spoken from Madagascar to
the Philippine-islands ; and the Polynesian group, properly so-termed.
One meets again, in this family, with the self-same inequality of
development amid the different languages that compose it. Whilst
the Malay denotes an advanced degree of culture, the idioms of Po-
lynesia offer a simplicity altogether primitive. These have restricted
their phonetic system within very narrow limits ; and they employ
matter-of-fact methods, no less than very poor forms, in order to
mark the grammatical categories. It is through the help of particles,
oftentimes equivocal, that these languages try to give clearness to a
discourse compounded, albeit, of rigid and invariable elements. The
etractare of Polynesian words is much more simple than that of the
^lalay words : a syllable cannot be terminated by a consonant fol-
lowed by a vowel ; or it is not even formed save through a single
xowel. These languages are, besides, deprived of sibilants ; and they
Yend towards a planing-away of homogeneous consonants, and to
<»ase those that possess a too-pronounced individuality to disappear.
Jt has seemed, therefore, that the Polynesian tongues result from the
^gradual alteration of Malay languages ; which are far more energetic
^uid much more defined. Otherwise this Polynesian family offers a
tolerably great homogeneity : everywhere one re-beholds in it this
identical elementary phonology. The idioms of the Marquesas-isles,
of New-Zealand, of Talti, of the Society-islands, of the Sandwich and
Tonga, are bound together by close ties of relationship. Such is the
paucity of their vocal system, that they have recourse frequently to
the repetition of the same syllable, in order to form new words.
The onomatopee is very frequent in them. The grammatical cate-
gories are also but vaguely indicated ; and one often sees the same
word belonging to different parts of the same sentence. The methods
of enunciating one idea are sometimes the same, whether for ex-
pressing an action or for designating an object The gender and
number are often not even indicated. The vocal system (which
0 ON THE DISTUIBUTION AND
recalls, in certain respects, that of the Dravidian touguea) Beem^,
by the way, to have undergone, in the course of time, modifications
sufficiently deep.
The Malgache, or Malagasy, spoken at the island of Madagascar,
constitutes, as it were, a link between the Malay o-Polynesian idiom?
and those of Africa. Mr. J. R. Logan, in an excellent series of labors
on this tongue,^ makes it seen how several traits in common existed
between the Malgache and those tongues of the great Souahilee-
Congo family, which he terms Zimhian, The same system of sounds.
One finds again in them that euphony signalized in the idioms of
Central Africa, associated with those double letters, mp^ md, nhj nd,
njy try dry ndry nvy tSy nf«, tZy that also characterize the languages
of Africa. Prefixes serve equally in them to represent the categorical
forms of a word. Finally, that which is still more characteristic, the
Malgache does not distinguish genders any more than do the African,
idioms ; and, like the vast Souahilee-Congo group, it carries with it.
the generical distinction, according as beings are animate, rational,
or inanimate, irrational. But, side by side with these striking ana-
logies, there exist fundamental differences. The Malgache-vocal^u-
lary is African in no manner whatever, although it may have imbibed
some words of idioms from the coast of Africa : it might approach
rather towards the Hamitic vocabulary; but its pronouns are peculiar
to itself. It possesses quite an especial and really characteristic power
for combining formative prefixes ; and many traits attach it to those
tongues of the SoodAn which have surprised philologers by their
analogies with Polynesian languages.
It is, therefore, evident that the Malgache represents to us a mix-
ture of idioms ; or, to speak more exactly, the result of influences
exerted upon a Polynesian idiom by African languages, and, with
some plausibility likewise, by those of the Hamitic class. This com-
mingling betrays itself equally in the population of Madagascar.
Evidently in this island, to judge by the pervading type of its inha-
bitants, tiicre has been an infusion of black blood into the insular,
or reciprocally. In general, the races that find themselves spread
over the zone occupied by the families of Malayo-Polynesian lan-
guages do not at all present homogeneity ; and one must admit that
tiiey descend from innumerable crossings. Nevertheless, the fact — ^if
fact it be, after the analyses of Crawfurd, indicated farther on— of a
{fond) substratum of words in common, and of a grammar reposing
upon the same bases, proves that one and the same race has exer-
cised its influence over all these populations.
* The Journal of tht Indian Archipelago and EatUm Atia, Singapore, — Supplementarj
No. for 1854, pp. 481 seqq.
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 71
Adhere mast one go and seek for the cradle of this race ? Com-
parative philology places us upon a trail towards its discovery.
There exists in the trans-Gangetic peninsula an " ensemble" of lan-
guages appertaining to the same family as the Chinese ; by attaching
itself on the one hand to the Thibetan, and on the other' to the
Siamese. These tongues have been designated by the name "mono-
**yUabic," because the primitive monosyllabism is perceived in them
^*^ all its original simplicity. In monosyllabic languages, there yet
^Xist only simple words rendered through one single emission of the
^oice. These words are, at one and the same time, both substantives
^tid verbs : they express the notion, the idea, independently of the
^ord ; and it is the modus through which this word becomes placed
*H relationship with other words that indicates its categorical sense in
^ sentence. The Chinese tongue — above all under its ancient or
Archaic form — is the purest type of this monosyllabism. It corres-
ponds in this manner to the older period which had preceded that
of agglutination.
Every Chinese word — otherwise said, each syllable — is composed
of its initial and of its final sound. The initial sound is one of the
136 Chinese consonants; the final sound is a vowel that never
tolerates other than a nasal consonant, in which it often terminaten,
or else a second vowel. What characterizes the Chinese, as well as
the other languages of the same family, is the accent that manifests
itself by a sort of singing intonation ; which varies by four different
"ways in the Chinese, reduces itself to two in the Barman, and ends
l)y e£BEu;ing itself in the Thibetan. The presence of tliis accent
destroys all harmony, and opposes itself to the "liaison" of words
amongst themselves ; because, the minutest change in the tone of a
word would give birth to another word. In order that speech should
xemain intelli^ble, it is imperative that the pronunciation of a given
i¥ord must be invariable. Hence the absence of what philologists
<»11 "phonology" in the Chinese family. Albeit, in the vernacular
Siamese, already an inclination manifests itself to lay stress upon,
or rather to drawl out, the last word in a compound expresdion.
These compounded expressions abound in Chinese ; the words that
€nter into them give birth, in reality, through their assemblage, to a
new word ; because the sense of this expression has often no resem-
blance whatsoever, almost no relationship, to that of the two or
three words out of which it is formed.
The drawling upon the second syllable that takes place in the
SK^Mmtu is the point of departure from monosyllabism, which already
^owB itself still more in the Camhodjian. The Barman corresponds
to the passage of monosyllabic tongues, wherein the sounds are not
72 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
connected, into languages in which the sounds are bound together.
Indeed, nearly all the Bannan words are monosyllabic; but they
have the faculty of modifying themselves in their pronunciation so
as to hitch themselves on to the other words, and hence priginate a
more harmonious vocalization.
All the basin of the Irawaddy, and Aracan (that is separated from
the Burmese empire by a chain of mountains running nearly parallel
to the sea, the mounts Ycoma), are inhabited by tribes speaking
idioms of the same family as the Barman. Little by little, other
languages of the same family, such as the LaoSy have been driven
back from the north-west of the trans-Gangetic peninsula by con-
quering populations emanating from this Burmese race, which now-
a-days opposes such an energetic resistance to the English. It i&
precisely to the same race that belong the more savage populations
of Assam. Here, speech and their physical type leave no room for
doubt in this respect. Of this number are the Singpho and the
Manipouri,
But, that the Thibetan is itself nothing but a modification, but an
alteration, of the languages of this same monosyllabic family, is what
becomes apparent to us through the tongues of several tribes of
Assam and of Aracan, — such as that of the Nagas^ and that of the
Youmas^ which serve for the transit from the Barman into the Thi-
betan. These more or less barbarian populations, spread out at the
north-west of the trans-Gangetic peninsula, have all the character
of the race that has been called the yellow. Evidently it is there
that one must seek for the savage type of the Chinese fiimily.
The Thibetan is certainly that tongue which most detaches itself
from the monosyllabic family ; and, by many of its traits, it ap-
proaches the Dravidian idioms. It demarcates itself from the Bar-
man through its combinations of particular consonants, of which the
vocal eftect is sweeter and more mollified ; but the numerous aspi-
rates and nasals of the Chinese and the Barman are re-beheld in it.
Upon comparing the monuments of the ancient Barman tongue,
with those of the ancient Thibetan, one perceives that formerly this
language had more of asperity, — asperity of which the Thibetan still
preser\'C8 traces; because, notwithstanding its combinations of
softened consonants, this language is at the bottom completely
devoid of harmony. Particles placed after the word modify its sense,
and the order of these words is always the inverse of what it is in
our idioms. Hence tlie apparition, in these tongues, of the first
lineaments of that process of agglutination already so conspicuous in
the Barman. One may construct in it some entire sentences com-
posed of disjointed words, linked between each other only by the
CLASSIFICATION OP TONGUES 73
ro-activ6 virtue, or faculty, of a final word ; and it is thus that
ise languages arrive at rendering the ideas of time still more eom-
X. The Barman, in particular, is, in this respect, of very great
hness, — a series of proper names can he treated in it as an unity,
i may take on at the end the mark "do" of the plural, which
cts then upon the whole : and even a succession of substantives is
•ceptible of taking the indefinite plural "wiya."
These languages cause us, therefore, to assist, so to say, at the
th of agglutinative idioms, of which the Basque has afibrded us,
Europe, such a curious specimen. Albeit, whatever be the de-
opment that several idioms of the trans-Gangetic peninsula may
re acquired through the effects of their successive evolution, they
t all not the less of extreme simplicity. The Barman is the most
borated of the whole family; whereas the Chinese, and the speech
the empire of Annam, are but very little. As concerns the vocal
item, on the contrary, the Thibetan and the Barman do not raise
jmselves much above the Chinese ; and it is in the south of the
.ns-6angetic peninsula that one must inquire for more developed
iculations, always exercising themselves, however, upon a small
niber of monosyllabic sounds. On the opposite hand, the tongues
the south-east of that peninsula approximate more to the Chi-
se as regards syntax.
One sees, then, that, maugre their unity, the monosyllabic Ian-
ages form groups so distinct that one cannot consider them as
oceeding the ones from the others, but which are respectively con-
cted through divers analogies; and that they must, in consequence,
phiced simply parallel with each other, at distances ever unequal
>ni the original monosyllabism. Although the Barman and the
libetan approach each other very much, — and that they find, in
rtain idioms, as it were, a frontier in common, — they still remain
o far asunder with regard to the grammar, the vocabulary and the
ronunciation, for it to be admitted that one may be derived from
le other. They seem rather to be, according to the observation of
Ir. Logan, two dibris differently altered of a more ancient tongue
hat had the same basis as the Chinese.
Thus one must believe that, from a most remote epoch, the yellow
•ace occupies all the south-east of Asia ; because the employment of
hese monosyllabic languages is a characteristical trait which never
'eceives. In those defiles of Assam where so many different tribes
'"I'^epelled thither by the conquests of the Aryas, of the Chinese and
^ Burmese — find themselves gathered, the races of Tartar-type all
^tinguish themselves from the Dravidian tongues through theii
j4 on the distribution and
monoeyllabic structure, allied BometimeB to the Thibetan, at others
to the Barman.
In the peninsula of Malacca, or Malayay and amid the isles of
Malaysia, one meets with some populations which, as regards the
type, recall to mind the most barbarous tribes of Assam, — the Gar-
rowBj for example. There have been found again at Sumatra some
tribes whose customs and whose type very much recall those of the
savage populations at the north-east of Hindost^. The Nagasy or
Kakht/ens, of whose tongue we have already spoken, possess a very
remarkable similitude of traits and usages with the Polynesians and
divers indigenous septs of Sumatra. They tattoo themselves like the
islanders of the South Sea. Every time they have slain a foe, they
make (as has been observed amongs the Pagai of Sumatra) a new
mark on their skins ; and, as takes places among the Aboung$ —
another people of the same island — and also among certain savages
of Borneo, a young man must not wed so long as he has not cut off
a certain number of the heads of enemies. Among the Miehmis —
another tribe of Assam — one finds again the usage, so universal in
Polynesia, and equally diffused amid the Sumatran Pagaisj of ex-
posing the dead upon scaffolds until the flesh becomes corrupted and
disengages itself from the bones. All these tribes of Assam, which
remind us as well of the indigenous septs of the Sunda-islands as
of the primitive population of the peninsula of Malacca, speak mono-
syllabic tongues appertaining to the Thibeto-Barman, or Siamo-
Bannan, family. This double circumstance induced the belief that
it is the trans-Gangetic peninsula whence issued the Malayo-
Polynesian populations. The languages they speak cluster around
the Siamese and the Barman ; but, in the ratio that they are removed
from their cradle, their sounds become softened down, and they
become impoverished, whilst evermore tending, however, to get rid
of the monosyllabism that gave them birth.
These transformations, undergone by the Malayo-Polynesian lan-
guages, have been, nevertheless, sufficiently profound to efface those
traits in common due to their relationship. They arise, according
to probability, from the numerous interminglings that have been
operated in Oceanica.
Whilst some petty peoples of the Thibeto-Chinese source were
descending, through the trans-Gangetic peninsula, into Malaysia,
and advanced incessantly towards the East, those Dravidian tribes
that occupied India, and which themselves issued fiom a stock, if
not identical, at least very neighborly With the preceding, wen»
coming to cross themselves with these Malaysian populations. But
such cross-breeding was not the only one. There was another that
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 75
the race still more. This commingling took eftect with a
(pulation that appears to have been the veritable primitive
the south of Hindost&n — a black race which has been thrown
ast) but whose remains are still found about the middle of
lian Sea, at the Andaman islets, and that constitutes the
ion of the pristine population of Borneo and the Philippines.
8 to be the same population that occupied exclusively, prior
kdvent of Europeans in those waters, New Guinea, Australia,
emen's Land (Tasmania), and divers archipelagoes placed to
tward of New South Wales.
tongues of these black Oceanic tribes were, without doubt,
xbarous, and they have been, in several cases, promptly sup-
. by the Malayan idioms. They have, notwithstanding, still
ces of their existence at the Sandwich isles, which seem to
jen occupied at the beginning, and before the arrival of the
sians proper, by the black race. The ground-work of their
lary has remained Australian, although the grammar is wholly
sian. It is the same at the Viti islands. Elsewhere, how-
3 at the Philippines, those blacks who are known under the
>f Aigtas^ (Ajetaa), or IgoloteSy have adopted the idiom of the
in &mily, which has penetrated into their island with the
rors.
appily, we possess but very little information concerning the
Kan languages. All that may be affirmed is, that they were
istinct fix)m the two groups of the Malayo-Polynesian family :
ilay group and the Polynesian group being themselves very
r separated.
Logan has caught certain analogies between the Dravidian
and the Australian tongues: which is easily understood;
e the populations that expelled from Hindostdn those puny
«rhich, at the beginning, had lived dispersed therein, must have
1 by their language some influence over the idiom of these
i^hich was evidently very uncouth. A profound study of the
of number, in all the idioms of the Dravidian femily, has
id to him the existence of a primary numerical system purely
, — which is met with again in the Australian languages ; and
^spends to that little-advanced stage in which one would sup-
be black race that had peopled Lidia must have been. And
nary system, which the later progress of intelligence in the
lian race has caused to be replaced by more developed systems
quinary system, and the decimal — ^has left some traces both in
« of the southern trans-Gangetic peninsula, and amidst certain
76 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
populations of the peninsula of Malaya.* Now, we again encounter,
even yet, this binary system among Australian populations.
The Dravidian idioms have, then, chased before them the Austra-
lian tongues at a primordial epoch that now loses itself in the night
of time. At a later age, there appeared the Malayo-Polynesian lan-
guages, which have coalesced in order to push still farther on to the
eastward, or at least to drive within a more circumscribed space,
these same Australian tongues. Then, after having implanted them-
selves in those islands whence the Australian savages had been gra-
dually expulsed, the two groups, the Malay and the Polynesian,
declared war against each other; and now-a-days, in the Indian
Ocean, the Polynesian becomes more and more crowded out by the
Malay.
This fact brings us back naturally to the problem of the origin of
that linguistic formation which we have designated by the name
" Malayo-Polynesian."
We have said that the Thibeto-Barman races had expelled from
India those black tribes with which they must have intermingled in
certain cantons. The Dravidian populations acted in the same way.
Several of the primitive tribes of Hindost^n preserve still, in their
features and in their skin, the impress of an infusion of Australian
blood. Has a mixture of another nature taken place in Polyne-
sia ? Are the islanders of the Great Ocean bom from the crossing
of some race coming from elsewhere? Several ethnologists, and
notably M. Gustave d'Eichthal,^ have admitted that the Polynesians
came from the east. Besides the resemblances of usdge which these
ethnographers have perceived between divers American populations
(and especially those of the Guarani family) and the Polynesians,
they have discovered, in their respective idioms, a considerable
number of words in common. Nevertheless, such similitudes are
neither sufficiently general, nor sufficiently striking, to enable UB
with certainty to identify the two races. There are concordances
that, as regards words, may originate simply from migrations; or
which, as regards forms of syntax, result from parity of grammatical
development.
This does not prevent the employment of other facts (as yet histori — -
cally unproven, and fraught with tremendous physical obstacles) to»
demonstrate the possibility of the emigration of some American popu —
lations; but upon this point languages do not yield us anything
decisive. More conclusive are the comparisons that M. n'EiCHTHArr::
** Journal of the Indian Archipelago and EasUm Ana, April-— June, 1866, p. 180l
^ Etudes iur VHistoire Primitive dea Race* OcSaniennee et Amirieaine», hy the learned "
cr^taire-acyoint de la Soci6t6 Ethnologique."
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 77
has made between the tongues of those Foulahsy or Fellatahs, that
inhabit Senegambia, and some idioms of the Malayo-Polynesian
&milj. These analogies are too striking for us to refuse some recog-
nition of an identity of arigines; which, furthermore, resiles from
many other comparisons. The light complexion of the Foulahs, and
the superiority of their intellect, had at an early hour attracted the
notice of voyagers. We would admit, therefore, that the Malayo-
Polynesian race, — ^whilst it advanced towards the south-east of Asia,
and exterminated or vanquished the black races — had penetrated on
the opposite hand into Africa; crossed itself with the negro popula-
tions ; and thus gave birth to the Foulah-tribes and their congener
peoples. At Madagascar, we re-encounter this same Malayo-Polyne-
sian race under the name of Ovas^ or Sovas. This island appears like
the point of re-partition of the race that might be named '^ par excel-
lence" Oceanic, because it is by sea that it has invariably advanced.
[Not to interrupt the order of the foregoing sketch of these Oceanic
languages, we have hitherto refrained from presenting another con-
temporaneous view, that would, in many respects, modify the one
ivhich, on the European continent, represents an opinion now cur-
rent among philologists concerning those families of tongues to
-vrbich the name " Malayo-Polynesian" has been applied. K the high
authority of Mr. John Crawfurd^ were to be passed over in Malayan
subjects, our argument would lack completeness ; at the same time
that the results of the learned author of the " History of tlie Indian
Aicliipelago," were they rigorously established, would merely ope-
rate upon those we have set forth, so far as breaking up into several
distinct groups, — such as, Malgache^ Malay ^ Papuarij Harfoorian^
^olynesiaHj Attstralian, Tasmaniany &c., — the families of languages,
^ this treatise, denominated by ourselves Malayo-Polynesian. And
U must be conceded concerning those tongues spoken by the perhaps-
^digenous black races pf Malaysia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, that,
^hile, on the one hand, science possesses at present but scanty infor-
mation; on the other, no man has devoted more patience and skill
to the analysis of such materials as we have, than Mr. Crawfurd.
The following is a brief coup d'ceil over his researches.
"A certain connexion, of more or less extent, is well ascertained
to exist between most of the languages which prevail from Mada-
8*8car to Easter Island in the Pacific, and from Formosa, on the
^^<>^of China, to New Zealand. It exists, then, over two hundred
^^grees of longitude, and seventy of latitude, or over a fifth part of
^^ Bur&ce of the earth. ****** The vast region of which I
^ Grammar and Dtethnorff of the Malay Language, London, in Sto., 1852; vol. i.,
*'***^'titi(m and Grammar.
78 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
have given the outline may be geographically described as consist-
ing of the innumerable islands of the Indian Archipelago, fix)m
Sumatra to New Guinea— of the great group of the Philippines— of
the islands of the North and South Pacific — and of Madagascar.
It is inhabited by many different and distinct races of men, — as the
Malayan, the brown Polynesian, the insular Negro of several varie-
ties, and the African of Madagascar."
Beginning with these last, Mr. Crawfurd says, — "Very clear
traces of a Malayan tongue are found some 3000 miles distant from
the nearest part of the Malayan Archipelago, and only 240 miles
from the eastern shore of Africa. From this isolated fact (which
the author, pp. cclxxvi — xxxi, shows by historical navigation to be
by no means improbable), the importance and the value of which I
am about to test, some writers have jumped to the conclusion that
the language of Madagascar is of the same stock with Malay and
Javanese, and hence, again, that the people who speak it are of the
same race with the Malays. It can be shown, without much diffi-
culty, that there is no shadow of foundation for so extravagant an
hypothesis." And, in fact, after exhibiting how in their grammars,
both groups of tongues resemble each other merely by their simpli-
city, he manifests, through a comparative vocabulary, that the whole
number of known Malayan words, in the Malagasi language, is but
168 in 8340 ; or about 20 in 1000.
Next, the insular Negroes of the Pacific Archipelagoes — the
^^ Puwa-puwa, or Papuwa^ which, however, is only the adjective
' frizzly,* or * curling.' " After enumerating their physical characte-
ristics at different islands, he concludes — "Here, then, without
reckoning other Negro races of the Pacific which are known to
cxist,^ we have, reckoning from the Andamans, twelve varieties,
generally so differing from each other in complexion, in features,
and in strength and stature, that some are puny pigmies under five
feet high, and others large and powerful men of near six feet. To
place all these in one category would be preposterous, and contrary
to truth and reason." That they have no common language is made
evident (p. clxxi) through a comparative vocabulary of seven of
these Oriental Negro tongues ; whence the unavoidable conclusion
that each is a distinct language.
Adverting digressionally to the Australians, — who are never to
be confounded, physically-speaking, with any of the woolly-haired
* In a later monograph on the '* Negroes of the Indian Archipelago" (Edinburgh Nfw
Philotophical Journal, IS6S, p. 7S), Gbawtued maintains, — ** There are 15 Tarieties of
Oriental Negroes. ♦♦♦♦♦♦ There is no evidence, therefore, to justify the conclu&ion,
that the Oriental Negro, wherever found, is one and the same race."
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 79
blacks of the Pacific Archipelagoes. The point of contact between
these distinct types is at Cape York, in Torres Straits, and around
its neighborinjiC islets. "So where else has amalgamation betwixt
them been perceived. ^^ As to the great bulk of the inhabitants of
Australia, thej are assuredly neither Malays, Negroes, nor Poly-
nesians, nor a mixture of any of these, but a very peculiar people,
distinct from all the other races of men" (p. clxxvi). In lists of
about thirty languages, already known in the yet-discovered part**
of Australia, Mb. Crawfurd (p. ccxci) has been unable to detect
more than four or five words of corrupt Malay ; and that only in
the tongue of a tribe at Cobourg peninsula, once Port Essington.
Ab to Polynesia, our author holds : — " The languages spoken over
this vast area are, probably, nearly as numerous as the islands of
themselves ; but still there is one of very wide dissemination, which
has no native name, but which, with some propriety, has been called
by Europeans, on account of its predominance, the Polynesian.
This language, with variations of dialect, is spoken by the same
race of men from the Fiji group west, to Easter island eastward,
aod from the Sandwich islands north, to the !N^ew Zealand islands
south. The language and the race have been imagined to be essen-
tially the same as the Malay, which is undoubtedly a great mistake"
(p. cxxxiv). After pointing out their physical contrasts with cha-
racteriatic precision, he adds — "The attempt, therefore, to bring
tlieae two distinct races under the same category had better be
dropped, for, as will be presently seen, even the evidence of lan-
g^e ^ves no countenance." Again bringing to his aid compara-
tive vocabularies, Mr. Crawfurd (p. ccxl) ascertains that the total
number of Malayan words, in the whole range of Polynesian
^Dgues, is about 80; including even the numerals; which them-
selves make up nearly a sixth part of that trifling quantity,— on
^hich imagination erects an hypothesis of unity, between the lusty
*Qd handsome islanders- of the South Seas, and the squat and ill-
&vored navigators of Malayan waters.
Laatly, the Malays themselves. Sumatra is, traditionally, their
^er-land; but they were wholly unknown to Europeans before
^^^^wo-Polo in 1295 ; and, 220 more years elapsed before acquaint-
ance with them was real. Prom this centre they seem to have
'^ted over the adjacent coasts and islands ; subduing, extermina-
^^6 enslaving, or driving into the interior, the many sub-typical
'^ces of the same stock which appear to have been, like themselves,
^^'^ geniti of the Archipelago, distinguished by their restless and
^ver^ncroaching name. " By any standard of beauty which can be
\
80 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
taken, from the Ganges to the Pillars of Hercules, the Malays mus
be pronounced as a homely race," — whose beau-ideal of cuticular-^
charms (a3 Crawfurd says in his larger EUtory) is summed up in th
phrase "skin of virgin-gold color." In their phf/$iquej the Malay
are neither Chinese nor Dravidians, neither Polynesians nor
gasi, neither Oriental nor Occidental Negroes; but as Dry den th
poet sung (p. xvi) : —
" Flat faces, such as would diBgrace a screen,
8nch as in Bantam's embassy were seen : — "
in short, nothing else than Malays. For the specification of theSj
language and its dialects, the "Grammar and Dictionary" is the
source to which we must refer; but, what singularly commends
Mr. Crawfurd's analytical investigations to the ethnographer is, the
careful method through which, by well-chosen and varied compara-
tive vocabularies, he has succeeded in showing, how Malayan blood,
language, and influence, decrease in the exact ratio that, from their
continental peninsula of Malacca, as a starting point, their coloni-
zing propensities have since widened the diameter between their
own primitive cradle, and their present commercial factories, or
piratical nuclei. Nor must it be forgotten that, upon many of the
islands themselves, both large and small, there exist distinct types
of men, independently of Malayan or other colonists on the sea-
board, speaking distinct languages. Thus, in Sumatra, there are 4
written, and 4 unwritten tongues, besides other barbarous idioms
spoken in its vicinity : at Borneo, so far as is yet known of its un-
explored interior, there are at least 9 ; at Celebes, several. At the
same time that, according to Mr. Logan, each newly-discovered
savage tribe, like the Orang Mintird^ the Orang Benud, the Orang
Muka Kuiiing^ &c., amid the jungle-hidden creeks around Singa- -
pore, presents a new vocabulary.
Being one of the few Englislnnen, morally brave enough to avow,
as well as sufficiently learned to sustain, by severely-scientific argu —
ment (pp. ii-vii, and elsewhere), polygcnistic doctrines on the origin
of mankind, Mr. Crawfurd's ethnological opinions are entitled to
the more respect from his fellow-pliilologues, inasmuch as — without
dispute about a vague appellative, " Malay o-Polynesian," — his philo-
sophic deductions must logically tally with those continental views,
to which a Franco-Germanic utterance is given at the close of
our section Illd.
Upon the various systems of linguistic classification, through
which each unprejudiced philologist — t. c, to the exclusion always
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 81
of preconceived dogmas fabricated, aa Koranic Arabs would &&jjfi ayA-
wntna tirdiaKUxehj ^' daring our days of ignorance" — defines his more
or less scientific, but ever-individual, impressions, differences of
opinion must inevitably ensue ; some scholars reasoning from one
stand-point, others fix)m another : nor would we, when closing this
parenthesis about the term ^'Malayo- Polynesian," overlook the
physiological fact indicated by Prof. Agassiz,^ viz : that identities
among types of men linguistically similar, whilst historically and
ethnically different, do sometimes arise only from similarity in the
internal '^ structure of the throat" — anatomical niceties imperceptible
to the eye perhaps, but not the less distinctly impressive on an acute
and experienced ear.]
Of all the families of languages at present recognized on the sur-
&ceof our globe, there only remains for us to examine the American
tongues. Endeavor has been made to attach them to the Polynesian
family; but from these they essentially distinguish themselves, and
we shall see presently that certain traits assimilate them, on the con-
trary, to African languages.
Let us signalize a primary fact. It is that, whilst the populations
of the two Americas are far from offering a great homogeneity
of physical characters, their languages, on the contrary, consti-
tute a group which, as relates to grammar, affords an unity very
remarkable.
That which distinguishes all these tongues is a tendency, more
apparent than that among any other linguistic family, to agglutination.
The words are agglomerated through contraction, — by suppressing
one or several syllables of the combined radicals — and the words
thus formed become treated as if they were simple words, susceptible
of being again employed and modified like these. This property has
induced the giving to the languages of the New "World the name of
foljfMjfnthetical, — which M. F. Liebbr has proposed to alter into that
of olophragtic.
Besides this characteristic, there are several others that, without
being so absolute, seem nevertheless to be very significant. Thus,
these idioms do not in general know our distinction of gender ; in
lieu of recognizing a masculine and a feminine, they have an animate
and &n inanimate gender. I have said above, that there is one trait
whidi is common to them and to divers idioms of Polynesia, as well
A0 to the Hottentot tongues. It is the existence of two plurals (and
sometimea of two duals), exclusive and inclusive, otherwise termed,
* OkruHttn Bsmmmtr, Boston, JoJj, 1860, p. Zli^T^puof Mankind, p. 282.
6
82 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
particular and general. The exclusive plural, in certain dialed
applies itself to the orator, and to the community to which 1
belongs, by excluding the others ; whereas, in sundry dialects, tfa
same plural applies to those in whose name one speaks, to tl
exclusion of the persons to whom one is addressing a disooorse.
One trait of the grammar of American languages, that has grest
struck the first Europeans who sought to grasp their rules, is wh
they have called tranHtion. This process^ otherwise intimately co
nected with polysynthetism, consists in dissolving the pronoun inc
cative of the subject, — no less than that one indicating the object,-
into the verb, so as to compose but a single word. Hence it foUoi
that no verb can be employed without its governing case {r^m
The number of these transitions varies according to the language
and the pronoun incorporates itself with the verb generally by suffix<
By means of a modification of the principal radical, Americi
tongues arrive at rendering all the accessory or derived notions th
attach themselves to the idea of verb. Hence arises a vast numb
of vote$. These changes constitute all the riches of the New Work
idioms. This abundance of changes is above all striking in the 2
gonquiriy and in Dahkota^ — ^the language of an important Sioux tril
On the contrary, in the Mozo, — a tongue of South America, the oonj
gations reduce themselves to one. Here we have a new trait <
resemblance between the idioms of Africa and those of the N'€
^orld.
A classification of American languages has been attempted. It
a difficult undertaking ; because, in general, amid populations tfa
live by tribes exceedingly fracted, and in a savage state, wor
become extremely altered in passing from one tribe to another. Nc
words are created with great facility ; and were one to take but tl
differences into account, it might be believed that these languag
are fundamentally distinct. The erudite Swiss, long a distinguish^
citizen of the United States — successor, in philology, to a learnt
Franco- American, Duponceau — Mr. Gallatin, has found in Nor
America alone some 87 families of tongues, comprising more thi
100 dialects ; and even then he was far from having exhausted i
the idioms of that portion of the world. It is true that he embrace
within his classification, the Eskimaux and Athapascan idioms, whi<
appertain, as well as certainly the former race, to the Ougro-Finn
stock, — otherwise termed the boreal branch. Among North Ain«
can families, those of the Algonquin^ Iroquois^ Oherokeey Choctaw ai
Sioux^ are the most important; but, concerning the indigent
tongues spoken around the Rios, Gila and Colorado, philolog^c
science hitherto possesses only vague information.
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 83
At the centre of America we meet with four fiunilies, viz : the
fitmily Quieko'M^^aj of which the chief representatives are the idioms
of Yucatan ; — the second fiunily is exhibited in the Otomij which at
first had been erroneously made a completely separate lype, — the
€hird is the Lenea Ceunily, principally spread over the territory of
Honduras, — and lastly, the fourth family is represented by the
JfdAuatl, otherwise called the ancient Mexican ; of which we possess
literary monuments written in a kind of hieroglyphics.
The Quiehen^ or Quiehoa — language of the Incas — comprehends
several dialects, of which the principal is the Aymara. The Quiehoa,
of all the fiunilies of the New World, possesses most prominently the
polysynthetical character. The Guar ant &mily, to which the Chilian
attaches itself manifests a very great grammatical development It
^as spread throughout the south and east of austral America, and
^as spoken over a vast expanse of territory. Finally, the two &mi-
liea, the Pampean or MaxOj and the Oaraibj occupy, in the hierarchi-
cal ladder of American idioms, the very lowest rungs. In these there
is excessive simplicity, — ^for instance, in the Galibi, spoken by savage
tribes of the French Guyana, and which belongs to the Caribbean
funily. One finds in it neither gender nor case ; the plural is ex-
pressed simply by the addition of the word papo, signifying aU^ and
serving at one and the same time for the noun as well as the verb.
In this last part of a discourse, the persons are not discriminated ;
and the same form acts in the plural, no less than in the singular,
for the three persons.
American languages have, then, also passed through very different
phases of development; but, even when they have attained, as in
Quiehoa and the Quaranij a remarkable degree of elaboration, they
have been unable, notwithstanding, to overcome the elementary
forms upon which they had been scaffolded.
In the presence of such existing testimonies, of this gradual
development, it becomes, henceforth, impossible to conclude any-
thing from those analogies signalized between American and
African languages, as regards imagined filiation. The aspect of
two vast linguistic groups, placed at distances so remote, might have
engendered a supposition of some links of proximate relationship
between the populations speaking them, if^ in view of their phytiquej
the Indians of the New World, and the negroes and Hottentots of
Afiica, were not so entirely different But, seeing that we have
established each floor (Stage) of linguistic civilization — if one may so
■peak — we cannot admit that these tongues have been transported
from Afiioa to America, or, at least, that their grammar already
I A-DaS
ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND
govpnted the idioms epoken by auch supposititious emigrantfl. Simi-
litude between the two groupn ehows us merely, that the native abo-
rigines of Africa and of America possessed an analogous faculty of
language ; and that neither could rise above a certain level, which, at
first sight, may have been taken for a common characteristic, and att-
ft sign of filiation.
SECTION m.
The sketch we have just given of the familieB of tongues spread
over the globe's surface has led us to observe, that the linguistic
families coincide (with tolerable exactitude) with the more trenched
divisions of mankind.
Each superior race of man is represented by two families of lan-
iponding to their largest branches, viz : the "White race,
or Oaueanio, by the Indo-European and Semitic tongues; — the Yellow
race by the monosyllabic and the Ougro-Tartar tongues, otherwise
called "Finno-Japonic." To the Black race correspond the tongues
of Africa; — to thcRisD race, the tongues of America; — to the Malato-
PoLTNESiAN racoB, the tongues of that name; — to the Australian
race, the idioms of Australasia. No more of homogeneity is beheld,
however, amongst the languages spoken by those inferior races inha-
biting Africa, America, Oceanica, or Australia.
The multifarious crossings of these primitive- races, — crossings
that may be called those of the secondaiy race-floor — are represented
by families that possess characteristics less demarcated, and which
participate generally of the two families of idioms spoken by the
races whose intermixture gave birth to them.
The Dravidian languages partake of the Ougro-Tartar and the
monosyllabic tongues. The Samitie languages are intermediate
between the Semitic and tlie African tongues. The Hottentot lan-
guages hold to the African and the Polynesian tongues ; certain lan-
guages of the Sooddn offering, also, the same character, but with a
predominance of Polynesian elementa; whereas it is the African
element that preponderates in Hottentot idioms.
The apparition of these grand linguistical formations is, therefore,
as ancient as that of the races themselves. And, in fact, speech b
with man as spontaneous na locomotion, — as the instinct of clothing
and of arming oneself. This is what the Bible shows us in the
abridged recital it gives of Creation. God causes to pass before
A-BaM, the-Man, all the animals and all the objects of the earth (as
CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 85
t were, in a coemorama), and th&^Man gives to each a name.^^ It is
poflsible to declare more manifestly that speech (language) is
innate and primitive gift. From the instant that man was created,
lie most have spoken, by virtae of the fiiculty he had received from
Ck>d.
The use of this &cnlty has also been as different among the
Averse races of mankind as that of all other faculties. And, in the
eame manner that there have been races pastoral, agricultiiral, pisca-
^toiy and huhting, — ^that there are populations grave, and populations
volatile ; adroit and cunning tribes, as well as tribes stupid and shal-
low— BO there have been races with language developed and powerful,
populations that have attained a high degree of perfection in speech ;
iw'hereas others have very quickly found their development arrested,
— just, indeed, as there have been, and ever will be, races pro-
greeeive and races stationary.
We are unable to pierce the mystery of the origins of humanity.
We are ignorant as to a process by which God formed man, and the
Bible itself is mute in this respect. It neither resolves, nor indicates
the difficulties inherent in, the first advent of our species. But, it is
veiy evident that, in speaking of mankind in general, — that is to
say, of A-DaM; for such is the sense of the word — it designates,
according to Oriental habits, the race by an individual : in precisely
the same method that, in the ethnic geography of the children of
Noah {Oene$i$ x), it represents an entire people by a single narfiie.
Thus, Genesis speaks to us only of the ffenus homoj which it personifies
in an individual to whom it attributes the supposed instincts of the
first men. This being at present settled, it cannot be concluded
"from biblical testimony that all human beings spoke one and the
same tongue at the beginning, — any more than we can conclude
that there had been but one primitive couple.
From the origin there were different languages, as there were like-
wise different tribes ; and from out of these primitive families issued
all the idioms subsequently spread over the earth. Because, the
&culty of speech was, at its origin, coetaneous with the birth of man-
kmd; and Unguistic types are not now formed, any more than new
races of men, or new animals, are being created. Existing types be-
become altered, modified. They cross amongst each other within
certain limits, — and with the more facility according as they may
* QmtnM^ n, 19: — *' Jbhotah-Elohim forma de terre tons les animaux des champs, tons
^ tiacam da eid, et les fit yenir Ters Vhommt pour qn'il ytt H les nommer ; et oomme
^Ammu nommerait une or6ature anim^e, tel derail dire son nom." — (Cahbm's Hebrew text,
86 ON THE DISTKIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES.
already poasess greater affinity. They become extinct and disap
pear: bat that is alL The work of creation on our globe i
terminated; and all the inviaible dynamics which the Creator se
in motion, in order to people this physical and moral world, ma;
indeed preserve that which they have produced ; bat V&ge du reiau
for them has arrived. They have become powerless and steril
for creations that are reserved, withoat doabt, for other worlds.
A.M.
Pab», Zibrtff ^ (JU JiwtffMt— April, 186(L
IG0N06RAPHIC RESEARCHES. g7
CHAPTER !!•
IG0N06RAPHIG RESEAROHES
OK HUMAN RAGES ASl> THEIR ART;
BT FRANOIB PUL8ZKT.
**Tedd 4 darra Scjthit i llberisbex, 4b
Jl nagy R6ina fi4t Bospbonis 5blihex
Barlang Iteen amott 4 Capitoliom
'S itt 1^' R6ma emelkedik."
''Put the rud$ Scythian on the Tiber,
And the eon of great Rome on the Cimmerian coatt.
There the Capitol will become a den.
And here rieee a ump Rome,** (Bkbsbbmti.)
'^^'€tter to Mr. Geo. B. Oliddon^ and Dr. J. 0. Natty on the Races of
Men and their Art.
^VIy Dear Sirs :
Reading your " Types op Mankind," equally valuable for consci-
^xitious research and sound criticism, I could not but be pleased witli
>*our felicitous idea of supporting ethnological propositions by the
testimony of copious Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Greek, and Chi-
nese monuments, in order to prove the constancy of national types,
during the historical period of antiquity, by authentic representa-
tions. Blumenbach and Prichard only cursorily referred to ancient
^^onuments; your publication was the first* to call Archaeology into
t:lie witness-box for cross-examination in the question of races and
> If oar work, published early in 1854, may take credit for baying somewbat extended
^.nd popnlarixed tbis metbod of researcb, tbe road bad been widely opened, ten yean pre-
^^rioosly by Mobtoh {Crania jEffyptiaca, Pbilada., 1844). Subsequently to Mobto5, tbe
v^mme metbod was applied witb singular felicity by M. Courtst db l'Islb (Tableau elhno'
.^raphique du Oenre Humain; 8to., Paris, 1849) ; but, as mentioned in "Types," (p. 724,) I
'^vas not aware of M. Coubtet*s priority until tbe text of our book was entirely stereotyped.
Xlia Tolame bas become so rare, that I was unable to procure a copy during my late stay
^t Paris, 1854-^. A portion, bowerer, was originally published under tbe title of ** Icono-
^rapbie des races bumaines," in tbe Tlluetration, Oct. and Nov., 1847: and another formed
'(>art of tbe interesting discussions of the SoeiSti Ethnologique de Parity on tbe '* Distinetire
«^aract«ristic8 of the White and of the Black races;" Siance du 25 Juin, 1847. (See tbe
^uUttin of that Society, parent of those in London and New Tork, Annie 1847, Toma Ir,
^>p. 181-200, and 284.) O. B. O.
88 lOONOGBAPHIC BESEABCHES
nfttionalitiea.^ Bat, whilst 70a jndicioualy selected the moat chano-
teiistic relief of Egypt and ABsyria from the claeaical wcn-ks of
ChampoIUon, Boselliiii, LepsiuB, Sotts, and Layard ; all EtroBCflii,
Roman, Hindoo, and American antiquitieB were excluded &om the
"Types;" and I felt eomewhat disappointed when I found, that as to
yonr Greek repreeentatdons yon were altogether mistaken. Too
pablished, on the whole, five husts^ beloopng etrictly to the times
and nations of classical antiquity, bnt there is scarcely one among
them on which sonnd criticiam conld bestow an unconditional
approval.
You may find that I am rather hard upon you, as even your critic
ia ihe AtkencBum JVanjaw* objected only to one of them. Still, ami-
etia NoTT, amUm* Gliddok, aed magii amiea veritaa; and I hope that,
if you have the patience to read my letter with attention, you will
yourselves plead guilty.
The busts which I am to review are the alleged portraits of Ltcuk-
aoB, the Spartan legislator, of Alexander Uie Great, of Eratob-
TBEiiEs, of Hannibal, and of Juba L, king of Numidia.
L A.B to the great LacedEemonian law^ver, you borrowed his poi^
trait from Pouqueville,' who took it from
"^ '■ Ennio Quirino Viaconti.' It cannot be
traced forther back. The celebrated
Italian archaeologist, publishing that head
of a marble statue in the Vatican, free^
acknowledges that he has scarcely any
authority for attributing it to Lycurgos,
by saying that he thinka the statue might
be a portrait of the famous one-eyed \%^»-
lator, — inasmuch as the conformation of
the left eye and cheek is difi'erent fix)ni
the right side of the head; and, according
to him, such want of eymmetiy charac-
terizes a man blind of one eye,'' I leave
* Blamenbach read ■ lecture : Dt vittnim artificmm analamiiB perilix laudt UtnilanJa, tdt-
branda tero lorum in eharacttri ffottUilia tzprimmdo aceurationt, at Gottiagen, on tbe 19th of
Much, 1823, bnt unhappily it aerer vw pablished. Tbe notice io the OSuingen OttArta
Anuigm 182S (p. 1241,) mentions onl; tb*t b« dwelt upon the oorrectiieu of the rept«B«n-
tatioDS of negroes, Jews, and Pemana, on ancient monuments; and remarked that no efBgj
of the Mongolian tjpa hu ever been found on them. Prichard doTotes two pages (2S6 and
i286 of his lid Totnme), to the remains of Egyptian painting and gculpture ; but be ignore*
Boaellini's work, and quotes from the antiquated DiBOH and the Dacriplim d* p£typU.
* 7)fpti e/Mankmd, p. 104 and ISe.
•Atkmaum Franfau, Paris, 26 March 16M, p. 264.
* Vnn4n pittvruqut, (TrtM, pi. H.—Tj/pa, p. 104, fig. 4.
* hotwgrapki* gnepu, L pi. VIII. 2. ' Hid. p. 181 of the Uilao «dilioiL
OK HUMAN RAGES AND TH£IB ABT. 89
it altogether to your critical judgment whether such an argument is
8\rfficient for baptizing the old statue and calling it Lycurgus^ whilst
the deformity of the face might be the result of the clumsiness or
inadvertence of the sculptor, or might represent any other half-faced
personage. But even had Yisconti proved that the effigy in ques-
tion was really meant for Lycurgus, being a copy of the statues men-
tioned by Pausanias,^ still, the features could not be taken for a real
portrait, nor could they have any value for ethnology, since, impos-
sible as it is to fix the date of Lycurgus accurately, it is universally
agreed that he lived at the close of the heroic and before the dawn
of the hUtorical age, when art was nearly unknown to Greece. A
chasm of at least three centuries separates him from the earliest
reliefs and coins we possess. It is therefore preposterous to believe
in portraits of Lycurgus in the present sense of the word. Accord-
ingly, Visconti admits that the portrait in question was created (!) —
like that of Homer, — on national traditions by artistic imagination.
The Greeks, with their strongly developed feeling for beauty, were
not at all shocked by such ideal portraits ; their artists, down to the
time of Alexander the Macedonian; and even beyond his epoch, did
not care much for material likeness, and wer^ only intent upon
taking the expression of the features answer to the traditional cha-
'icter of the person represented. Thus, for instance, they created
^e eflS^es of the " seven sages," and of ^sopus, which once adorned
^e ViUa of Cassius, and now form one of the chief attractions of
4e Villa Albani at Rome.* The most celebrated of those imaginary
portraits is the magnificent bust of Homer,'® equally known in
^tiquity and in modem times ; for Pliny ^' remarks, speaking of this
^^istom, that " even effigies which do not exist, are invented, and
^cite the desire to know the features not transmitted, as is the case
^th Homer." Pausanias proves that in his time there were portraits
of Lycurgus existing ; of course invented in a similar way : but we
^y safely state that, even the created effigies of the old law-giver
^cre not of a constant type. The Spartans, at the epoch of their
^niplete subjection to Rome, began to adorn their copper coins with
the heiid of Lycurgus, inscribing them with his name in order that
^o mistake should be possible ; but Visconti, who published two of
them," says, that they do not resemble one another.
Thus we arrive at the conclusion that there is no certainty and
"^t little probability about the head published by you, as to its
^AUiAxiAS, lib. iii. o. 14. * Visconti, letmographie preegue, 1 pi. ix. x. xi. xiL
** ^ b€0t of them is at the Sta^ at Naples ; a good one in the British Museum.
■■ -^ittofia Ntthtfw^ xxxr. {2. • Visoomti, Icon, ^.^ 1 pL TiiL 6, 6-
90 ICONOOBAPHIO BESBABCHES
liaving ever, before Vieconti, been imagined to represent LyonrgUB;
and that in no case could it be taken for anything elso than a &iurf-
portrait, not more to be tmated tlian the statoe of Coltjmbob,
commonly called the " ninepin-player," before your Capitol, or the
relief portrait of Daniel Boone in the Rotnnda at Washington,
n. Tonr portrait of Albxakdeb the Great, likewise from Pon-
qneTille,** is by far more authentic than the
* ' pretended likeness of IjycxagaB. The origi
~ nal marble bust, of whidi you pve a copy, i^^
now placed in the Louvre at Paris, aa a me
morial of Napoleon L ; who received it as m^^
present &om the Spanish Ambassador, th^^M
Chevalier d' Azara. The accomplished Che- -^s-
valier caused a panegyrical dedicatory in.^-
ecriptiou to be sculptured on the side of ti
bust^ before presenting it to the modei
Alexander. The Bourbons, nncoDBaousl-— ^ — j
following the traditions of the Emperor Can^^3'
. calla, and of several Egyptian Pharaohs, o^^v-
dered the mention of their obnoxious pred^^ae-
ceesor to be obliterated on this monument ; but traces of the destroyer — d
inscription sufficiently record the resentment and bad taste of thos-^ve
who had " rien oubli^ ni rien appris." The bust was ori^nally foun— d
near Tivoli, the ancient Tibur, in the year 1779, bearing the inscrifzrs-
tion
AAEZANAPD2
*iAinnnY
MAKE A
The form of the letters shows, according to Visoonti," that thi»
excellent piece of sculpture could not have been contemporaneous
with the conqueror of Persia ; and that it probably belongs to tho
last epoch of the Komnn Republic, or to the bc^nning of the Empire.
Still, as the features of the Macedonian king were in his life-time
immortalized by such eminent artists as Apelles, Fyrgoteles and
LysippiiB ; and since his portraits served as seals and emblems of coinB
soon after his death, it may seem tolerably certain, that the marblB
bust in question gives us really the likeness of the conqueror. Yet
there remains one difficulty about it. The bust having been fotuul
in a mutilated state, the broken nose was restored, without consulting
the coins of Lysimachus, one of the generals and successore of
Alexander, who had tlie portrait of his late master pnt on them. -
" Orict. pi. 86 -.—T^fpt,, p. 104, flg. 6. " /««. grtes^ IL p«p 47.
ON HUMAN RACES AND THEIB ART. 91
Hub the restoration altered the features a Utile, a somewhat longer
)0e being attached to the bust, than the earlier effigies on coins,
ataes, and mosaics warrant With the slight exception, therefore,
at the tip of the nose is too long and too pointed, the portrait in
16 "Types" ought to satisfy sound criticism. Still, Staatsrath
oehler, the renowned but presumptuous Eussian archseologist,
^rcriticallj rejects the Azara-bust, as of no use to iconography ;**
it as he omits the reasons for his harsh sentence, he must allow us
* be so malicious, and to infer, fix)m the date of his essay,'" written
iring the Busso-Persian war, that he was disappointed at not being
>Ie to discover a likeness between the bust of the great Macedonian
id the would-be inheritor of his schemes, the late Czar Nicholas :
; the same time that French archaeologists maintain that Alexander,
.uousTUS, and Bambssbs, bear a striking likeness to Napoleon L
But if the Bussian archaeologist went too &r on the side of hyper-
iticism, the author of *^ Inscriptions of the British Museum," and
le arranger of the Egyptian Court in the Sydenham Crystal Palace,
rr considerably more on the other side ; having been taken in by
ae of the most barefaced archaeological impostures of modem
mes. In 1850, a 4to volume (360 pages text and LXI plates) was
ablished at Didot's by Mons. J. Barrois, under the suspicious title
f " Dactylologie et Langage Primitif;" in which pi. LIX gives
the portrait of Alexander taken during his life {reprSBeiUS de son
Ivant) firom a bas-relief painted in four colours by Apelles, (!), and
>and in 1844 under the sand of a subterraneous tomb at Cercasor6
Q the Nile." Since this wonderful book was printed for private
irculation, and did not get into the book-market, criticism remained
lent; but the portrait having been introduced into the Crystal
*alace, we must protest against the clumsy forgery which attributes
a Egyptian bas-relief to Apelles the Greek painter. Besides, though
B style is Pharaonic, the eye is foreshortened in the Greek way;
le Egyptian cartouche is false; whilst the Greek inscription,
nongly spelt,*' is neither Egyptian nor Greek, and the form of its
Btters is partly archaic, partly Latin. I was shocked at the very
list sight of such a cast exhibited among copies of the best remains
it Egypt; and afterwards learned from Mr. Gliddon, that it is gene-
rally known in Paris, how the relief (with its companion, which
purports to represent HsPHisSTiON), had been manufactured ex-
* Ahhandlung Ubtr die gachnittmtn Sttme, &o. St Petersburg, 1851, p. 10, — ^referring
^ lui essaj in Bottiokb'b ArchctologU und Kutut, Band 1, page 18.
** The inacription runs as follows :
ALEKMNDP^
YIO^ AMOYN^
92 ICONOGBAPHIO BB3EABCHES
preesly to. entrap M. Barrois, the wealthy funateor, who does not
bolieve at all in CbampoUion, and consequently boaght it for 6000
fVancs. It was certainly beyond the e5q)ectation of the Frendi
forgers that &ey shonld cheat two English archeeologista also.
TTT. EiutosiEENEB of Cyrene in A&ica, the famed Qreek libnuian
of king Ptolemy Evergetes at Alexandria, tli«
greatest AstiDDomer, Geographer, and Chrono-
lo^^ of his time, would indeed deserve a plaee
of honor in any ethnographical pnhlication ; bn^
unhappily, there exists no antique likeness of
that eminent man, althoagh the Chevalier Bunsen
prefixed the ideal drawing of a Greek bust to Ihe
second volume of his "jEgyptena Stelle in der
"WeltgeBchiehte."" Yet this effigy is altogether a
modem foncy -portrait, which originates solelj
from the desire of the learned Chevalier to ex-
press his veneration for the Sage of Gyrene. 1
have suspected that it is not through accident, bnt
Inr design, tliat the snub-nose of the German edition has been twisted
into a somewhat aquiline form for
Longman's English translation of
the same work. Possibly, Bun-
sen, in fear lest bis authority might
introduce a false Eratosthenes into
good society — as really has hap-
pened in the " Tjpes," — took Hob
indirect method of unmaking the
creature of his own imagination.
TV. The portrait of Han»ibai<
was copied for the " T^es," on the
faith of the "Univers pittoresque,"
ft ft/ /li' "ii^ \ V^'tlLJji'' fci {Afrique aneienne, Carthage), a col-
^^ ^j'" I '■iii Mill 'ifaf^^E^lff lection of several works by di^r-
ent authors of different merit-
Thus, for instance, next to the
description of Ancient Egypt l^
rimiiit" 'I I '*">■•'''«''''*'' *"'' °^ China by Pauthier, we find Italy
(((will'inl l',v <b« tihallow Artaud, and Greece by Pouqaeville-
tl(>\\t>\k>i't tlit> ulli'ffod portrait of the Carthaginian hero did not
mw«»»i' s tmr tiHim»gniitliio expectations in anyway, not being of tho
" IUi»t»iia< 1***^ rii>iilla)iteo*. Comptr* th« ons Id Egypft Ptaei n Unittn^l BitUtfr
t'i<ul-»i. lOiili It 1 »Hil 11 111. Th« uue geniiu for inrentiDii hu npplied Areb^ahgy
*Hk •*« v-itt-tli* «Hlln>iitlti liuTlrd* *' likBttao: — Op. eiL,lhiam Such, tnaOtfit^
ON HUMAN RAGSS AND THEIR ART. 93
Shemitic cast; and you recognized at once the highest Caucasian
tjpe 80 strongly marked in his face as to lead to the suggestion,
" that if his &tiier was a Phoenico-Carthaginian, one would suspect
that his mothe^, as among the Ottomans and Persians of the present
day, must have been an imported white slave, or other female of the
purest Japhetic race." " This remark, embodying an acknowledg-
ment of the Japhetic cast of the features, was happily added to the
^^ portrait;'* which can be found on some elegant silver coins accom-
panied by a Phcsnician inscription. From the time of Fulvius
Ursinns^ it was always taken for the effigy of Hannibal, until Pel-
lerin,^ and Eckhel, ^ proved that these coins are not Carthaginian,
but Cilician and Phcsnician. "In 1846," says the reviewer of
" Types," in the Athenwum Frangait^ " the Due de Luynes found out
that it was the portrait of a Satrap of the king of Persia, who
governed Tarsus in the time of Xenophon ; and thus," he adds, "in
the effigy published by Messrs. Gliddon and Nott, type, country,
epoch, and race, are all mistaken" ! ^ A sweeping conclusion indeed ;
still, it is not complete enough ; seeing, we may add, that the reviewer
himself is likewise mistaken. Had he studied the Essay of the Due
de Lnynes with sufficient care, he would have found that the head,
formerly believed to be the effigy of Hannibal, and as such prefixed
to most of the editions of Silius Italicus, is not at all a portrait, but
the ideal representation of a hero ; since it is not only found on the
silver coins of Demes of Phoenicia (or rather, according to W. H.
Waddington, of Datames of Cilicia),^ but likewise on the coins of
Phamabazus, the powerful Satrap of Phrygia and Lydia, son-in-law
to Artaxerxes Mnemon. It cannot, therefore, be meant for either
of them ; so much the less, as there is no example of any Satrap
stamping coin with his own portrait.
Visconti, in his Iconographie greeque^ attributes a totally different
b\i8t to Hannibal. Fully aware that the effigy on the above-men-
tioned silver coins could not represent the illustrious Carthaginian,
he did not like to lose the illusion that we possess such an interesting
portrait; especially as the elder Pliny complains^ that "two statues
were erected to Hannibal in the city, since so many foreign nations
had been received into communion with Rome, that all former dif-
ferences between tbem were abolished." Accordingly, Visconti
•^Wbutes a small bronze bust to the greatest enemy of the Romans ;
^Vp" of Mankind, p. 186, ftg. 87; and Southern Quarterly Review, Charleston. 8. C, Oct
**^ ^ 294, note. " Athmmm Fran^aie, Mars, 1854, p. 264.
^ -^^ginee HUutr, varorvm, pL 68. •• Athenaum Fran^aia, Fevricr 1866, p^ 12.
^ ^^mea, iiL p. 6». •• Vol. iii. pi. xvi.
-^oefrnM mmmarum neterum, iii. p. 412. ** Hist. Nat, xxxit. {16.
94 ICONOGBAPHIC RESEABGHES
beci^use, having been found at Pomi>eii together with the bii«(t of
Scfpio Africanus, it might have been its companion. He discovers
an African cast in the features of the bust, although he does not
enable us to understand what African peculiarity he means ; and he
forgets that Hannibal ought to portray the true Shemitic, not any
Afiican type. Yisconti refers likewise to the peculiar head-dress of
the bust, as being analogous to that of king Juba; but Juba was a
!N^umidian, (inheriting some Berber blood, probably,) not a Cartha-
ginian by lineage; and the resemblance is altogether imaginaiy.
Lastly, he identifies the features of the bronze with those of a fine
bearded and helmeted head often found on gems,^ and traditional^^
ascribed to Hannibal, because one of the copies bears evidently th<
half-efiaced inscription HA...BA..* Unfortunately for Yisconti^^ii.
the gems and the bronze bust have not one single feature in commoi
between them ; and we are even able to trace tiiie origin of the
tion and of the inscription mentioned by the renowned author of tiu
^^Iconographie" — to a rather modem date. There exists a ceU
brated colossal marble statue in the ante-room of the Oapitoline Mi
seum, which had always puzzled antiquaries. It represents a beards
warrior, with a stem and majestic countenance ; and would ha^
been taken for Mars, did we not know, that all the statues of the
of war, with the exception of the earliest archaic representations^
were beardless. Another designation was therefore wanted; andL
inasmuch as among the adornments of the magnificent armour of
the colossus, two elephant heads occupy a prominent place, he wa9
called Pyrrhus, and sometimes Hannibal, — both generals having
made use of elephants in their wars against Rome. The gems men-
tioned by Visconti are evidently antique copies of the head of the
Capitoline statue, from which they obtained the name. As to thd
inscription of the Florentine gem mentioned by Gk)ri, we can afibm
that it is a mediaeval forgery; because, on another repetition of the
same head,^ we find an analogous imposition, viz : the same Phcsni-
cian letters which are struck on the Cilician coins of Datames, and
were transferred fr*om the medal to the gem by some mediseval
engraver under the (false) belief that they read: "Hannibal." Be-
sides,— ^the Capitoline statue and the gems resembling it are no por-
traits at all ; they have ideal features, and represent Zetu Areto$^ the
martial Jupiter, as beheld on the coins of the town lasus in Caria^*
* GoRi. Mtu. Flor., 11, 12. » QoM, Inta^tionet per Etrur., 1 pL 10, p. 4.
• WiNCKBLMAHH, Piorrti gravUt dm feu Baron Slotch, p. 416, nos. 48:— Raipb, CWteJbMiL
p. 669, No. 9698. ^^
" Strsbkb, AbhandL der phiioiogUehm CUutt dm MUnehner Acodmnk, TImU 1 TtM i.
No. 6. * ^
OH aUHAN BAGES AND TBEIB ABT.
95
Kg. 6.
DO less than OD several onpubliahed bronze atatuett«8 in different
M)iiections.
V. It is more difficult to object to the portrwt of Jdba I,, Ring of
!(iuni<lia ; the oiiginfil of the head published b j yon " being the type
if a silver coin which bears the
Roman inscription "Jnba Kex."
Jtill, an anonymous archeeolo^st,
Steinbiichel,)^ suggests, that this ef-
igy, with its peculiar Afiican head-
Iress, might repjesoit an A&icon Jii-
viUr, rather than a king, since bis
features are somewhat ideal, and the
leeptn on the shoulder of the bust is
in attribate of Japiter, or of Juno,
ixeepdonally only given to kings.
ka your object in exlubitiog the por-
:rait of Juba was principally to show,
x> some illiterate Pbilffithiopians, that
he inhabitants of Northern A&ica
rete not aegroes, the explanation of
jteinbiichel becomes a still stronger argument for yonr views. If
it can be maintained, then the published head is not the effigy of an
individual Mauritanian king, by descent and marriage closely allied
■jo several Greek dynasties (for instance, to the Ptolemies), but is the
representative type of the population of the nortjiem shores of
Afiica ; and the slight modification of the Arab features, observed in
ttia &ce, becomes, therefore, a new argument for the affinity of Ber-
ber and Shemitic races. The peculiar head-dress of the bust is men-
tioned as African by Strabo,^ who says that the same costume pre-
vailed all along the northern coast of A&ica up to Bgypt, where it
borders on Libya. Silius Italicus describes it veiy characteristically
as a rigid bonnet formed by long hair overshadowing the forehead.**
"We see it on the triomphal arch of the Emperor Constantine, as dis-
tii^^udung the Numidian auzilisiy horsemen ; ^ and it seems that it
extended even beyond the limits mentioned by Strabo, since it is
foond upon Egyptian relief representing Nubians as well as full-
Wooded Negroes; for instance, compare "Typos," page 249, and figs.
166, 167, 168, 169, 170, and 171.
VL Besides these effigies belonging to the domun of Greek art,
~Jfngm Ancimni, Cartltag*.
tr Slmt, Wiw, 1&84, p. II, No. 144.
** Bbllou, Atch$ Iriumpk.
96 IGONOGRAPHIG BESEABCHES
we find in the " Types"* the Egyptian portrait of the &moii8
PATBA, which undoubtedly gives us a most charming effigy of
refined, sensual, intriguing Queen r-
^'«- ®' last scion of an illustrious
donian race, who had witnessed tr^
her feet Julius Geesar and Mark
tony, and who for a short time mijrh^ i|
well have believed herself the mil
tress of the Eastern world. Nevei
theless, doing full justice to
Egyptian artist, we cannot help
marking that, though all the Ej
tian effigies of this Queen, throng^fci-
out her ancient realm, resemble oca^e
another perfectiy — just as the po^:a^
trait of Queen Victoria has remain^^
entirely unaltered on all her gold sovereigns for the last twen-*y
years, — Cleopatra's Greek coins show a female head of entirely
ferent character ; which, if really her portrait, gives us but a poor id*
of the taste either of Julius Csesar or of M. Antony, This differences^
between the Greek coins and Egyptian effigies, common to all
Ptolemies, is rather puzzling, and has until now not yet been satS-i
fiwtorily explained; but Lepsius is expected to treat this questii
fully and fittnkly in the iconographic portion of his great publi<
tion.^ In the mean time it is only fair to remark, that the nati'
Egyptian portraits of some of these kings, ex. gr. Physcon, a|
far better with their historical character, than do their effigies on
Greek coins ; which are all somewhat idealized, until we reach tlat
last Cleopatra, who was evidently a much finer specimen of a Qu<
in reality, than she appears on her medals.
Having done the work of demolition to my best abilities, aU<^'
me now to review the human races in respect to their aptitude
Art^ and to inquire into the distinct and typical characteristics
national art among the different types of men, — a study that wi^'
establish the following facts :
L — That whilst some races are altogether unfit for imitative a:***^
others are by nature artistical in different degrees :
IL — That the art of those nations which excelled in painting 9X^^
sculpture, was often indigenous and always national ; losing t^^^^
• Op. cU.. p. 104, fig- 8:~R08BUJin, Jfomiaiaili' 4M Eptt^ M.R., TTTT fig. 82. ^
•ioCic« roar jadicioos altermtion of tbe ty^
" CJ., in the interim, Lkpsits, Vihtr rfjir FTrffntrrr irr ffjiiyfiwciwi Pmhiifcr f§f
KtmUniMMJerPtclfmatrgeatkkkU, Berlin, 1S6S, pp. 26, 29. 52.
ON HUMAN RACES AND THEIR ART. 97
its type but likewise its excellence by imitating tbe art of otber
^ns:
L — Tbat imitative art, derived from intercourse with, or con-
t by, artistic races, remained barren, and never attained any
ee of eminence, — ^that it never survived the external relations to
:h it owed its origin, and died out as soon as intercourse ceased,
vrhen the artistic conquerors became amalgamated with the
iistie conquered race :
T. — ^That painting and sculpture are always the result of a pecu-
artistical endowment of certain races, which cannot be imparted
ostruction to unartistical nations. This fitness, or aptitude for
teems altogether to be independent of the mental culture and
ization of a people ; and no civil or religious prohibitions can
roy the natural impulse of an artistical race to express its feelings
ictores, statuaiy, and relie&.
Tours, veiy truly,
F. P.
nwii, St. Albar'b Villas, Hiohoati Ribi,
OeUiUr, 186G.
98 GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHT.
L — GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY.
<< looMOOEAPHiA statuas omnia generis, protomas, pietaras, mnaiTaqiu
opera describit Hano sexcenti celebres opifioes olim oolaenmi. Imagimtm
amore, inquit Pliniufl, fiagraue quoadam teatet tunt et AtUeua iUe CieeranUf Mo
<U his voluminef H Marcus Varro benignissimo invmto intertit voiummum morum
facunditati^ n(m nominibun iantutn ttptingentorum iUtutrium, s§d et iJiquo modo
vnaginibut, n<m paaut intereidere figurat^ cut vetuttatem esvi eonira hammtt
vaUre,*' {FABBionjBtBibliographia Aniiq., 171d, p. 12S4.)
Whenever the metaphysical Germans speculate about the philo-
sophy of history, they invariably draw a broad distinction between
the progressive races (Culturvolker) — to whom mankind is indebted
for civilization, for the advancement of sciences, for all the forms of
political administration of society, and for the moral elevation of
the soul, — and the passive races^ who scarcely possess any history oi
their own. All the white and yellow, and a few brown and
nations, are put down among the former; the majority of ih<
Browns, the hunter-tribes of the Reds, and all the Blacks, bein|
classed among the latter. But again, among the progressive race
there is a very remarkable difference as regards their part in history^^^.
The Egyptians and Assyrians, the Shemitic races of Phcenici
Palestine and Arabia, the Persians, Greeks, Etruscans and Romanf
and lastly the Teutonic and neo-Latin nations, whether pure
blended with one another and with Celtic elements, took in snccer
sion the lead of mankind ; whilst the pure Celts, the Sclavoniai
the Finnic, Turkoman, Tartar and Berber races, remained in
background. We need not say that, going one step farther, we fii
the mixed populations of Great Britain and of North Ameri.
(commonly but wrongly called the Anglo-Saxon race), and the equal
mixed population of France, to claim to be at the head of
modern progressive races ; scarcely to admit the equality of the G
man proper; and to be fully convinced of their own superiority
Italians and Spaniards, Dutch and Scandinavians, Celts and So'
vonians, Hungarians and Finns, rejecting altogether the pretensio^zms
of Turks, Arabs, Persians and Hindoos, to civilization. This ses^^mle
of national inequality has evidently been construed with regard to
the political power, the commercial spirit, the literary activity, a^cr~nd
the application of the results of science to manufactural indust^Bby
among the diiFerent races. Considered from the point of view of
imitative Arty — of painting and sculpture, — the result will be sormmmae-
I
GENERAL REMARKS OK ICONOGRAPHY. 99
ivhat different : and whilst it is certain that art has never flourished
jut among the progressive races, we shall find that nations to whom
ve are indebted for some of the most important discoveries, and to
he highest truths revealed to mankind, are altogether deficient in
irt, — as, for instance, the Shemites without exception ; that others,
ilthough wielding the most extensive political power, such as the
lomans of old, the Scandinavian Northmen, the Anglo-Saxons, the
Sclavonic races, never attained a high devolopment of painting and
culptore, and were surpassed by the Greeks of yore, and by the
Italians and Spaniards, the Qermans and Dutch. History teaches
18 that eminence in painting and sculpture is not the result of either
dgh mental culture or political power, and that it does not always
iccompany the refinement and wealth of nations. We find it growing
>ut of a peculiar disposition of some nations, predestined as it were for
irt ; whilst other races, living under the same social, climatic, and
K)litical conditions, never rise artistically to represent the outward
irorld in colors or in plastic forms. And again, among the artistical
lations we meet with the most remarkable differences in treating
he same subjects. Some strive for the most scrupulous reproduc-
ion of nature, and cling to fitithful imitation; others are creative,
mbellishing whatever they touch : some show a deep understanding
ind love of nature ; others concentrate their power exclusively on
he representation of the human body : some excel by the brilliancy
tnd harmony of their coloring ; others charm by their correctness in
>lastical forms : but all of them express their nationality, their pecu-
iar relation to God, nature and mankind, throughout their works,
rherefore, even an inexperienced eye catches the difference between
Egyptian and Assyrian,. Indian and Chinese, Greek and Etruscan,
Italian and German, French and Spanish, art : and the artistically-
Hlucated student feels no difficulty in discriminating the minute
distiinctions of schools, in each national art ; and generally discovers
any attempt at forging pictures and statues. The inherent and
indelible nationality of every monument of art is, in fact, the only
safeguard against imposition; since it is just as impossible for
Gibson or Powers to sculpture an antique statue, and for Sir Charles
Eagtlake or Mr. Ingrfes to paint a Raphael (or even a Carlo Dolce, or
any second-rate Italian picture), as it would have been impossible for
Alfieri to write a play of Shakespeare, and for any New Euglander to
become the author of a tragedy which could pass for the work of
^orneille. Still, to establish the fact that art is always national and
*^t cosmopolitan, we must pass in review the great artistic races
'^^ the time of the Egj^tian pyramids down to our own days — a
^lod of some five thousand years.
lOO GENERAL B E M A R K S OK IGOX06RAPHT.
II. — BGTPTIAH ART.
(HoMSB, Odvu., iT, 481.)
** It onlj remains to saj with Homer,
To wirit Bgyft9 Und, a long and dangtroua voy."
(Stbabo, Ub. x?iL)
Thb earliest of all monuments of art cany us back to the cradle of
our civilization, Egypt, of which we are scarcely accustomed suffi-
ciently to appreciate the real importance to the history of mankind.
We speak here not only of its political power and high culture under
the Pharaohs, nor only of the literary labors of the critical Alexan-
drines under those Ptolemies who were fond to be protectors of
Greek science ; but we allude likewise to the fiwjt that, long after
Egypt had merged into the Roman empire, became converted to
Christianity, and lost all tradition of independence, still its peculiar
national character was not swamped, nor its tough energy broken.
It manifested itself strongly enough in the Athanasian controversy,
in the Monophysite schism, in the many saints and legends of Chris-
tian Egypt, and in the most important establishment of anachoret
und monastic rule which originated in the Thebais, and thence
spiH3ad all over the world, as an evidence of the vitality of that
nation and of the indelibility of its moral type.
At the very dawn of history we meet in Egypt with statues and
has-relicfe which, according to the hieroglyphic inscriptions, are
certainly contemporaneous with the builders of the pyramids;
though it is rather difficult to designate the precise century before
our era to which they belong, because the Egyptians made no use of
any conventional system or astronomical cyclus for their Chronology.
Mariettc's discoveries in the Serapeum at Memphis have proved
that no ApiS'cyclus (equal to 25 years) was ever known to the Egyp-
tians ^* as fonnerly believed by scholars fix)m the interpretation of a
puHHUKO in Plutarch. As to the Sothiac cyclus, it was certainly
Liiowii, but \tA use for chronology remains more than doubtful*
Thr KLCVptiunH possessed no historical era; they dated their public
ilotuiiiriitH by tiie years of each kings reign. Witb such a
nvritrm tlio h^iHt interruption of the dates vitiates all the
>.w«v*u.. M»r Nov., l8.'.r>:-ALrEiD Macet. IW* inTmu -'-
\M. h.iMM. ," Ufvu* du l)tu% M'mdeM, S*pt.. 1S5^X p^ IW^V.*.
m IH.M.MN {.ICmtifiB SteUi, HI. p. 121. JfW ) «»« »^ r«''^» 5
Ma I- l.u^ l'«'»»* ""^^'X ^"y Mtnmomicml dmt« « tW
lu,.,.»ml«»- i^r IIMT, r»^tf, Cb*P' V-
Unfortanatelj for our knowledge of Egyptian chronology,* the list
of Dynasties by Manetho has reached us only in mutilated extracts,
and the ciphers annexed to the names .of the sovereigns have evi-
dently been tampered with. They are not the same in the several
extracts of Eusebius, Syncellus, and Afiicanus ; nor do they tally
with the original hieroglyphic documents. So much, notwithstand-
ing, we can say with mathematical certainty, — now that the com-
plete chronology of the XXTEnd, or Bubastite, Dynasty has been
reconstructed by Mariette from the documents of the Serapeum at
Memphis, — that the first year of the reign of Psammeticus L,
answers to the 94th year of the era of NahonaBBar^ or to the Julian
year 654 B. C. The same series of documents places the beginning
of the reign of Tirhaka, — ally to king Ilezekiah against Senna-
cherib of Assyria, — towards 695 B. C/* But here the dates may be
already uncertain to the extent of one or two years ; and beyond
them the consecutive series of precise numerals ceases altogether.
Some further dates have been astronomically determined, but the
intermediate figures cannot be taken for more than approximate.
For the XXTEnd dynasty we obtain a synchronism, and a meatis of
rectifying chronology, through the conquest of Jerusalem by Shb-
SHONK L, which happened in the 5th year of Rehoboam, king of
Judah.*^ But even this synchronism does not yield an exact date,
inasmuch as the chronology of the Book of Kings presents some
difficulties not yet satisiGewtorily resolved.^ Accordingly, Newman
places the capture of Jerusalem in the year 950 B. C. ;^* Bunsen in
the year 962 ;** and Winer in the year 970.^ At any rate, it is certain
that king Sheshone began to reign before the middle of the tenth
century, B. C.
An astronomical £a>ct, the heliacal rising of the dog-star, under
Ramesses ILL, of the XXth dynasty, recorded in a hieroglyphical in-
scription at Thebes, defines the epoch of this king, and assigns his
place, according to the calculation of M. Biot, to the 13th century B.
C. ; or just to the same period which had been ascribed to him before
the discovery of this inscription, solely on the approximating calcula-
tion of the lists as rectified by the monuments.
* See for the following, principallj Di Rouoi's Notic€ Sommaire^ Mus^e de Loayre, p.
19 teqq.
o The Hebrew chronology makes it nearer to B. C. 710, and is scarcely reconcilable with
the Egyptian computation about this synchronism.
«*Cf. Bbugsch, ReuAtrkhte au» JEgifffUn. ko,, Berlin, 1855 — "Die Halle der Bnbas-
titen-KSnigs** at Kamac, pp. 141-4.
A NswMAV, Biaiory of thi HArtm JfofMrd^— Appendix to Chapter TV., on Chronology.
^Op,aL^. 161 and 160. « JEgypteiu SuVe, iii. p. 122.
* Bibtucki$ Wotrterbuch^ Toce Israel So likewise Sharpb, Hitiorie Notet on Ihi Bookt of
0. md N, TVoUmento, London, 1854, pp. 64, 88.
102 ' GfE K'Ri'j^L t E K A ilkV^ O^N-.- iCO^NX) tf R A P H T.
• • . • • • • • .
For the XTXth dynasty, we have seemingly again a synchronisin,
that of Moses with Ramessbs IE., and with Menephthah IL ; but it is
of little value for exact dates, because the duration of the govern-
ment of the Hebrews by their Judges is very uncertain. Biof s
astronomical calculation is more valuable, with tiie aid of which we
may establish that Seti L, fether of Eamesses the great, lived about
1600 B. C— [say 15th century B. C.]; and hence that the XVIIth
(iynasty began to reign towards the eighteenth century B. C. Never-
theless, as the Vicomte de Eoug6, (whose authority we follow in
preference to other Egyptologists, since he expresses himself most
cautiously in dealing with chronological figures, and avoids hypo-
theses) says, "it would not be astonishing if we should be here
mistaken to the extent of one or two centuries, inasmuch as the
historical documents are vitiated, and the hieroglyphical monuments
incomplete."
"Thus we have reached," continues de Roug6, "the time of the
expulsion of the Shepherds, beyond whom no certain calculation is
as yet possible from the monuments known. The texts do not agree
how' long these terrible guests occupied and ravaged Egypt, and the
monuments are silent about them. However, their domination
lasted for a long time, since several dynasties succeeded one another
before the deliverance, and that is all we know about it. Nor are
we better informed concerning the duration of the first empire, and
we have no certain means for measuring the age of those pyramids
which bear evidence of the grandeur of the first Egypt. Neverthe-
less, if we remember that the generations which built them are
separated from our era, first by the eighteen centuries of the second
empire, then by the very long period of the Asiatic invasion, and
lastly by several dynasties of numerous powerful kings, the age of
the pyramids will not lose anything of its majesty in the eyes of the
historian, although he be unable to fix it with exact precision."
It is to such an early period of the history of mankind that some
of the statues and reliefs of Egypt can now be traced back with cer-
tainty ; and even they do not present us with the rudiments of an
infantine art, but are actually specimens of the highest artistic char-
acter. Like Minerva springing forth fix)m the head of Jupiter, a
full-grown armed virgin. Art in Egypt appears, in the very earliest
monuments, fully developed, — archaic in some respects, but not at
all barbarous.
Through the kindness of MM. de Roug€, Mariette, Dev^ria, and
Salzmann, and of Chev. Lepsius at Berlin, and their regard for Mr.
Gliddon, we are enabled to publish a series of royal and princely
effigies of the first or Old Empire, carefully copied, often vhotographi-
6KNEKAL REMARKS QN ICONOGRAPHY. 103
cftlly, from these original statues and reliefe at the Louvre and other
Museums. They are the earliest monuments of human art known
to us; being portraits of the Egyptian aristocracy at a time preceding
Abraham by many centuries. They enable us to form a correct idea
of Egyptian art in its first phasis, before it became fettered by a
traditionary hieratic type. In an ethnological respect, they give ub
the true features of the original Egyptians : and it is very remarkable
that many statues and relieft, later by more than two thousand
years, bear exactly the same character; that, again, two thousand
years subsequently have not changed the national type, — the FellAh
(peasant) of the present day resembling his ancestors of fifty cen-
turies ago, viz : the builders of the pyramids, so closely, that his
Nilotic pedigree never can be seriously questioned henceforward.
The character of the Egyptian race is most distinctly expressed
upon its monuments throughout all the phases of its history ; and
these sculptures of the IVth dynasty differ from those of later ages
merely in details, not in spirit. Ernest Benan, the great Shemitic
philologue, describes that character in the following words :
"The earliest [Cushite and Hamitic] civilizations stamped with a
character peculiarly materialistic; the religious and poetical instincts
little developed ; the artistical feeling rather weak ; but the senti-
ment of elegance very refined ; a great aptitude for handicraft, and
for mathematical and astronomical sciences; literature practically
exact, but without idealism; the mind positive, bent on business,
wel£eu-e, and the pleasures ; neither public spirit nor political life ;
on the contrary, a most elaborate civil administration, such as Euro-
pean nations never became acquainted with, until the Roman epoch,
and in our modem times." *^
The Egyptians were eminently a practical people, of so little
imagination, that in religion they conceived no heroic mythologj-.
Wliilflt their gods were personified abstractions, all of them, with
he only exception of the Osirian group, stand without life or history.
ji literature the Egyptians never rose above dry historical annals,
"eligious hymns, proverbial precepts, poetical panegyrics, and liturgi-
cal compositions. Epic and dramatic poetry was feeble,*® romance
* Butoir$ €i SyMtime eompart da liongua SimiHguet, Paris, 1855 ; le. partie, p. 474.
* The pablication of M. di Rouai's critical translAtion of the Sallier Papyrus, oontaininp;
he poetic redtal of the Wan of Ramses, 14th century, B. C, against the Asiatic Sheta, or
CWe (reoentlj read to the Imperial Institute), wiU proTc that the metrical style of these
igjptimn eantielee freqnentlj resembles Hebrew psalmodj. Meanwhile, see some brief
pecJianpi of hierogljphioa] poetry in Biboh, Oryttal Palaa Catalogue^ Egypt^ 1856 ; pp.
8
34 GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY.
Lmple/® pliilosopliical speculation tame,* whilst critical history seems
o have been unknown to them. Induction teaches us that the art
>-£ such a race must be analogous ; truthful, but narrow ; practical,
>iit of no high pretensions ; and indeed we find, upon close observa-
tion, that it displays very little variety in its forms; but within its
Giarrow range it is distinguished, however, by the utmost fidelity and
truthfulness. Ideal heroic types are entirely foreign to Egyptian art;
we find scarcely any scenes purely mythological^ in the abstract sense
of the term (that is, as admired in Hellenic and Etruscan art), among
their numerous reliefs or paintings; the representations of godhead
and subordinate divinities being always brought into connexion with
sacrifices and oblations, which almost seem to have been the only
object of the nation's religion. The king, his pomp, processions,
and battles, and the individual life, daily occupations, sports and
pastimes of the Egyptians, remain the fiEivourite subjects of the
artists who, for more than two thousand years of routine, constantly
returned to that source, without ever exhausting it, always marking
their composition with the stamp of truth, and preserving the great-
est regard for individuality. Accordingly, the statues, whenever
they represent men, and not gods, are portraits intended to give
the real, and not the embellished and idealized features of the men
represented. But, whilst we meet with the greatest variety in
respect to the faces, the posture of the statues remains altogether
stereotyped during all the times of Egyptian history.
Statuary had, in the valley of the Nile, very few forms of expres-
sion ; about six or seven, which were repeated over and over again,
all of them of the most rigid symmetry, without any movement. No
pasHion ever enlivened the earnest features, no emotion of the soul
disturbed the decent composure and archaic dignity imparted by the
Egyptian sculptor. "No warrior was sculptured in the various atti-
tudes of attack and defence ; no wrestler, no discobolus, no pugilist
exhibited the gi-ace, the vigour, the muscular action of a man; nor
<• As a Rnmpio, see Dk Rough's Frenoh rendering of a hieratio paypros which preienti
)iiindry cnrions analogies with the story of Joseph. — Revui ArMologiqut, 1852; yoL iz.,
pp. 885-97.
M To Judfice, that is, by the " Book of the Dead," (Lipsnrs, Todtenbuch dtr Mgyjpur nccA
<i%m IlieroglyphUehen Papyrut in Tuririy Leipsig, 4to, 1842) eras Bruosoh {St^ttn-Smim, mm
lAher Uitemptyehotis veterum ^gypliorum^ Berlin, 4to, 1851, p. 42) restores ChampoQioii*!
namo for it, the "Funereal Ritual," — wherein, amid the recondite puerilitiee of a oeloBtbl
L/idgi^ with its ordealf, quaint pass-words, and ministering demons, it is OYident thmt w
Kicyptian's idea of a ** Future State" in HeaTen neyer soared aboTe aspirations for a npe-
litioii of liiH terrestrial life in Egypt itself I Be it noted here that M. de Rongfi baa ftmad
the chapter ** On life after death" on a monument of the Xllth dynasty ; thereby aataUish-
\\i% the exiHteiico of large portions of thin Ritual in ante-Abrfthamio days.
GENERAL REMARKS OK IG0K06RAPHY. 105
w^ere the beauties, the feeling, and the elegance of female forms dis-
played in stone: all was made to conform to the same invariable
model, which confined the human figure to a few conventional
postures.""
Of groups they knew only two, both of them most characteristic.
Sometimes it is the husband with the wife, seated on the same chair
on terms of perfect equality, holding one another's hand, or putting
their arms round one another's waist, in sign of matrimonial happi-
ness, evidently founded upon monogamy and perfect social equality
between the sexes.^ Sometimes again it is the husband, in his
character of the head of the family, quietly sitting on a chair, accom-
panied by the standing figures of his wife and children, sculptured
as accessories, and considerably smaller in size than the husband
and father.
As to the single statues, they are either standing erect, the arms
hanging down to the thighs in a straight line (though occasionally
the right hand holding a sceptre, whip, or other tool, is raised to the
chest), the left foot always stepping forward ; or the figure is seated,
with the hands resting on the loiees, or held across the breast.
Another attitude is that of a person kneeling on the ground, and
holding the shrine of some deity before him. The representation of
a man squatting on the ground and resting his arms upon his knees,
which are drawn up to his chin, is the most clumsy of the Egyptian
forms, if the most natural posture to the race, being perpetuated to
this day by the Fellaheen when resting themselves ; whilst the statues
in a crouching position are the most graceful for their natural naivete.
If we add to these few varieties of positions the stone coflS.ns, imita-
ting the mummy lying on its back, and swaddled in its clothes, we
have exhausted all the forms of Egyptian statuary. Specimens of
these six attitudes, all of them equally rigid and symmetrical, being
found among the earliest monuments of the empire from the IVth
to the X I nth dynasty, it cannot be doubted that Egyptian statuary
added no new form to their primitive sculptural types during the
long lapse of nearly thirty centuries, which wrought certainly some
variety into the details, but not upon the forms. In fact, the statue
** Sir J. Oardnbs WiuciHBOif, Popular aeemint of the ancient Egyptiane^ II. 272. There
^^ some partial exceptions to the rigor of this role, snch as the * 'Wrestlers at Benihassan/'
^^ '* Mnsieiaiis at Tel-el-amama," "Ramesses playing chess at Medeenct-Haboo," the
**>&« monarch "spearing the Scythian chief* at Aboosimbel, an occasional group in grand
^^^^o-tableaax, Tarious scenes of negro eaptiTes, &e. ; but they appear to be accidental,
^ P^vlMps instinctrfe, efforts of indiridnal artists to escape from the conyentional trammels
'^'^^'^libed by theoeratio art In the fofio plates of Rosellini, Champollion, Cailleaud, PHpse,
^"^ I^epsiiiB— eepecially the last two authorities — snch instances may be found.
* ^itm, IL 224.
106 GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY.
was in Egypt never emancipated from architecture." It was sculp-
tured for a certain and determinate place, always in connection with
a temple, palace, or sepulchre, of which it became a subservient
ornamental portion, an architectural member as it were, like the pair
of obelisks placed ever in front of the propyleia, or the columns sup-
porting a pronaos. This poverty of forms, and their constantly
recurring monotony, make the inspection of large Egyptian collec-
tions as tiresome to the great bulk of visitors, as the review of a
Russian regiment is to the civilian ; one figure resembles the other,
and only the closer investigation of an experienced eye descries a
difterence of style and individuality.
The bas-reliefe were not, for the Egyptians, so much independent
works of art, as architectural ornaments, and means for conveying
knowledge, answering often the purpose of a kind of vignettes or
illustrations of hieroglyphical inscriptions. They record always some
defined, historical, religious, or domestic scene, without pretension
to any allegorical double-meaning, or esoteric symbolism. Beauty
remained with their hierogrammatic artists less important than dii
tinctness, the correctness of drawing being sacrificed to convention-
alisms of hieratic style ; but, on the other hand, a general truthful-
ness of the representation was peculiarly aimed at. The unnaturaV
mannerism of the Egyptian bas-relief manifests itself principally i»
the too high position of the ear,** and in representing the eye ImA
chest as in front view, whilst the head and lower part of the body are
drawn in profile.®* Nevertheless, this constant mannerism and many
occasional incorrectnesses are blended with the most minute appre-
ciation of individual and national character. It is impossible not at
once to recognize the portraits of the kings upon their different
•monuments; and we alight on reliefs where some of the figures are
so carelessly drawn as to present two right or two left; hands to the
spectator, yet combined with such characteristic e&gieQ of negroes, of
Shemites, of Assyrians, of Nubians, &c., that they remain superior to
the representations of human races by the Greeks and Komans.
This general truthfulness applies to Egyptian art ftx)m the very first
dawn of history, throughout all the subsequent periods, down to the
time of the Roman conquest. But whilst the principal features of
art remained stationary, the eye of the art-student finds many
changes in details, and these constitute the history of Egyptian art
u Of. Wilkinson, ArchUeeiurt of tht Ancient Egypiiant^ London, 1858.
M MoBTON, Cran^^gypi., Philad., 1844, pp. 26-7 ; and ^inedited MSS." in Type$ of Man-
kind, p. 818:— Prunbb, Die Ueberhleibtel der Altdgypti$hchenMmi€henra^eM^<ihwkflH4^,p,^,
v For a ludicrous example, see the ** 37 Prisoners at Bcnihassan,'* in Robiluki, M. R.
XXVI— VIII ; of the remote age of the Xllth dynasty.
CEXEKAL REMAHKS OX ICONOGRAPHT.
107
Fig. 7.
Tho proiK>rtion8 of the etatues m the time of the Old Plmpire [say
:^&oin the 35th century b. c, down to the 20th,"] are ahort and heavy ;
*ihe figTires look, therefore, somewhat awkward; but, on the whole,
•they are conceived with conaidepable fcoling of truth, and executed
-*«^itli the endeavour to obtain anatomical correctness. The principal
:forni8 of the body, and even its details, the skull, the muscles of the
^jhest and of the knees, are nearly always correctly sculptured in close
■fcut not servile imitation of nature. The shape of the eye ia not yot
♦lisfigured by a conventional frame, nor is the ear put too high ; but
the fingers aud toes evidently offered the greatest difficuItioB to the
■primeval Egyptian artists. They commonly failed to form them
correctly; the simplicity and exactitude displayed in sculpturing the
face and hody scarcely ever extended to the hands and feet, which
are binnt and awkward.
The earliest of all the statues now extant in the world, as far an
we know, is the efBgy of Kam-tun, or Homten, a "royal kinsman"
of the TTTd dynasty, found in his tomb at Abooseer, and now in tJie
Berlin Museum. The following wood-cut [7] is a feithiiil redaction of
this statue's head, characterized by a
good-natured expression, without any
mannerism or conventional type about
tlie features ; the eye is correctly, and
the mouth naturally drawn ; not yet
timted into the stereotyped unmean-
ing emile of the later periods.
It IB interesting to compare the
/lead of tills statue with the low-relief
r>ortrflit [8] of the same prince from the
axm^nie tomb, in order -to perceive the
3 » fference between the artistic con-
(-^ajtion of a statue and of a relief
i ■«=* Egypt. The relief portrait is evi- Kah-ten, Stai«e
" At imrioail; itnted, in the present impossibilit? of HCtBining. for times anterior to the
3C Vilth dynMty, %aj precise ohromilDg;. we ehnll make ase berein of the Tagne term een-
tarria, «hen tresting on exenta ftoterior to the age of Solomoo, taken at B. C. 1000. The
EiTimeriul sTctem of Chev. Lbpsxcs furnishes the sosie preforred bj us. which is dcflned in
7VP« of ManJHnd, p. 69!!. His arrani^cmEnt of E^jptian djnflstieB maj be cnnaolted in
Brit/i m Mgyplrn, ^(hiopim vn/t drr Balbintel da Siaai, Beriin, 1S62, pp. 361-9: of
vbicb the elegntit English tnnsUiion bj the Misses Hoknih (Boha'a Libnr?, 1B63) coatainE
tbe Wter emendntinns of this leiirned Eg^Inlogiat.
** Commonioated in lilhoijraph hj Chev. Lepaiua to Mr. GTiddon; together with oar sub-
•tqnMt Noi, B, 0. 10, and other bends that space preolndes as fVora inserting ; but for the
UBpOTl»nt use of all •hich. in these iconop-nphio Bad othnologieal studies, wb bog to tender
I to thf Cheralicr our joint arVnoirledginenta.
108
OENEBAL BEXARKS ON ICON
Fig. 8.
deutly more conventioDaL It is not a free artiatical imitation of
natnre, Hio hand of the Bcnlptor boiog
fettered hy traditioDaty rales. This
coDTentioQalisiu of the reliefs not
heing applicahle to stataos, is an evi-
dence that sculpture in Egypt began
with the relief, which again grew out
of the simple outline. The pnncipal
difference between the two portraits
is, that the eye is not fore-shortened
in the relief, whilst the lips are
too long; still, the peculiar raising
of the angles of the mouth is not
conventional in the first period of
Egyptian art
The red granite statue of prince
Bbt-ues, [9] in the British Museum,
(No. 60, A,) an officer of State,
"king's relation," of the same
period, displays a similar artistical
character; clumsy proportions, but
a close observation of nature,
without any tendency to embellish
or to idealize. It is, what it was
intended to be, a faithful portrait.
The homely relief-head [10] of an-
other "royal relative," £y-meri, of
the IVth dynasty, from the Berlin
Museum, possesses such a striking
individuality of character that, in
spite of the conventional repre-
sentation of the eye, we cannot
doubt for a moment its resem-
blance to this royal kinsman
of king CheopB-ScpHis, whope
tomb is the great pyramid of
Oeezeh.
"We now have the pleasure of
snbmitting to the reader, in a
series of lithographic plates, por-
traits as yet unique in the history
of Art, which for antiquity, int«-
rost, beauty, and rareness, nurpass everything hitherto known.
GENERAL REMARKS OX ICONOGRAPHY. 109
Particnlars concerning the oniivalled and still-inedited discoveries,^
luring the years 1851-54 at Memphis, of M. Auguste Mariettb,
low one of the Conservateurs of the Louvre Museum, are supplied
•y our collaborator Mr. Gliddon [^Chapter V. infra]. With that
rank liberality which is so honorable to scientific men, MM. db
louaf , Mariettb, and Dbv^ria, not merely permitted Mrs. Gliddon
0 copy whatever, in that gorgeous Museum, might become available
0 the present work ; but the last-named Egyptologist kindly pre-
ented her husband with the photographic originals (taken by M.
)everia himself fix)m these scarcely-unpacked statues, — ^May, 1855,)
rem which our copies have been transferred directly to the stone,
v'ithout alteration in any perceptible respect. In these complaisant
iicilities, the very distinguished photographer of Jerusalem, M. Aug.
>ALZMANN, also voluntccred his skilful aid ; and we reproduce [see
^l. n.] the facsimile profile of the " Scribe," due to his accurate
nstrument Not to be outdone in generosity towards their trans-
atlantic colleague, Chev, Lepsius, who had just been surveying these
' nouveautes archeologiques" at the Louvre, subsequently forwarded
rom Berlin, to Mr. Gliddon in London, a complete series of archaic
Egyptian portraits, drawn on stone also from photographs, which
Deluded likewise copies of those already obtained from M. Mari-
tte's Memphite collection. Such are some of those irrequitable
avors through which we are enabled to be the first in laying docu-
aents so precious before fellow-students of ethnology. Their power-
ul bearing upon the question of permanence of type in Egypt during
iOOO years, — upon that of the effects of amalgamation among dis-
inct types, in elucidation of the physiological law that the autoch-
honouB majority invariably^ in timcy absorbs and effaces the foreign
ninority ; and as supplying long-deficient criteria whereby to analyze
ind compare the ethnic elements of less historical nations than the
Egyptians, — these interesting points fidl especially within the pro-
duce of Dr. Nott ; and he has discussed them in Ms Prefatory Re-
narks to this volume.
With these brief indications, we proceed to test our theory of the
)rinciples that characterize the Art of different nationalities ; calling
o mind, with regard to these most antique specimens of all statuary,
hat, until their arrival at Paris in the autumn of 1854, it had
«arcely been suspected that the primordial Egyptians attained the
\xt of making statues " ronde-bosse** much before the Xllth dynasty
about 2200 b. c.]. The authors of " Types of Mankind," in their
wide investigation of iconographic data, were unable to produce any
Silotic sculpture more ancient than bas-reliefs.^ Exceptional doubts,
« Op. cU., pp. 241-8, PI L— IV.
110 6ENEBAL REMARKS ON tCONOGRAPHT.
*to tbis current opinion on the relative modemness of Eg>i>tia
statuary, were then entertained chiefly by Mr. Birch — who ha
abeady classified, as appertaining to the Old Empire, various archai
fragments in the British Museum, — ^by Chev. Lepsius, when pubUsl
ing a few mutilated statues among the early dynasties of the Den)
mdlerj — and by the Vicomte de Eong6, who wrote in 1862 ;* " Tro
statues de la galerie du Louvre (nos. 86, 87, 88) pr^entent un exce
lent specimen de la sculpture de ces premiers Sges. Dans ces mo
ceaux, uniques Jusqu'ioi et par consequent inestimables, le type d(
liommes a quelque chose de plus trapu et de plus rude ; la pose ei
d'une grande simplicity; quelques parties rendent la nature av(
v4rit6 ; mais Ton sent iijk qu'une loi hi^ratique a r^gU les attitud<
et va ravir aux artistes une partie pr^cieuse de leur liberty."
It must, therefore, be gratifying to the authors of the precursoi
volume to the present, to find their doctrine, "that the primiti^
Egyptians were nothing more nor less than — EGYPTIANS,"** e
incontestably confirmed by a group of statues which did not reac
Paris for six montiis after the publication of their researches ; an
we may now rejoice with those archseologists, whose acumen ha
already foreshadowed the discovery of beautiful statuary belongin
to the early days of the pyramids, that, henceforward, the series c
Egyptian art continues, in an unbroken chain, fix)m the 86th centui
B. C. down to long after the Christian era.
Prince Sepa [^Plate lEL, Jig. 1], and his wife Nas, or Nesa, {Jig. 2
are the first we shall examine among these statues of the Louvre
from Lcpsius's copy. They are likewise somewhat clumsy as regarc
the general proportions; but parts of the body, for instance th
knees, are sculptured with an anatomical correctness superior t
that of the monuments of the great Ramses. The statue of Suemk
{Plate IV.] " superintendent of the royal domains" (IVth or \nt
dynasty), seated between the small-sized standing figures of princet
Ata, his wife, and their son Eitem, is an excellent illustration o
incipient elongation together with greater elegance of the artistici
canon. In spite of the awkward composition, it attracts our attei
tion powerfully, since the face teems with life and individuality
whilst the forms are correct in the main, but lamentably stump
and clumsy about the hands and feet [See Plate V, fig. 2.]
The head of a Priest^ Pher-nefeb, or Pahoo-er-nefer {Plate "V
fig. 1 ], " Superintendent of the timber-cutters and of agriculture,
found together with Shemka in the same sepulchre, is uncommon]
*• Sotiet dtt MomummU expotU dam la galerit d*antiqmt4t igfpiimnm (SaiUdu rtM-de-dkn
9de), ttu Mu»i€ du Louvre^ PariB, IS^, pp. 7-S.
• Typtt of Mankind, p. 245.
GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. Ill
well moulded; but the crouching statuette of a "Scribe," — cele-
brated at the Louvre as "le petit bonhomme" — is the crowning
masterpiece of primitive art revealed through Mariette's exhuma-
tions. It is fix)m this venerable tomb of the Vth dynasty, 5000
years old, which the later constructors, (above 2000 years ago,) of the
ancient Avenue of Sphinxes leading to the Memphite Serapeum had
cut through and walled-up again. The material is white limestone,
colored red ; which even to its trifling abrasions is reproduced as a
most appropriate fix)ntispiece to this work [_Plate L], The profile
view IPlate EL, fig. 1] exhibits the excellence of its workmanship,
uo less than the purest type of an ancient Egyptian. Beneath it
[fig. 2], Mr. Gliddon has repeated the same head, with the sole
addition of the moustache and short beard, and the mutation of the
bead-dress into the quilted-cotton skull-cap of the modem peasantry ;
and thus we behold the perfect preservation of a typical form of man
through 5000 years of time, in the jGamiliar effigy of a living Felidh !
" We are not redaced to mere conjectures, " comments the Conservator of the Imperial
LoQTre Museum, ** concerning the figure of the crouching Scribe, placed in the middle of
the hall (SalU dviU.)^ It was found in the tomb of Skhkm-k^ with' the figures collected
together in the hall of the most ancient monuments (StUle dtt Monuments.) It appertains,
therefore, to the Vth or the Vlth dynas^. The figure, so to say, is speaking : this look
which amazes was obtained by a Tery ingenious combination. In a piece of opaque white
quartz is encrusted a pupil of yery transparent rock-crystal, in the centre of which is
planted a little metallic balL The whole eye is fixed in a bronze leaf which answers for
both eyelids. The sand had yery happily preserved the color of all the figures in this tomb.
The movement of the knees and the slope of the loins are above all remarkable for their
correctness . all the traits of the face are strongly stamped with individuality ; it is evident
that this statuette was a portrait"
These, with the beautiful head of another Egyptian, long m the
Louvre, but unclassed until 1854, [Plate VI.]® of perhaps the same
period, exceed in artistic interest all the monuments of the Nile-val-
ley ; and the speaking expression of their countenances invariably
catches the eye of every visitor of the Egyptian Gallery at Paris.
Xot that they approach ideal sculptured beauty, such as we are
accustomed to meet with in Greek statuary ; on the contrary, there
ifl not a spark of ideality in either of the two representations ; their
^ Db Rouoi, Notice Sommtnre dtM Monumfn$ igyptiem expotia daru let ffaleriet du Musie du
Lourre, Parii*, 18mo., 1855, p. 66. One farther observation, instead of being any way em-
bellished in our PlaU I., our copy, obtained through the heliotype, is defective in the legs;
which, projecting in advance of Uie upper part of the body, are heavier and less propor-
tionate than in the stone original ; but possessing no measurements for their reduction, we
have not felt at liberty to deviate fh>m M. Dev^ria's photograph.
*> The following is M. DsviBiA's note on this gem of antique art: — ** Busts provennnt
<rane statue de Tancien art memphite, contemporaine des pyramides. Pierre calcaire, pcin-
tare rouge, grandeur naturelle." Paris, Louvre Museum, 80th May, 1855.
112 GENERAL REMARKS OK IGONOGRAPUT.
type is neither grand nor handsome ; but they are truthful and most
lively portraits of Egyptians] stamped with such a striking individu-
ality, as to leave the impression that they must have resembled their
originals, notwithstanding that the imitation of nature is with them
not at all painfully scrupulous, and rather evinces considerable
artistical tact in the execution. The correctness of the position of
the ear in these early Egyptian monuments is peculiarly interesting,
since it confirms the observation of Dr. Morton, before alluded to,
that its misplacement on the later and more ordinary monuments is
not founded upon strict imitation of nature, but that it belongs alto-
gether to conventional hieratic mannerism.
The relief portrait of king Mek-ka-her, of the Vth dynasty {Plate
Vli.) — [say, about 80 centuries B. c] certainly deserves a place of
honor as tiie earliest royal effigy in existence, not mutilated in its
features.® It was found, 1861-4, by M. Mariette, on the lower side
of a square calcareous stone employed by later hands in a construe
tion of the XlXth Dynasty [14th century b. c] in the Serapeium of
Memphis. The stone belonged originally to a different monument,
probably destroyed by the Hyksos, the ruins of which were thus
adopted for building materials by a posterior and irreverent age, —
just as Mchemet Ali and his femily have destroyed Pharaonic and
Ptolemaic temples for the construction of barracks and factories, out
of stones inscribed with the signs of a much higher civilization than
that of Egypt's present rulers.^ It is remarkable that the ear of
Men-ka-her is placed too high on this relief, whereas on the relief of
the "royal daughter" Heta (IVth Dynasty), lithographed by Lep-
sius for the DenkmUleVy it is entirely correct
The greatest pains have been taken to present a coTvect fac-simile
of this ante-Abrahamic Pharaoh's beautiful fiice. The original was
stamped, drawn, and colored at the Louvre, by Mrs. Gliddon ; and
the shade of paper on which it is lithographed, is intended to resemble
that of the stone, which has been divested of its pristine colors.
Under the Xllth Dynasty [b. c. 22 centuries] the expression of
statues becomes peculiarly refined, and the short and clumsy propor-
tions are more elongated. "It seems," says De Iloug6,^ "that in
the course of centuries the race has become thinner and taller, under
the influence of climate," — or perhaps by the infusion of foreign
<s Those of Shupho and others at Wadee Mag^Lra are rather effigies than likenesses, and
are too abraded to be relied on.
•< Gliddon, Appeal to the antiquarm ofEuropt on the dettruetion of the monumentt of Egypt,
London, 1841:— Prissb d'Avbnnbb, ColUcliont d'Antiguitie igyptimnet au Kaire^ ReTne Ar-
oh^ologiqne, 15 Mars, 1846.
• Notice Son., p. 24:— -Id., Rapport tur let Coll, igyptiennee en Europe^ 1861, p 14.
GKKERAL REMARKS OK ICONOGRAPHY. 118
(hemitic blood, suggests the ethnologist. I do not dare to decide
liis question, but I simply state the feet, that not only in Egypt but
ikewise in Greece, and later again at Constantinople, the archaic
^^presentations were positively shorter; and that each successive
anon of art extended the legs as well as all the lower parts of the
)ody in relation to the upper ones. Thus the Selinuntian reliefs are
horter than the statues of ^gina ; which again are shorter than the
anon of Polycletes ; whilst the canon of Lysippus is still longer.*
The barbarous figures upon the triumphal arch of Constantine are so
hort that they resemble dwarfi ; at the same time that the human
)ody under Justinian and his successors becomes, on the reliefs, by
ull one-eighth too long.
C!ontemporaneou8ly with the more elegant proportions of the sta-
ues of the TTTTth Dynasty, the column makes its appearance in
Sgyptian architecture. In the hypogea of Beni-Hassan we behold
jven the prototype of the fluted Doric column.'^ The bas-reliefe of
his Dynasty are more beautifully and delicately carved than they
5ver were at other dates in Egypt ; the movement of the figures is so
ruthful, and, in spite of the conventional formation of the eye, chest,
md ear, so artistically conceived, that we are led to expect much
nore from the progressive development of Egyptian art than it really
iccomplished. The glorious dawn was not followed by the bright
lay it promised. Art culminated under Sesortasen L [22 cent. B. c],
he splendid leg of whose granite statue is at Berlin. It was delicate
ind refined, but the feeling of ideal beauty remained unknown to the
Egyptian race, and the freedom of movement in the reliefs was never
Tansferred to the statues, nor did the relief become emancipated
^m the thraldom of hieratic conventionalism in the details of the
luman body. The development of art ever continued to be imperfect
ind unfinished in the valley of the Nile.
There are but very few statues of this period (Xllth Dynasty)
extant in the collections of Europe ; monuments closely preceding
the invasion of the Hyksos, and therefore more exposed to their
ravages, belong to the rarest specimens of Egyptian art The
medited) head of prince Amenbmha, [11] governor of the west of
Egypt, in the time of the XUth Dynasty, copied from his dark-basalt
statue in the British Museum, and the portrait of king Nbfer-Hetbp
L, of the Xinth Dynasty [Plate Vm, fig. 2, from the Denkmdler\
may give those interested in these minute comparisons an idea of the
beauty and delicacy of that period, whilst with Amenemha even the
* See prineipallj K. 0. Mitlliii, Handhueh der Arehaclogie^ { 92-4, 96, 99, and 822 ; and
Pinrr, Hittar, Nat,, xxxir. 19, 206.
* Lmirs, CofonneM^Nfrt m igypft, AnnaL de I'lnst Arch^oL, Rome, 1888.
8
114 GBNEKAL BEHARKS ON ICONOGHAPBT.
toee are artistically represeated. King Kbfjbb-Hetbp's ear, however,
is placed too high, the earlieBt inKtance
^^^^" of such an abaonuitj in an Egyptian
statue.
The inTasion of the nomad Hyksoa,
between theXQIth andXVIIth Dynaa-
ties, whether Arab and Phoenician She-
mites, as commonly believed, or pertiapa
Turanians (Scythians, Torkomans), sb
we might guess from the fact that Hhey
were a people of horsemen," intermpted
the development of Egyptian art and
AMtntHBA—Situif civilization for several centuries. Their
reign is marked by destruction andruine,
not by works of art or of public utility ; still their irruption benefited
the valley of the Nile through their introduction of the most impor-
tant of all auxiliary domesticated animals, the horse, unknown to
primeval Arabia, and to Egypt previously to the Hyksoa, but appear
ing on the reliefs of the Dynasty which overcame the invadera.
The XVIIth Dynasty of Aahues™ and his saccessors snapped the
foreign yoke asunder, and expelled the nomades. Art revived agun.
The restoration in public life was as thorough-going as that of France
under the Bourbons ; the reign of the foreign intruders was altogether
ignored, and scarcely mentioned in the records but for ita overthrow.
In their canons '^ of art, this New Empire tried to imitate the style
of the Xllth and Xlllth Dynasty; but the spirit which manii^sts
itaelf on the monumcuta of the XVIIth Dynas^ is different from
that of the earlier periods. Instead of the refined elegance which
reigned under the Seeortasens, we encounter more grandeur in the
New Empire, — somcwliat incorrect and conventional, and Icbb atten-
tive to nature than in the earlier monuments, but always impreamve.
During the victorious period between TeoTMOsis I. and Be;(8n-Atbn,
OPiCEERiNO, T/ii Ham 0/ Mtn, ToL iz. of the U. 8. Sxplor. Szped., 1848. "On (&•
inlrodurtd ftants kn'i aniinBi<i of Egypt:" — Qliddon, Otia JBgypliaea, London, 1849, p. SO.
** The Uyk'ioi are bef^nning, at Ikit, to «m«T^ from historiMl darlcnesg. *■ La leetnn
du pap}TU3 No. I do 1b collection Sallier ■ rjT^U demisriment ft M. do RoDgf nnc dai mca-
cioDS longlcmps ohcrch^es. Tjo pitp;niB a'ast trouTJ itre on frngment d'ane histoira de h
^erre entreprise par le roi de 1& Tliibilde aontre le to! puttour Apapi. Celte gtiem wr Va-
minn sous AmosU (Aahius), le monarqae EnJTant, par I'cipuUion dea Ctrmngm,'
I Alfebd Macat, Rtout da Dtux Monitt, BepL 1865, p. 1063}.
*> I QM Ihe term "eknoii," in the mnBi adopted bj Lipfiiui (Aimeah}, Lefprig, foL 19H
— Plate " Cnnon der ^gjpUsohen Proportionen "], and eince so welt elnedfled into thrM
rpo«hM of artiitio Tariation In the DmimSltr; — by BlBCH {Qalltry 0/ Anlijmtiti tdiatl
from ihr Sriitth Muttum, Part 11. . F1. SS, p. 81 ; ) — and by Bonomi, on the eaaon «r Titn-
vios Follia {TAt Pnparlioiu e/ iht Human Pifirt, London, 8to., 1860).
Men -ka -her V" Dynas^.
(IjQuvre Museum)
116
GENERAL REHABES ON ICONOQBAPBT.
PifT. 16
style, has iailed to reprodace the harmonioiu delioac; of the orj^imls.
They can be consulted in the DenkmSUr.'^
BeBides these four royal heada none is more interesting for the
ethnologist than afifth (PlateYJIl.fig.
1], not only for the beautiful carvinfr
of the ezpressiTe features of the
Queen-mother of that Dynasty, but
peculiarly because it proves with bow-
little foundation ITofbs-Abi has been
taken for a negro princess ! She wae
always recorded with great veneration
by her descendants, and often por-
trayed by them in company with
king Aahubs, the fonnder of the
Dynasty and liberator of Egypt, and
in many of those reliefi her face is
colored black,* owing to some reason
unknown to ue ; her features, however,
as well in reliefe as in statues, belong
to that " Caneasian" claas termed ghemitic. In the reign of the
heretic Bb3cbh-Aten, Akhenaten, the monotheistic worshipper of
the sun's disk — whom some imagine to be Joseph's Pharaoh. — art
is BtUl more individual and charaeterielie, — so much so, as to border
on caricature and ugliness ; for instance, in the portrait of the king
himself;^ [16] of whom a most beautilnl statuette adorns the Salle
hittorique du Louvre.
^ Also, from Robellini's copies, in J\/pii of Mankind, pp. 115-£1.
** Thos for Instsnoe in OsBraH, Mnumtntal hiilorg of Egypt, II., Frontispiece — reJiMMl
Brom LiPBltrg. DmImSUr aui jEffSpttn, Abth. III., B1. 1,
[Compare her likeneu in T^pit of Mankind, p. 134, flg. S8 : Knd p. 14G. ^%. 46: with
note Vi'i, p. 718, Nkstok L'H6tr hu aomevhera co^jeotiired, that, when this Bscrrd
queen is painted blaok, she appears after death in the character of " Isis fanU^re" — Ggnra-
liTu nrhernetherworldeBpoasal bjtha blnek Osiris, lord of Hades: aod thia idea, of a
■■ black leia," was perpetuated, until lost centary, throngh our European middla-agwi, in the
many basaltic etata«B of that godd«sa, represented anokling the new-bom Home, imported
from Egypt at great cost, which anpsratition consecrated in many Continental chnrobes as
images of the Uack Virf^n and her Son. Cf. Macit'b Ltgmdii pituttt du Moj/m-lgf,
Paris, 1S4S, p. RS, note 2: and Millih.— 0. R. G.]
o TiipttBf Mankind, p. 147, flg. 66; pp. 170-2 1 and notes Nos. 161, 198-7.
[Horo reoMtt reHtorches, here again, are remoTiiig tome of the nnaeconntable embarrast*
menti which the ntraage petsonage, in bis name, epoch, and physiological peeoliarities, ha*
ooeasioned, for 2fi years (L'HSti, ItUm hrita itgypit m 1838 H 1889, Paria, IB40; pp.
68-78], among Egyptologists. It now leems certain, Ist. (BRcaiCH, RtiMihenAtt, p. 188;
— Haubt, Revue del Daa Mmdn, Sept., 1865, p. iOe&:—MAVJrm, BulltUn AreHehgigut
di FAtketiaum Fran^ait, Jnne, 1866, pp. 66-67), that, instead of BtKit-alrn, hia nam«
ahoold b« read Akhmaltn; through which melioration be b«oonei asaimilated tothefwa
1, poarible, that Ui "anomalona faatoTM," ta "Son
GENERAL REMARKS ON IG0N06RAFHT. 117
Under the long reign of the great conqueror Ramesses JL, the
lesostris of the Greeks, as well as under his successor Menephtah,
L (possibly, as Lepsius considers, the Pharaoh of the Exodus), there
3 a considerable falling off from the accomplished forms of the pre-
eding periods. Egyptian artists now indulge merely in external
Tandeur, whilst expression and individuality are neglected. The
iste for colossal statuary of enormous size, which always announces
n inroad of barbarism into art, prevails in the time of the great
Conqueror. The artist no longer aims to create satis&ction, but
nly to excite wonder in the heart of a spectator. The overcoming
f mechanical difficulties becomes his highest goal ; — a certain sign
hat engineer*s work is more appreciated by the people than artistic
iierit. It is remarkable that the deterioration of style, which thence-
orward continues for many centuries, appears just under the reign
){ Ramesses n., who brought Egypt into close contact with Asiatic
lations through matrimonial alliances** and by conquest: in confirm-
ation of which Asiatic infiltration, we perceive that, about his
ime, several words, avowedly Shemitic, were introduced into the
)ody of the Egyptian language,^* and Asiatic divinities were im-
)orted into the Egyptian pantheon; thus for instance Atesh, or
inaiha, the goddess of love, adored on the banks of the Euphrates,
lad temples dedicated to her at Thebes;'* Baal entered into Ni-
otic theognosy; Astarte soon after had a Phoenician temple at
Memphis ; the goddess Kloun-tj with her companion Renpoj appears
m steles."" But this intercourse with foreign nations, and phara-
)nic domination over a portion of Asia, exercised no good influence
ind I designated them, in Typei, proceed from emasculation ; otherwise, that^ at some period
»f his adult age, he became (not Tolnntarily like Obiqin, who was imbued with Matthew
dz. 12) an Eunuch; which probable ciroomstance woold also explain the condign Ten-
;eance wreaked by him on the god Amon and its votaries, to whom he doubtless owed bis
reble roice. My own experiences daring 28 years in the Levant entirely corroborate the
lew taken (loc. cit.) by Marietter —
" Noos avons, de notre temps mdme, quelques exemples de ces alliances. Dans ce cm,
es infortnn^s que la ciyilisation mnsulmane admet dans son sein & de si r^voltantes condi-
ions, ^poosent des veuyes, leurs compatriotes on leturs alli^es, aox enfants desqnelles Os
ransmettent les b€n6fices des charges ^lev^es qne, malgr^ leur mutilation, il leur est permis
le remplir. U est probable que si Akhenaten ^prouva r^llement le malheur dont ses trutt
(emblent r^y€1er T^yidence, ce fat pendant les guerres d^Am^nophis III au milieu des
)eaplade8 da Sod. L'usage de mutiler les prisonniers et les blesses est, parmi ces pea-
blades, aossi ancien qne le monde." — G. B. G.]
^* He married the daughter of his greatest enemy, the king of the KhetoM, (HittitesT),
Shemitic Asiatics.
^ Birch, Crystal Palace Catalogue, p. 251.
** De Rocoi, Notice eommahre, p. 16.
v* Laxci, Lettre d M.Prieee d'Avennee, Paris, 1847, pp. 17-20, PI. 11. : — and Pusti,
Oemtmu€tion dee Monuments de CheunpolUon, 1818, fol.
118
GBNEKAL RKMARKS ON ICONOQBAPHT.
Fig. 17.
External grand em
oa Egyptian art. It is at this period that tlie mieplacement of the
ear becomea babitaid with statueB. The
elegant youthful Ramebsbs of the Tu-
rin Musenm, and the excellent coloaeos
from the Bo-called Memooninm at Thebes,
(Belzoni's), now in the British Ma-
eeum, are nevertheleBS well acnlptured;
reminding ua of the better school of de-
sign ; bnt the colossus at Metmhenny
(Memphis),^ and principally the gigantic
statues of Ibsambul," [17] begin to be
heavy and incorrect, remarkable only for
their nionstrouB size. The gradnal decline
is morked by the position of the ear: right
on the earlier statues, it is too high at Me-
trahenny, and resembles boms at Ibsambul.
, however, cannot make op for the decline of
artistic feeling and want of careful finish. If we examine tiie monn-
ment of Ramesses, we get involuntarily the impression that the artists
of this period were always hurried on by royal command, without
ever having sufficient time fully to complete their task. A sketchy
roughness ia always visible in the later works of Rahesses, blended
with a conventional mannerism. Ari: has degenerated into manu-
facture.
The relicfa of Ramessks Illd (XXth dynasty), and the following
Ramessides, together with the monuments of Sheshonk, and his
(XXIId) dynasty, are still lees significant. They look dry and dull in
spite of a more minute and laborious, but spiritless and petty execu-
tion. During the Shemitic (or Assyrian) XXTtd,* and succeeding
foreign dynasties, down to that called Ethiopian in Manetho's and
other lists, [about b. c. 972 to 695] but evidently not negro, inasmnch
as the reliefs of Tiriiaka are "Cauca.sian" and somewhat Sliemitic,*
the infusion of foreign blood and contact with foreign art were still
more detrimental to the Egyptian style. Babylonian representations
" BoMOMi, 7Von<o«ion< 0/ R. Sac. of Litrratun, London, 18*5 ; — L«mii3B, DrnkmHtr,
Abth. HI., b1., 142. ;. b.
"Cf. Lkpscdb, Op.eil., Abth. III., bl. 190, The beBt popnUr demgn of them four pro-
digious <itnlaM ia in Bartlett's Nil/ Boat, 18-19 ; the nne tnoBt resembling NipoleoD I. in
that of RoaiLi.ini, M. R., pi. VI.. flg. 22 ; reduced in the ftbore wood-eat. Compcra
that in CnAHPOlliciN'B TqUo XmammU dt t&gyptt it !a Ifuhit.
" B1BC11, TVoni. B. Sm. Lit. III. p»rt I. 1848. pp. 184-70: Latabis ymntk and iu Rt-
noi'iu, 1848; DiKoieriti in tht mini of Nintvth and Ba^ylam, I8GS ; for uupli eorrobot*-
lions :— coDfirmed b; Mauittk, Of- eU.,pp. 89-96.
•■ Typu of Mankind, figa. 69, TO, 71.
GENERAL REMARKS ON IG0N06RAPHT. 119
became feshionable on articles of toilet or furniture, — for instance on
somba and spoons, — but indigenous art remained lifeless; the Baby-
lonian innovations barren and without lasting results. It is worth)
>f notice, that about the time of the Bubastite (probably Babylonian)
xxiifi dynasty, a revolution occurred likewise in hieroglyphical
writing, a great number of ideographs having assigned to them a
>honetic value." Mariette's fresh discovery of the never-before iden-
ified cartouche of Bocchoris, is also noteworthy in connection with
iuB period of Egyptian annals.^
With the Saitic kings, (XXVIth dynasly, began 675 b. c), a
lational reaction sets in, again accompanied by a new development
)f sculpture, under Psametik I. and his successors. During this
period of " renaissance," every effort was made to restore the insti-
Titions and ideas of the long-buried IVth dynasty of Cheops. The
brms remain the old ones, but the details become more charming
iiongh less grand than in* the monuments of the XVIIth dynasty.
rhe artists rectify the position of the ear, although extending it too
much in the upper part; they abandon the conventional frame of the
sye; they study nature in preference to the traditional canon; the
Torms of the human body become less rigid, the muscles are better
rounded and more correctly drawn, and a naturalistic tendency
mpersedes the conventionalism of the preceding epoch of decay.
Colossal statues are still sculptured, but not of such monstrous pro-
portions as under Ramesses ; at the same time that the number of
small, charming, sculptures, fiill of vigour and (Egyptian) grace,
increases considerably. They are easily recognized by their finish
ftnd sharp precision of workmanship ; the aim of the artist being
neatness and elegance; as distant from the somewhat conventional
^ndeur of the XVIIth and XVHIth, as from the refined delicacy
[>f the Xnth, or the honest truthfulness of the Did and IVth dynas-
ties. The following inedited head, now in the Louvre, is a most
excellent specimen of the style of the Sa'ites. It is of a greenish
basalt, and was found broken off from the rest of a full-length figure,
by M. Mariette, amid some ruins of the Serapeum at Memphis, in
the midst of fragments belonging to the XXVIth dynasty. He gave
& plaster-cast of it (now in my cabinet) to Mr. Gliddon, from which
the annexed wood-cut [18] has been drawn. No doubt as to its being
a p&rtrait; because the Egyptian sculptor aimed always to reproduce
individuality without idealizing, and possessed both eye and hand to
* Birch, CftysL Pal. Catalogue^ p. 243.
* It it to be hoped that the manifioence of France in fostering archseologioal discoTeried
viD, ere long^ place us in full possession of these new data.
120 GENERAL BEKAKKS ON ICONOQBAPHT.
copy nature with fidelity. It coTreepoQcla in style to the saperb ton*
of Pbaubtik n. found aX Sua,
'^ E '^ and long in the poblic libraiy
at Gamhridge."
This second revival of Egyp^
was not confined to scalptare.
We see once more, as in the
time of Rahesses and Osobchon,
(XVinth and XXIId dynasdes,
t. e. in the lath and 10th cen-
tories B. c.) a most stiiking
parallel be^een the intellectual
and artistic life of the Dation.
The new naturalistic phase of
Egyptian art coincides with an
analogous, most important step
in civilization, viz : the introduction of the Demotic alphabet, which
for its phonetieal character** or comparatively greater simplicity thao
either the hieratic or the hieroglyphical writing, must have favoured
the difi'usion of knowledge, by promoting epistolary interconrse
amongst the Egyptians. It will, therefore, scarcely surprise anybody
to learn that more than two thirds of the papyri in the Museums and
ooUections of Europe, appertain to the period of Fsameticua and his
successors, although abundant papyric documents are extant of a
tar earlier epoch.''
Egyptian art lost its Saitic {reshness, owing to the Persian conqnest
(b. c. 525), but the naturalistic style continued down to the reign of
the Macedonian dynasty of Ptolemies. Under tlicm Egyptian civili-
zation came for the first time into immediate relation and uninter-
rupted daily contact with a foreign high-culture, although the radical
ditfercnce between the Egj-ptiau and Greek race prevented amalga-
mation on a larger scale. The Egj-ptian was too proud of his
millennial civilization to condescend to learn anj-tliing from the
Greek, whom lie called a child in versatilily, as well as in the his-
*< YoDKK AND Leask, Egyptian ManunatU e/ Ml Briluh Muttum, LondDo, 1S27 ; p. 17,
P\. XIII.
" Bdhoxcu, Otimviaticit Dtmolica, 1SS5; togethsr nith this SuTnnt's Tarions pnblis*-
tiona, cited b; Biitcii, Crytt. Pal. Calalogue, p. 209:— also Typti of Mankind, Table of (!■•
'■Theor; of tbe order of development in humaa writini^," pp. GSO-1.
" Tlicy are innumerable. Among the oldest and most beautiful ii Paiaia'a folio Blarslie
Papj/rut £gyplitn, Paris. 1849, — "Bans hesitation le plus sncicn manuBcrlt Connn dM» U
mondo onlivr ;" conlaining, vith others, tbe royal oval of SeNeWROU (or Senof^e), a kinf
of old Hid dynasty (Di RoDoC, Interijitien da nmbtau 4'Aahma, thtf dtt Navlonim, le.
paitie, PariB, 18S1, p. 76).
GENERAL REATARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. 121
•
torical age of his nation. ^^O Solon, Solon! you Greeks are always
children/' says Plato's priest of Sais, in the celebrated bold
romance on the Atlantic Isles. Still, the Hellenic spirit could not
remain wholly without influence. Alexandria assumed a cosmopoli-
tan character, in which Greek elements predominated ; and the
Ptolemies, surrounded by Greek poets, artists, and philosophers,
enjoyed the resplendent evening of Greek culture on the foreign soil,
of the Nilotic Delta. Indeed, it has been accurately observed that
^'Alexandria was very Greek, a little Jewish, and scarcely Egyptian
at alL" ^ With artistic display, unparalleled in the history of man-
kind, they celebrated the festivals of the Olympian gods, whilst with
princely expenditure they secured all the treasures of Greek litera-
ture, as if they entertained a presentiment of the approaching doom
of Hellenism. But whenever they went up the Nile, visiting Mem-
phis, Thebes, and upper Egypt, they became again Pharaohs — "ever
living, lords of diadems, watchers of Egypt, chastisers of the foreigners,
^Iden hawks, greatest of the powerful kings of the upper and lower
country, defenders of truth, beloved of truth, approved of the sun,
beloved of Phtah." Their costume and tities, their sacrifices and
oblations, the style of their decrees and dedications, are substantially
the same as on the monuments of the ancient Pharaohs. But though
it seems as if the national character and public life of Egypt itself
liad not undergone any material change, the Ptolemaic works of art
veveal the slow action of Hellenism. Mariette's unexpected discovery,
in 1850, of a hemicycle formed of the Greek statues of Pindar, Lycur-
guBj Solon, Euripides, Pythagoras, Plato, ^schylus, Homer, Aristotie,
Ac, in excavating the Memphite Serapeum, is a wonderful proof
of the manner in which Hellenic ideas travelled with the Greeks up
the Nile. Still, the elaborate attempts to attain Greek elegance and
refinement, within the old traditional forms, resulted only in degra-
^tion ; producing a hybrid style, inferior to any of the former phases
of Egyptian art The last known monuments creditable to native
statuaries, are thus referred to by the late Lotronne^; — "the
second is a bust in rose-granite, of Nectanebo, preserved in the
British Museum (Birch, Arundale andBoNOMi, Gallery of Antiquitieiy
PI. 45, fig. 166), of very beautiful workmanship ; the third is that
■^ AmpIeb, Voifafe et Eeeherehet en £gypte et en Nubie; Rerue des Deax Mondes, 1846,
2d article.
" Ln eimlieafion igyptienne depuu rUabfueement dee Oreee sotu Peammetieue jutqv* d la
eomquite d* Alexandre, (Eztrait de la ReTae des Deax Mondes, 1 FeT. et 1 AttII, 1845,
p. 60.) Thta refined specimen of art — which singularly corresponds in ezecation to the
Simtk bead above iigored (No. 18) — may be seen on a large scale in the DeeeriptUm de
FinfpU (Antlq. V. PL 69, figs. 7, 8) ; and on a smaller in Lx]ionMA«T*s Mutie dee AnU-
fmiie ^fptiemue^ Paris, foL, 1840.
122 GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY.
mutilated but admirable statue, in green basalt, found at Sebenuytus,
(MiLLiN, Monuments iniditSj L p. 883), and which decorates the ^ salle
du zodiaque ' of the Biblioth^ue rojale [nationaley publtquey or impi-
riale^ — as the ease may be]. This torsoj for the purity and fineness
of Egyptian style, yields in nothing to the most noble remains of
Egyptian sculpture : and I cannot forget that one of the sldlfullest
archeologues of our day, not being able to cast doubt upon the name
of Nectanebo, which this statue bears, sustained that this name bad
been added, ' aprfes-coup,' to a statue of the time of Sesostris or of
Menephtha; a gratuitous supposition, rendered altogether useless
through the observations contained in this memoir."
The only passable relics, of the times of the Lagicbs, nowextant,
are the rose-granite statues of Philadelphus and Arsinoe at the
Vatican ; and they are poor enough.
Indigenous art degenerated, however, still more under the Roman
dominion,* languishing under the Julian and Flavian emperors,
and becoming quite rude and barbarous soon after Hadrian: — the
last hieroglyphic royal ovals, found in Egypt, belong to the Emperor
Decius." Indigenous Egyptian civilization and art, both connected
with and founded upon hieroglyphics, expire about the same time.
Such is the brief history of Egyptian art ; peculiarly remarkable
for the constancy of its general character during a period of more
than thirty-five centuries, no less than for its isolated and exclusively
national development. The influence of foreign art and culture
upon Egypt was always slight and prejudicial; whilst, with the ex-
ception of Mcroe on the upper Nile — an Egyptian colony maintain-
ing itself only so long as its original Egj'ptian blood remained
pure,®^ — no foreign kingdom or people ever accepted the civilization,
the hieroglyphics and the art of Egj'pt, notwithstanding that the
Empire on the Nile was superior in culture to all those neighboring
nations with whom the Pharaohs came into contact. Phoenicia,
Assyria, Persia, and perhaps even Greece and Etruria, borrowed,
some forms of their art from Egypt; but these loans are, on the
whole, trifling, and insufficient to stamp the art of those nations with
an Egyptian character. In Assyria, as in Greece and Etruria, art
developed itself nationally, and in each region may always be con-
sidered as indigenous.
* Gau's folio Antiquifit de la Nubie, Dinon, and the Oreat French work, contain abundant
examples of this decline.
•> Lkpsius, Vorldufige Naehrieht uber die Expedition^ Berlin, 1849, p. 29.
*i For proofs, — Abekes, Rapport, in Bulletin de la Soeiite de Oiographie^ Paris, Sept,
1845, pp. 171-2, 174, 179:--LEP8ir8, Briefe, 1862, pp. 140-9, 204, 217-9, 289, &c.: while
ocular evidence of this Ethiopian degradation of art may be obtidned in the Denkmaler,
Abth. VI. bl. 2, 4, 9, 10.
GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. 123
We have selected, for illustrating our sketch of Egyptian art,
statues in preference to reliefs, which are always somewhat repug-
nant to the taste of the public, on account of the peculiar conven-
tional formation of the eye, drawn in front-view on profile heads.
Besides, Tifpes of Mankind already contains copious specimens of
Egyptian royal relief-likenesses, from Aahmes, the restorer of Egypt,
down to Menephtah, the probable Pharaoh of the Exodus, including
also the Sheshonks {Skishak)y Shabaes and Tirhaeas, so familiar to
the readers of the Bible. The authority of those portraits (taken
principally from Rosellini) is sufficiently established by the inscrip-
tiona which accompany them on the original sculptures ; their faithful-
ness may easily be tested in any of the large collections of Europe, and
principally in Egypt, among the monuments ; for it is a remarkable
teyct, that wherever a relief was sunk into the rock, recording the
deeds of some individual Pharaoh, whether on the pyloncs of the
temples, along the walls of tombs, and amid palatial decorations, or
chiselled upon some tablet on the remotest borders of the Empire,
his features, painted or sculptured, are always the same, and may be
recognized everywhere throughout Egypt. It has, therefore, -often
been asked, by what means Egyptian artists could attain such a uni-
formity at a time when no coins were as yet struck, and the art of
engraving likenesses (not seals, &c.,) was unknown. It was very
plausibly suggested, that an official pattern of the royal physiognomy,
earved in wood, may easily have been circulated all over the valley
of the Nile. The Roman emperors probably neglected the continu-
2uice of such customs, perhaps under belief that their coins might
oonvey a sufficient idea of their features. The Egyptians, however,
remain unacquainted with the portraits of their Roman rulers, whose
effigies on Egyptian and lower-Nubian monuments are altogether
conventional, without any attempt at portraying individuality and
resemblance to the Roman Autocrats; whose very name, as we see at
!£alabshe and at Dendera, was often unknown to natives of the Nile."
JiA a collateral confirmation of the suggestion about the circulation
of regal portrait-patterns, we refer to some analogous preceedings
binder Queen Elizabeth, which we translate from the French of the
Abbes De la Chau and Le Blond,** not being able to lay our hands
upon the original document mentioned by them.
*'The ezeessiye sensitiyeoess of Queen Elizabeth about beauty," baj the learned French
mrchsologists, " gave birth to a most peculiar order in council, signed bj the secretary
** LvTBOJiifB, "Sar Tabsence dn Mot Antoorator" — Mimoiret et Documendj Paris, 1849,
pip. 1^: — CHAMPOLLiOJi-FiaBAO, Fourier et Napolion^ V£gypte et let eentjourty Paris, 1S44,
* Fkrrm grmrUa du Caimet Orleans, II. p. 194.
124 THE ART OF THE SHEMITE8.
Cecil, and promulgated in 1568. All the pidnten and engraTen were prohibited by it to
continue making portraits of the Qaeen, until some good artist should haTe made a tmthfU
likeness, to serve as model for all the copies to be made in future, after the model has, upon
examination, been found to be as good and exact as it could be. It is further said that the
natural desire of all the subjects of the Queen, of CTeiy rank and condition, to possess the
portrait of H. M., having induced many painters, engravers, and other artists, to multiply
copies, it has been found that not one of them has succeeded in rendering all the Uauijf md
ehamu of IT. M. with exactness, much to the daily regret and complaints of her weU-be-
loved subjects. Order was, therefore, given for the appointment of conunissioners (the
French text says * experts*) to inquire into the fidelity of the copies, and not to tolente
any one, marked by deformity or defects, from which, by the grace of God, Her Mijesty
was free."
In conclusion, let us rejoice with our collaborator, M. Maury, that
" the school of Champollion, therefore, feels every day the ground
more steady beneath its tread ; every day it beholds those doubts dis-
sipating which at first oflfered themselves to its disciples in the fiace
of denials made by jealous or stubborn minds. *****Iti8to this
' monumental geology ' (after all) that we are indebted for the demon-
stration of tlie two great historical laws that dominate over all the
annals of Egypt ; viz : the permanence of raceSj and the constant nuh
hitity of tongues, beliefs, and arts, — ^two truths which are precisely the
inverse of tliat which had been for a long time admitted."^
III. — THE ART OF THE SHEMITES.
The term "Shemitic" (or Semitic), as it is popularly applied to
certain races, languages, and types of physiognomy, has no reference
to tlic genealogy or rather geography of the Xth chapter of Genesis,
since it includes the Phoenicians, who, according to this old docu-
ment, arc descendants of Ham ; whilst Elam, Assur and Lud, son£
of Shcni, must be classed among races different in character and lan-
guage from what most scholars, since Eichhom, have been accus-
tomed to call Sliemitic. This word is now constantly used to desig-
nate the Syro-Arab nations; that is to say, the Syrian, Phoenician
and Hebrew tribes (including Edom, Moab, Ammon, Midian, anc
the Nabatxcans of Ilarran), and the Arabs both Yoktanide (HimyariU
and Ethiopian) and Ishmaelite or Maadic. All those tribes anc
nations form a most striking contrast to the Arian or Japetide races
in language as well as in their national character.
It is difficult to over-state the influence of the Shemites on humai
** D€9 travaux modemet iur V^gypte Aneimntf RcTue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 1855, p
1078.
THE ART OF THE SHEMITES. 12i>
civilization. Ueuce it has been said without exaggeration, that all
tlie moral and religious progress of mankind may be summed up in
the combined action of the Arian and Shemitic races : the former
being the continuous warp, the latter the intersecting woof.®* Whilst
the civilization of Egypt, too proud to seek proselytes, remained iso-
lated and spell-bound within the limits of its Nile-valley, the culture
of the Bhemitea was eminently prolific and propagandist. Though
they never exceeded thirty millions in number,* still their peculiar
restlessness and commercial tendency, their migrations, deportations,
colonizations, and wars of conquest, which dispersed them all over
the ancient world, multipUed, as it were, their number bj locomo-
tion, and brought them into a kind of ubiquitous contact with most
of the progressive races of mankind. The Japetides (Indo-Europeans,
AiianSy Iranians,) surpass the Shemites at least ten times in e^ctent;
yet, nevertheless, their civilization is deeply and lastingly affected
by, and indebted to, the Shemites, without having been able to
absorb and to transform them by amalgamation. Down to our days
the Shemite race maintain their peculiar type so constantly, that their
pedigree is still unmistakably stamped upon their features ; and it
is a curious feet that among the lower classes in central and north-
eastern Europe, the consciousness of a difference of race remained so
strong both with Shemites and Japetides, as often to prevent amal-
gamation, even where the diflference of religion had ceased.
There are principally three nations among the Shemites which
have become of the highest importance for the history of mankind.
To the PhomicianSj — ^those first explorers of the Mediterranean and
eastern Atiantic, — merchant-princes, manufacturers, and colonizers
of antiquity — we owe the phonetic Alphabet, and probably the
coinage of money. East and South to Phoenicia dwelt the Hebrews^
irho, though numerically few, have by their monotheism become
the basis of modem civilization ; whose financial genius moreover
continues to be felt in all the great money-marts, upon which their
invention of bills of exchange has concentrated the mobilized pro-
perty of the world. Further to the South We meet with the Arabsy
destroyers of idolatry, conquerors of northern Africa, civilizers of
* BmiSBir, JE$yptefu SteiUy preface, xii.
* Aeeotding to Rbhah*8 rough estimate, their actual number is the followfng: —
In Arabia proper, about 6,000,000
The Sjrians and Arabs of Asiatio Turkey 6,000,000
The Arabs of AfHca: Egypt, Barbary, Morocco, Sahara, Sudin.. 10,000,000
fihemitie Abysainians 8,000,000
JewiaUoTwrthaworid..^ 4,000,000
^Eutoire et Sytthm eompari det, languta Mimitiques, p> 41.)
126 THE ART OF THE SHEMITES.
the Black races, and mcrcliants all along the^ Bhorea of the Indian
ocean.
' All these carriers of civilization never knew the feeling of plastic
and pictorial beauty. Painting and sculpture were proscribed among
the Hebrews and Arabs by the most sacred precepts of reli^on,"
whilst art never became national with the Phoenicians; who bor-
rowed its forms in turn from Egyptians, Assyrians and Greeks, and
often relapsed into their original barbarism of taste. But before we
subject Shemitic art to a closer consideration, let us throw a glance
on the peculiar civilization of that highly gifted race whose fortunes
were always connected with the history of mankind, and whose
culture modified Indo-European civilization repeatedly and in many
respects.
M. Ernest Renan, in his EQstory of the Shemitic languages,"
describes the character of the Shemites in the most eloquent words,
which, however, we must restrict in application to the Hebrew and
Arab tribes, inasmuch as they evidentiy are incomplete as regards
the PhoDuicians and Syrians. Besides, we are bound to remind the
reader that the author, carried away by the flow of his eloquence, is
apt to over-state his case. We quote the following passage :
** Without predetermining the import&nt question of the primitiTe unity or diTersltj of
the Arian and Shemitic langoages, we must say that, in the present state of science, the
Shemitic languages must be considered as corresponding to a distinct division of mankind.
In fact, the character of the nations speaking them, is marked in history by as original fea-
tures as the languages themscWes, which served as a formula and boundary to their mind.
It is true that it is less in political than in religious life that their influence has been feH.
Antiquity shows them scarcely playing any active part in the great conquests which swept
over Asia: the civilization of Nineveh and Babylon, in its essential features, does not belong
to nations of that race, and before the powerfU impulse given by a new creed to the Arab
tribes, it would be in vain to seek the traces *of any great Shemitic empire in hisUnry.
But what they were unable to do in the sphere of external power they accomplished in th«
moral sphere, and we may, without exaggeration, attribute to them at least one half of ths
intellectual work of humanity. Of the two symbols of the mind striving for truth, 9eima
or philosophy remained entirely foreign to them ; but they always understood religi»n with i
superior instinct; they comprehended it, I may say, vrith a sense peculiar to themsehei.
The reflecting, independent, earnest^ courageous, in one word the philosophical reseireb
of truth, seems to be the heir-loom of that Indo-European race, which, from the bottom of
India to the extreme West and North, and from the most remote ages to modem times, hai
always sought to explain God, and man, and the world, by reasoning; and accordingly lefl
behind it — as landmarks of the different stations of its history— systems of philosophy,
always and everywhere agreeing with the laws of a logical development But to the She-
mitic race belong those firm and positive intuitions which removed at once the veil from
Qodhcad, and without long reflection and reasoning reached the purest reKgions fona
•v Exodut, zz., 4; Deutenm, V., 8: — Throughout Mohammed's JTifr'dii these prohibi-
tions abound.
>* Histoirt giniroU et Sftf^i fompari da Umffum 9imitiqum, Ouvrage eouronn^ par
rinstitut Imprim^rie Imp^riale, 1856. Vol. i. p. 8, seqq.
THE ART OF THE SHEMITES. 127
ftodquitj ^or koew. The birthplace of philosophy is India and Greece, amidst an inqoisi-
tire race, deeplj preoccapied by the search after the secret of all things; but the psalm and
lbs prophecy, the wisdom concealed in riddles and symbols, the pore hymn, the revealed
book, are the inheritance of the theocratic race of the Shemites. This is aboye all others
the people of (lodhead ; it is the people of religions, destined to create them and to carry
them abroad. And indeed, is it not remarkable that the three monotheistic religions,
vhich until now haTe acted the most important part in the history of ciyilization, the three
religions marked by a peculiar character of duration, of fecundity and of proselytism, so
thorong^y interlaced with one another as to appear like three branches of the same tree,
like three expressions unequally correct of the same idea, — is it not remarkable, I repeat,
that all the three were bom among Shemitic nations, and have started from among them
to porsae their high destinies 7 There is but a few days' journey from Jerusalem to Mount
Sinai, and from Sinai to Mecca.
** The Shemitic race has neither the eleration of spiritualism known only to India and
Qsrmany, nor the feeling for measure and perfect beai^ bequeathed by Greece to the
oeo-Latin nations, nor the delicate and deep sensitiveness characteristical of the Celts.
Shemitic con^ence is clear, but narrow; it wonderfully understands unity, but cannot
eomprehend multiplicity. Monotheism sums up and explains all its features.
** It is the glory of the Shemitic race to have in her earliest days arrived at that notion
of Qodhead which all the other nations had to adopt on her example and on the faith of her
preaching. She has never conceived the government of the world otherwise than as an
absolute monarchy ; her " Theodicy " has not advanced one single step since the book of
Job; the grandeur and the aberrations of Polytheism remained foreign to her. No other
nee can of itself discover Monotheism; India, which has philosophized with so much
originality and depth, has, up to our days, not grasped it; and all the vigour of the Hellenic
spirit could not have sufficed to lead mankind to Monotheism without the co-operation of the
Shemites ; but we can likewise state, that the Shemites would not have mastered the dog-
ma of the unity of Godhead, had they not found its germ in the most imperious instincts of
their soiils and of their hearts. They were unable to conceive variety, plurality, or sex, in
Godhead : the word godden would be the most horrible barbarism in Hebrew.* All the names
bj which the Shemites ever designated Godhead : £l, £lob, Adon, Baal, Elion, Shaddai,
JnoTAH, Allah, even if they take the plural form, imply the supreme indivisible power
of perfect unity. Nature, on the other hand, has little importance in Shemitic religions,^
the desert is monotheistic. Sublime in its immense uniformity, it revealed immediately the
idea of the infinite to men, but not the incessantly productive life, which Nature, where she
b more prolific, imparts to other nations. This is the reason why Arabia was always the
bnhrark of the most exalted monotheism ; for it would be a mistake to seek in Mohammed
the founder of monotheism in Arabia. The worship of the Supreme God (AUdh taida) was
always at the bottom of Arabian religion."
** The Shemites never had mythology. The clear and precise way in which they conceived
Godhead as distinct from the world, not begetting and not begotten, and having no like,
exdaded that grand poetry in which India, Persia, Greece [and the Teutonic races], gave
T8Dt to their imagination, leaving the boundaries between God, mankind, and nature, unde-
fined and floating. Mythology is the expression of pantheism in religion, and the Shemitio
ipirit is the most antagonistic to pantheism. What a distance between the simple concep-
* The author forgets, apparently, the goddesses of Syria and Phcenicia, the female idols
■kskroyed by the Arabs upon their conversion to IsUm, and the Shemitic adoration of the
U»ty1ee (BeUi-£l), the shapeless stones so often figured on coins. The black stone of the
Kaiba belongs to the same class, and rei^inds us nearly of Fetishism. [Frksmbl, when
•'oBsol at IJjidda, sent his slave to Mecca, and learned from him that, although the pilgprims
lt4d nearly kissed off the features, the stone still preserves the remains of a human face!
<17"* LeOrt^ •<I]|ieddeh, Jan. 188a'*— Jbiimai Atiatiqwt,)^^, R. O.]
128 THE ART OF THE SHEMITES.
tioQ of a God, distinct from the world, which he forms aooording to his will, M » Taae v
moulded by the hands of the potter, and those Indo-European theogoniee, attribnting a
diTine soul to Nature, conceiying life as a straggle, and the world as a perpetoal change,
thus carrying, as it were, the ideas of rcTolntion and progress among the dynasties of
Gods I
"The intolerance of the Shemites is the natural result of their monotheism. Indo-Eoro-
pean nations, before their conTersion to Shemitic ideas, ncTer considered their religions is
an absolute truth ; they took them rather for a family heir-loom, and remained eqaaHy
foreign to intolerance and to proselyUsm.^ It is, therefore, exdusiTely among Indo-Enro-
peans that we meet with freedom of thought, with a spirit of criticism and of indiTidnal
research. The Shemites, on the contrary, aspiring to realise a worship independent of any
provincial Tariations, were led in consistency to declare all other religions than their own
to be mischieTous. In this sense, intolerance is a ShemiUc fsct, and a portion of the in-
heritance, good and bad, which this race has bequeathed to mankind.
** The absence of philosophical and scientific culture among the Shemites may be deriTcd
from that want of breadth and diversity, and therefore of Un analytical turn of mind, which
characterizes them. The faculties begetting mythology are, in fact, the same which beget
philosophy. Stricken by the unity of the laws governing the world, the Shemites saw in the
development of things nothing but the unalterable ftilfilment of the will of a superior being;
they never conceived multiplicity in nature. But the conception of multiplicity in the nniveiM
becomes polytheism with nations which are still in their infancy, and science with nations
that have arrived at maturity. This is the reason why Shemitic wisdom never advanced
beyond the proverb and the parable, — ^points of departure for Greek philosophy. The books
of Job and Ecclesiastes, which represent the highest culmination of Shemitic philosophy,
turn the problem over and over again in all directions, without advancing one step nearer
to the solution ; to them the dialectic and close reasoning of Socrates is altogether wanting:
even when Ecclesiastes seems to approach a solution, it is only in order to arrive at
formulas antagonistic to science, such as "Vanity of vanities" — "nothing is new under
the sun," — "he that incrcascth knowledge increaseth sorrow," — formulas the result of
which is, to enjoy life, and to serve Ood: and indeed these are the two poles of Shemitie
existence.
"The Shemites are nearly entirely devoid of inquisitiveness. Their idea of the power
of God is such, that nothing can astonish them. To the most surprising accounts, to sights
most likely to strike him, the Arab opposes but one reflection, "God is powerful!" whilst,
when in doubt, he avoids to come to a conclusion, and after having expounded the reasons
for and against, escapes from decision by the formula 'God knows it I'
" The poetry of the Shemitic nations is distinguished by the same want of variety. The
eminently subjective character of Arabic and Hebrew poetry results from another essential
feature of Shemitic spirit, the complete absence of creative imagination, and accordingly
of fiction.
" Hence, amongthese peoples, we may explain the absolute absence of plastic arts. Even
the adornments of manuscripts by which Turks and Persians have displayed such a lively sen-
timent for color, is antipathetic to the Arabs, and altogether unknown in countries where
the Arnb spirit has remained untainted, as for instance in Morocco. Music, of all the arts
most subjective, is the only one known to Shemites. Painting and sculpture have always
been banished from them by* religious prohibition ; their realism cannot be reconciled with
creative invention, which is the essential condition of the two arts. A Mussulman to whom
the traveller Bruce showed the painting of a fish, asked him, after a moment of surprise : " If
this fish, on the day of judgment, rises against thee and accuses thee by saying, Thou hast
iw This does not exclude their rigor against apostasy or infidelity at different periods of
their history, since it implied an attack upon their national existence. With the Greeks,
for instance, religion was intimately connected with nationality, and their nationality being
exclusive, (for every foreigner was a barbarian.) proselytism became impossible.
THE ART O^ THE SHEMITES. 129
iriToi me ft bod J, but no liying soul, wbat wilt thou reply ?' The anathemas against anj
figured representation, repeated over and oyer again in the Mosaic books, and the icono-
elaetie seal of Mohammed, eridently proTe the tendency of those nations to take the statne
for a real indiTidoal being. Artistic races, accustomed to detach the symbol from the idea,
were not obUged to act with such seTerity." ^
Renan's remarks, as already mentioned, apply principally to the
monotheiBtic branches of the Shemitic race, at their secondary stage
of development : he ignores the peculiarities of the Phoenician nation,
yet mankind owes nearly as much to the polytheistic branch of the
Shemites, in spite of their voluptuous and cruel worship, including
homaa sacrifices and indescribable abominations, so denounced in
Hebrew and later Arabian literature, — as to their southern brethren
of higher and purer morals. According to the authors of antiquity,
aa well as to all modem philologists, the pure phonetic alphabet is
an invention of the Phoenician mind.^^ All the different phonetic
alphabets of the world, — perJiapa with the exception of the cuneatic
and Blndoo {Lat and Devanagirt) writing, — have originated from the
Phoenician letters ; the Arian nations of course eliminating the She-
mitic gutturals, and replacing them by their own peculiar modifica-
tions of the sound. The hieroglyphics of Egypt remained confined
to the Nile-valley ; the Devanagiri to the two Indian peninsulas and
their dependencies; the cuneiform character to the basin of the
Tigris and Euphrates, and to the highland flanking it to the east ;
whereas the Phoenician alphabet and those derived from it have been
difiTused over all the white race, not only Shemites, but Japetides and
Turanians ; and this fact practically proves the diffusion of Shemitic
influence.
Second in importance only to the phonetic alphabet, is the inven-
tion of coined money, which is again Phoenician ; although the Isle
of ^gina and the empire of Lydia made rival claims to the priority
of the invention.^ But ^gina, the small island between Attica
■■ Compare for anthoriUes: Typa of Mankind, " Paleographio excursus Oh the art of
writing, by Geo. B. Ofiddon;*' and Rinah, Op.eiL,!,^, 67. <* L'^criture alphab^tique est
rtepaia nne baate antiquity le privilege particuHer des Semites. C'est aux Semites qae
U Bonde doit ralphabet de 22 lettres."
>■ The earliest standard of coinage and of weights and measures in Greece was certainly
that cf ^gina, the iuTention of which was attributed to Phxidon, king of Argos, and lord
of .figiaa. Stilly criticism cannot but take Pheidon for a semi-mythical person, and the
%«thorities about his epoch are irreconcilably at Tariance with one another. The Parian-
HufbW chronicle plaeea him about 896 b. o. : Pausanias and Strabo between 770-730 b. o.,
wUlat Herodotus (Til. 27) connects him with CTents which took place about 600 b.o.
Otttbibd KifLLBB, therefore (ZMrter, liL 6) assumes two Phoidons ; and Wkissbhbobo
aoggasta Panianias may haTe placed him originally in the 26th Olympiad, which, by an error
of tke eopyisti became the 6th in the extant MS. WhatoTcr be the epoch of Pheidon, so
a«eli Ss etrtain, that the ^ginean standard of weights and measures is not his inyention.
Boeek, in bis ** Metrologische Untersuchungen," has established the fact that it was borrowed
fro« Babykm ; Pheidon eaa therefore have only introduced it into Greece.
9
130 THE ART OF THE 8HEMITES.
and the Peloponnesus, thongh rich in silver-mines, possessed neither
colonics nor extensive and uninterrupted foreign commerce, which
alone can have given rise to the desire of a circulating medium of
currency. Lydia, equally devoid of colonies and foreign extensive
commerce, had not even a supply of gold before the conquest of
Phrygia. The first money could not have been struck by any but
a merchant nation. Neither Pharaonic Egypt, nor the empires of
Assyria and Babylon, nor the Hebrew kingdoms, knew the use of
coins. /They weighed the gold and silver as the price for commodi-
ties bought and sold; but they never tried to divide it into equal
pieces, or to mark it according to its weight and value. It was at a
comparatively late period, scarcely prior to the seventh century
before our era, that gold and silver were struck by public authority,
to be the circulating medium. Alcidamas, the Athenian rhetor of
the fourth century B.C., tells us, that "coins were invented by the
Phoenicians, they being the wisest and most cunning of the Barba-
rians;—out of the ingot they took equal portions and stamped them
with a sign, according to the weight, the heavier and the lighter." *"
— 'O^utftfsug Jtara flrpo5o(flaf IlaXafJb^^ou^. — (See AlcidJ)
Such are the lasting benefits mankind owes to the Shemitic race,
which, besides, was in antiquity the forerunner of Indo-European
civilization on the Mediterranean, and along the Eastern shores of
the Atlantic, and subsequently again in Hindostin and Java during
the middle ages. Even now it paves the way for European culture
and commerce in the Soodin, and central Ajfrica. These highly gifted
carriers of civilization never rose, notwithstanding, to any eminence
in imitative arts, and were unable to invent or establish a national
style of painting or sculpture. As to the Hebrews and the Arabs,
this deficiency is often attributed to the prohibitions of the Penta-
teuch and the Kur*in : but it \vill probably be safer to derive the
prohibition from the want of artistical feeling among the nations for
whom the law was framed. Besides, the Arabs, even before Mo-
tiammed, had few or no idols of human form, no plastical art and
no pictures ; at the same time that the Kur'4n could not prevent the
i<B Tho standard weights of Nimrood, in the British Mnsonm, carry now even the Babjlonian
talent further back, to Assyria, and it is not onimportant that their inscriptions are either
purely Phoenician, or bilingnal. — As to coinage, it is CTerywhere originally conneeied with
the standard of weights : it is its result, its most practical application to siWer and gold at
measures of value. The standard of measures must have preceded the standard of ooinage,
and cannot be a contemporary inrention. Pheidon may indeed have been the first who
struck coin in Greece, and have introduced coinage together with the Babylonian standard
if measures and weights from Phoenicia ; but the Greek tradition which attributes to him
the invention both of the standard of weights and of coinage, is as illogical aa regards
coins, as it is historically false as regards weights.
THE ART OF THE SHEMITE8. 131
Perso-AfTglikn Mossulmans, both the Sheefi and the Sunnee, to con-
tinue drawing and painting, and even sculpturing reliefs. Down to
the present day, portraits are painted at Delhi and Cabool and Tehe-
rin by true believers, without any religious scruples ; whereas the
Arab envoy of the Sultan of Morocco to Queen Victoria, whose
daguerreotype was taken without his knowledge at Claudet's in Re-
gent Street, felt himself both insulted and defiled for having had
his form " stolen from Um," as he expressed himself.
With the polytheistic branch of the Shemites, sculpture and paint-
ing were not prohibited by religion ; and still no national style of
art ever developed itself among the Syrians and Phoenicians, notwitli-
standing their wealth and industry, and love of display..
The extent and number of the monuments of art in Syria, Phce-
nicia, Palestine, and Idumsea, and of those remains which, by their
Phoenician or Punic inscription, are designated as Shemitic, is not
at all insignificant; although, measured by the standard of Egyptian,
Greek, or Etruscan antiquities, they are, indeed, comparatively small.
Still, these monuments form together no homogeneous class, charac-
terized by certain peculiarities common to them all. Nothing but
the place where they were found, or the Phoenician characters witli
which they are inscribed, designates them as Shemitic. They might
all have been made by foreigners: Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks,
EtruscanB, or barbarians. Of the ruins still extant, Petra, the rock-
town of the Nabatseans, exhibits late Greek ; Baalbek (Hcliopolis)
and Palmyra, late Roman forms of architecture. The rock-tombs
of Jerusalem were evidently excavated by artists perfectly conversant
with the Dorian column, who remained faithful to the Hellenic spirit
of arty notwithstanding that they introduced grapes and palm-trees,
and some oriental forms, into the decoration of their rock-structures.
As to Shemitic statues and relief, the most important among them
undoubtedly is the black basalt-sarcophagus of Eshmunazar, Idng of
Sidon, discovered in February, 1855, near Sayda, the old Sidon. The
Prench Consul, M. Pereti6, acquired it, and sent it to France, where
it has been deposited in the Louvre, as a worthy companion to the
kingly monuments of Egyptian Pharaohs and Assyrian monarchs.
The Phoenician inscription of the sarcophagus, read and analyzed by
the Due de Luynes,*^ is one of the most striking expressions of She-
mitic feelings. It runs as follows :
I** Mr. Dietrieh of Marbiurg, Dr. Mdiger, Prof. Lanci, and others, likewise published
tnoaktioiis of^ and obserrations on, this inscription, independently of the French Duke,
iriiose tiinslation, howerer, was read at the Institate preyioasly to the pnblicationA of the
learaed Qermaiis. Besides, his Memoir, published in 1S56, is by far more complete as
vcgards IIm aoalysif of the inscription, and the geographical, philological, and bucorical
132 THE ART OF THE SHEMITES.
44
In the month of Bol, in the fourteenth year of the rtifpi of me, Eshmunatar, king of Um
Sidonians, ion of king Thebunath, king of the Sidonians, the king Eshmonaiar ipake tad
said:
** Amidst mj feasts and mj perfumed wines, I am rayished from the assembly of men to
pronounce a lamentation and to die, and to remain lying in this cofiln, in this tomb, in tb#
place of sepulture which I haye constructed.
•* By this lamentation I conjure any royal race and any man, not to open this funeral
bed, not to search the asylum of the faithful (for there are effigies of gods among them,)
uot to remoye the coyer of this coffiu, not to build upon the eleyation of this funeral bed,
the eleyation of the bed of my sleep, eyen should some one say : * Listen not to those who
are humiliated, (in death) : for any royal race, or any man who should defile the eleyation
of this ftmeral bed, whether he remoyes the coyer of this coffin, or builds upon the monu-
ment which coyers it, may they haye no funeral bed reseryed for themseWes among the
Kephaim (shadows) : may they be depriyed of sepulture, leaying behind them neither ioni
nor posterity : and may the great Gods (Alonim) keep them confined in hell.
** If it be a royal race, may its accursed crime fall back upon their children up to the
extinction of their posterity.
** If it is a (priyate) man who opens the eleyation of this funeral bed, or who remoTM flie
coyer of my coffin, and the corpses of the royal family, this man is sacrilegious.
** May his stem not grow up from the roots, and not bring forth fruits ; may he be marked
by the reprobation among the Hying under the sun.
'* For, worthy to be pitied, I haye been rayished amidst my banquets and mj perftimad
wines, to leaye the assembly of men, and to pronounce my lamentation, then to die.
** I rest here, in truth, I, Eshmunnznr, king of the Sidonians, son of king Thebunath,
king of Sidonians, son of the son of king Eshmnnazar, king of the Sidonians, and with me,
my mother Amestoreth, who was priestess of Astarte, in the palace of the queen, daugihter
of king Eshmnnazar, king of the Sidonians, who built the temple of the great Godt, thei
temple of Astarte at Sidon, the maritime town, and we both haye consecrated magnifieents
offerings to the goddess Astarte. With me rests also Onchannaf who, in honor of £shmun«
the sacred God, built Enedalila in the mountain, and made me magnificent presents ; and.
Onehannaf who built temples to the great Gods of the Sidonians, at Sidon, the maritim«
town, the temple of Baal-Sidon, and the temple of Astarte, glory of Baal, so that in recom-
pense of his piety, the Lord Adon Milchon granted us the towns of Dora and Japhia, with
their extensiye territories for wheat, which are aboye Dan, a pledge of the possession of the
Htrong places which I haye founded, and which he has finished as bulwarks of our bounda-
ries endowed for the Sidonians foreyer.
** By thiH lamentation I adjure eyery royal race and eyery man, that they win not opec
nor overthrow the eleyation of my tomb, that they will not build upon the oonstmotioi
which coyers this funeral bed, that they will not remoye my coffin from my ftmeral bed, is
fear lest the great God should imprison them. Otherwise may that royal race, those saeri-
legions men and their posterity, be destroyed for ever !"
The insmption leaves no possible doubt that we have the coffin of
a king of Sidon before us; and still, if it had been found without an
inscription, nobody would have doubted its Egyptian originJ* The
mummy-shaped form of the coffin is identical with the basalt-sarco-
phaguses of the XlXth dynasty ; and the peculiar conventional
beard, the head-dress, the necklace, and the hawk-beads of Horos on
disquisitions connected with it. — {Mf moire tur U Sarcophage et rinteription funiraire d^Stmu^
naiar^ rot de Sidon^ par H. d*Albrrt di Lutnes, Paris, 1856, p. 8, 9. [Equally Shemitie
in spirit, is the Punic *' sacrificial ritual" of Marseilles, as rendered by Di Saulot {Min^
de VAead. R. det Interip., 1847, XVII., 1« partie.— G. R. G.]
"* [See *• Inscription Ph^nicienne sur une Pierre & libation du S^raph^um de Memphis,*'
by the Deo di Lutnis, Bui. ArcMve de FAthenmnn Franfait, August-Sent. 1865 »0 R a ^
THE ABT or TH
SHEHITES.
133
the ahoolders of the king, all completely correBpond witli the three
a&na of the fiunily of king Amaais, sent hj Abbas Fasba as &
preeent to the Prince of Lauchtenberg. We are, therefore, author-
EtMUNAEAm.
ized to infer with the Dnc de Luynes that Esmnnazar was a contem-
ponu7 of Amasis. And indeed, we find that Apnea of Egypt, about
B. c. 574, invaded Phcenicia, captured Sidon, and probably reduced
this very king to a etate of dependency on Egypt; which might
acconnt for the Egyptian style of king Esmunazar'a coffin, unless
we can prove that Phoenician sculpture was always a daughter of
Egyptian art Such an assumption might be maintained by the Pha-
Taonic style of the type of some brass coins of the island of Malta,
nndoubtedly a Phoenician colony. But although the dress of the
female head which we distinguish on those coias, is evidently Egyp-
tian, and its ornament is the royal '■'■Atf" — the crown of Osiris and
other deities, composed of a conical cap, flanked by two ostrich
featbets with a disk in front, placed on the horns of a goat, — still,
the reverse of the medal presents an entirely diflerent style, viz : an
imitation of Assyrian art It is a kneeling man with four wings.
But the coin of Malta is not the only instance of Assyrian style on
Phoenician monuments. Dr. Layard has published several cylinder
seals with the Phoenician name of the proprietor, engraved in Phoeni-
ciao characters.*" The lion-shaped weights in the Br. Museum, found
in the palace of Nimrood,*" bear, likewise, Phcenician inscriptions;
bnt they cannot Mrly be taken for works of Shemitic artists. They
prove only, by their bilingual inscription, that there were two difle-
rent nationalities in the empire, and that the system of weights and
measores most have been peculiarly important to the Sliemitic portion
of its inhabitants — no other instances of bilingual official inscriptions
■■ Latakd'* JfmtPtk nJ Baiplm, p. 606:— LnTMi!!
atf Nbtevdi, lit leries. pi. 9(
Sarcophagi, p. 69.
: — A'aievth and Baiykt, p. 606.
m
THE ABT OF TDK SHEMITES.
having oeen discovered amoog the remaina of Aee^a. We in
compelled, therefore, to diemiss the idea that PhoBnician art was a
development of Egyptian style, and most infer that the 8bemite8
horrowed their artistical forms from the neighboring nations. Thus,
the so-called Moabite relief, from Kcdjom el-Aabed, published by
De Sauley,'" is closely allied in Btjle to the Assyrian reliefi ; and it
might be taken for the work of
the proud conquerors of Palestine,
were not the fype of the face, and
the absence of the characteristi-
cal long-flowing Assyrian tressee
rather Shemitic Again, the
lost -Scriptural and mysteriously-
engraved gema Urim and Z^iim-
Bttni, which adorned the breast
plate of the Hebrew high-priest,'"
bear philologically such an affi-
nity to the Egyptian Uraua and
Tkmei, jndicial symbols of powei
and truth, that, as some Egyptolo-
^sts have suggested, they might
have been borrowed from Egypt. "Without laying too great stresf
on this suggestion, wliich cannot be either proved or disproved, wt
must admit, that at the latest period of the Hebrew monarchy, tht
imagery of the prophets, — for instance, the vision of Ezekiel, — \f
entirely Assyrian, The eagle, the winged lion, hull and man, whicl
finally became the symbols of the four Evangelists,"" are now pret^
familiar to us by the Assyrian reliefs of the Lonvre and of the Sritisl
Museum. 80 are the revolving vringed orbs of the prophets; evident!;
the same sj-mbolical emblems which, among the Egyptians, designatec
HoR-HAT, the celestial sun,'" and were transferred to Kineveh am
Persepolis as the symbol of the Feruerg or Guardian Angels.
HeVoj/aji! dam In Trrra bibliqun. 1858, Atlal, pi. XVllU — Typt* of Manieind, p. 630.
>» Lanci. La Siigra Serillura iUutlrala, Boma, 1827 ; pp. 20g-23a, »nd PlntM : — Idoi
J.elire i M.PTutr. pp. 84-6.
1" ["Est vitului Lncae. Iio MarcDS, ariiqne JobanncB,
E!>l homo Mnltliviis. qunluor Utn Drua;
Ext homo QftMendo, illu1u» morlcin pntiendo,
EbI leo Borgendo, sed nvia nd sninnm petoodo."
(SjBhiiko, Pa' ArchSologuika SalUkaptli koiinad och FBrhg, SlCMjkholm, 1822, p. AS):-
Mr\TKH (Sinnhilder vnd KimtlrortUllimg dtr alltn ChtiHtn, A1tOD&, 1826, p. 25. pp. 44-S,
pttr the pnlriiiliG citntions from Irennuii. Augnstiue, Jerome, &e. '■ llidrDt aatem Jodni t
Anibes,'' adds old OArrARiLLl. — 0. B. O]
■>■ [Olia .f:g>ii'liaco, pp. 96-C:— 7Vm of Mankind, p. 602. I re-sllade to tbii Immiim
find in Rabkaok (//'■'. of tht Jnu, p. 24S} thitt Ihe t«iU of lakikh mnd Halachi *ar
•ipl«iD«d by the MM "with wings" IB far iMiekM 1701. — Q.ILQ.]
THE ABT OF THE SHEHITES.
135
Bat the Phoenicians hod no peculiar predilection for the forma of
•rt connected with the civilization of hieroglyphica, or of the cunei-
fbna diaracter. Unable themselves to create a national style of art.
they adopted Grecian art instead. The types of all the coins of
PhcBnicia and Cilicia, whether "autonomout" or inscribed with th&
name of the PeiBian Satraps, are Greek as regards the style ; so too
are the medals of the Carthaginian towns of Sicily, vying in beauty
with the best Syracuaan medals. " Their eregance," according to
Gerhard,"' "is a proo^ not of proficiency, but of the absence of
national art, since there only can a foreign style be introduced, where
it has no national forms to displace." Even the Cypnot-head, dis-
covered by Ross and published by Gerhard,"* ia in its principal forms
entirely Greek, reminding us of tlifi
eaiiiest Hellenic style ; and it is therefore ^- ^^■
classed by Gerhard among the specimens
of archaic Greek sculpture, although
found on an originally Phcenician island,
because we know of no other instance of
a similar atylo of Shemitic art, at the
same lime that the Greek reliefi of Seli-
nuB are analogous to it.
The eoil of Carthage and of northern
Afiica, over which Punic domination
extended, has not yielded any monu-
menta of Cartha^nian art, all such traces
of Pnnic civilization having been com- Ctpbioi Tbnu*.
pletety swept away by the Roman con-
quest and its supeiimposed civilization. Accordingly, it is to Spain
and to Sardinia that wo have to look for specimens of Curthngiuian
art. But the bronze statuettes disinterred from the Punic mounds of
Sardinia {Nuraghe) '" are so barbarous and unartistical, that we might
have ascribed them to indigenous tribes, had we not found entirely
analogooB idols on some islands of the Archipelago,"* and at Mount
Lebanon. David TTrquhart, M. P., the well-lcnown oriental traveller
and diplomatist, brought five such statuettes from among the
Maronites, discovered during his stay in Syria, which now enrich
my collection of antiquities. Similar monuments were procured
6om ancient Tyre by the late M. Borel, French Consul at Smyrna.
w tfifr dk Kmt Jtr Phmidtr, Berlin, 184B, p. 21.
" tbUtm, pi. VIII. 2, " ETprbohe Venn^idole."
™ Cf. Di u Ha«mou ( Voyufi at Sardaigni dt 1829 i 1836,) for pl>t«t and deacriptloB*.
■u Obuabv, Imq cU*te.
136
THE ABT OF THE SHEHITES.
"We pablieh Bome of these brooxeB as specimens of tiie oiig^nal aaA
tmadulterated Shemitic art
The first, in fig. 22, is astataette wiUi some Egyptdan toacheBi bca-'t
Hc.as.
UoLOOH, {FuUthg CalL)
the next, and fig. 23, are of progressive barbarism — all characterized
by the peculiar head-dress in the shape of a bom, the " exalted horn "
of the Scriptures, which, down to the present day, has endured in the
national ornament of the Druse females. The ugliness of these, no
less than of the Sardinian statnettes, — scarcely reconcilable with com-
monly received ideaa about the wealth and display of the merchant-
princes of Sidon and Tyre, and the power of Carthage, — onght not to
throw a doubt upon their Shemitic origin ; for, according to Herod-
otus,'" ugly and distorted representations were not excluded fit>m
among the Phoenician forms of godhead.
»• HnoDOTOs, in. 87.
THE ART OF THE SHEMITES
137
Fig. 28.
EsHMUH, (PuUsky ColL)
** ^^fvacktHmtai^B gaess," mjs Gerhard, in his often quoted essay, *' that elegance might
^^^ been the principal feature of Phoenician art, is not borne out by the extant idols ; these
tilde and intended to strike terror, like the idols of Mexico. ^^' .... All the oriental ele-
in Greek and Etroscan art," he continues, ** formerly attributed to Phoenician influ-
^, can be traced to quite different countries of Asia, first to Candaules and Croesus of
^'^a, bat if we ascend to the souree^to Babylon and Nineyeh. According to the remains
^ Phoenician monuments, the merit of this nation must be restricted to the clerer use of
*^*^ peculiar materials, for instance, bronxe, gold, and iyory, glass and purple ; and to
^^¥ mediating assistance afforded to the higher art of inner Asia, by copying their forms^
*^ by carrying them to the west"
The Shemites being destitate of higher national art, it is to the
Egyptian and Afisyrian monuments that we are indebted for the pre-
dication of the ancient Shemitic cast of features, which has remained
^iichanged for thirty and more centuries."^ We could not have
''^cogDized them in the works of their own artists, who either imi-
^ GsBBAmD, 0/. eit., p. 17, 21.
'*' See examples in Typet of Mankind, chapter iy. *< Physical History of the Jews.**
i
138 THE NATIONS OP THE
tati}d the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Greeks, or relapsed into com
plete barbarism, but never felt any inward impulse of their own to
reproduce nature in sculpture and painting.
Our researches on Shemitic art clearly establish the fact, that, highly
gifted races may be unartistic, and that neither wealth nor love of
display, neither inventive genius nor culture, can create art among
them.
IV. — THE NATIONS OP THE GUNEIPORX WHITING.
The country lying east of the homestead of the Shemites,
embracing the plain of Mesopotamia, and the highlands flanking the
Tigris up to the Persian desert, was in antiquity always the seat of
great empires, — expanding principally towards the west, often threat-
ening and sometimes subduing the Asiatic coast of the Mediterra-
nean, and extending its influence to Europe. The populations dwell-
ing along the Euphrates and Tigris, and on the Armenian and Per-
sian table-land — were not homogeneous. Cushite, Shemitic, Arian,
and Turanian elements struggled here against one another: the scep-
tre of the West Asiatic empire often changed hands amongst them,
but always within the limits mentioned above; being transferred
from Nineveh to Babylon, from Babylon to Ecbatana and Persepolis;
again to Seleucia, thence to Ctesiphon, and at last to Bagdad. The
national peculiarities of this empire have remained in many respects
a puzzle for the ethnologists. What was the pi-ecise character of the
languages of Assyria and Babylonia — ^what the seat of the Scythians
who invaded the empire, and ruled it for twenty-eight years ; and
what the national type of the Medes, and perhaps even of the Par-
thians, — are difficulties not yet solved, which require ftirther investi-
gation.
All modern chronologists and philologists agree about the ancient
Persians, that they were pure and unmixed Japetides, or Indo-
Europeans ; so much so, that the name by which they themselves
called their race — Arians or Iranians — ^has been adopted for designa-
ting the peculiar family of the white race to which they belong.
The Mcdes^'^ and the Parthians, on the other side, are classed among
the Turanians, or Scythians, or Turk-Tartars. As to the Assyrians
and Babylonians, the following is the result of the latest researches :
The Chevalier BuNSEN, — whose eminently suggestive works will
remain of the highest value, even when a more thorough knowledge
of the subjects he treats may have modified many of his hypotheses
118 According to Strabo, the difference of the Mede and Persian languages was a dif-
ference of mere dialect t stiU, our scholars unanimously designate the Soythiaii (or Torft-
nian), second inscription of Behistiin, bj the word Median,
CUNEIFORM WRITING. 139
Aud coiiclasious; Max MBller, the well-known Sanscrit scholar;
aud Lepsius, the celebrated Egyptologist; are the foremost of a
Bchool which tries to find out a union between the Shemitic and the
Arian races, and to derive all the languages of Europe and of Asia
from one common original stock. According to their theory, the
languages of the old world may be classed into four distinct families:
Hamitic or Cushite, Shemiticy Turanian (including the Chinese, the
Turk-Tartars and Malays,) and Arian. Proceeding farther, they
assert that the Hamitic is but an earlier form of the Shemitic, whilst
the Arian is for them nothing more than the development of the
Turanian. Having reduced the four families to two, they seek a
union between the Shemitic and Arian, and believe they have
found the traces of this original unity, first in the ancient Egyptian,
and again in the Babylonian and Assyrian.^^^
However, these conclusions are rather speculative hypotheses than
acquired scientific facts. Lepsius acknowledges that the Coptic
forms a branch as distinct and as distant from the Shemitic, as the She-
mitic is from the Arian ; whilst Bunsen and Max Miiller admit the
same, by placing that which they call the sacred language of Assyria
and Babylonia " between Hamitism, or the ante-historical Shemitism
in Egypt, and the historical Shemitic languages ;**^* and again, by
stating that "the cuneiform inscriptions of Babylon exhibit to us a
language in the transition from primordial to historical Shemi-
tism." «*
Renan, on the other hand, cannot imagine how any Shemitic
language could have been written in a non-Shemitic alphabet :
*< Iq emrlj antiquity, langaage and alphabet are inseparable : the cuneiform characters
nij have been adopted by nations having no alphabet of their own ; bnt how should the
imperfect, ideographic, system of Assyria and Babylon have served for writing hingaages
which had a more developed system of writing of their own 7"
Besides, according to him, the national history of the Assyrians
and Babylonians has no Shemitic characters.
**Sheinitie life is simple and narrow, patriarchal, and hostile to centralization. The
Shemite dislikes manual labor, and the patience and discipline — such as raised gigantic
»trucUiieg fike those of Egypt and Assyria, — are wanting with him. At Nineveh, on the
ctrntrary, we meet with a great development of material civilization, with an absolute
Aonareby, with flourishing imitative art, with a grand style of architecture, with a mytho-
logy impregnated with Arian ideas, with a tendency to see an incarnation of Godhead in
the king, and with a spirit of conquest and centralization."
i>* Bex SBH and Max Mijllkb, Outlint* of tht Philosophy of Hittory : — Lipsius, 1st, Anord-
9KMf mid VerwmuU§eha/t det Semititcheny IndUchen^ Altpertuehen und Altathtopitehen AlpKor
^Krt; and lid, Urtprung und Verwandtseha/l der Zahlvorter,
^ HippoIytMi, in, p. 188, seqq. : — Outlinet, I, p. 188, seqq.
»Ltiffl, Cftivp. n. { 8, 4.
I<kJ THE yATIOXS OF THE
T!ie CLilvif^UL? of Babylonia, with their magnificent robes, riding
ja *:iij:!i-?w Lr::«hi horses, and wearing high tiaras, as described by
I*L:i:ki^l.~ jj\r iheretore, for Becan, not Shemites, but a branch of
^<; nl:::^ moe of Asevria; which, according to him, was Ariaa.
A? : J iLr crimes of the kings : Tiglatk-PUuar^ Sennaeheribj Sargm^
Jfn'-^Ar .ij;.-i, yiirh.-itmpalj ic, — they are contraiy to the fund&< —
r^t Ural laws of zLe Syiw Arabic langoages^ and cannot be reduced t
Sh^*::::::: r>:-:s. B:i: a^n. most of the towns and rivers in Assvri
Aiid P«.^v'^-:a have Sbemitic n^imes; whence he infers that th
Vulk c:' il~e rcrulidon in Mesop-i^tamia must have been Shemitic
bu: sutjcvt :o ;i cc'nq-ering race of Arians, which tbrmed a milita
ar.»:. V r.icy jkiid a religious caste, both summed up in the person o:
the ii:<.:'.u:e king.
Wo V Ar.r. .^: tut admit the force of Benan*s reasoning ; and his con
elusion alvui the two nationalities in Assyria and Babylonia^" (tha
is to 5i»y. about the Shemitic character of the bulk of the people wi
a rulii-.c raoe of Iranians^ is supported by the Shemitic and bilingua
inscrljiioii? on some Assyrian monuments already noticed. Thi
view of a mixed pojulauon inhabiting Mesopotamia, sufficiently ex
plains the semi-SLoii;::io peculiarities of the languages of the cunei
form iuscripdons on -Le monuments of 2f ineveh and Babylon : an
the roasv^uir.ir of the loaniod author of '•the Genesis of the Earths
auvl of M:iu, ' loads to iho same result when he observes, — '-a mixecL
LuiiruajTO ob:;ii::l:.5: in one oouuny indicates a mixture of races; and.
iho icrar.iiuar of iluu bniriiage, by its being unmixed or mixed, is an
iiulox to the lunubor and power of one race in comparison with the
oihor at tho porivHl v>f the formation of the mixed language."*^" Ao-
vvixii^'iT to tiils rulo, the A>syrian aud Babylonian, instead of forming
iho •'iiuT'.<'.:iv^u Wtwoon ante-historical and historical Sheniitism,"
iii\iNi Iv oo*..>ivK ivd as the result of the mixture of Shemitic and
Vvui!i olo'iuv.'.s, at any rate not anterior to historical Shemitism.
Hu' iiiv'i'.v.iiunts ot* an disoovored in Assyria and Babylonia lead to
iho ^.iv.A' ov^tiv Iv.sion. vi.: : tl;at the ruling Masses were Arian, since all
tiu' .^k;.!pii::vs oomuvtod with cuneiform inscriptions bear the same
Vi..i ! .1 Miiut^r at Niuovoh as well as at Persepolis. In fact, the
.iM ■ .r.ou aiul tlio fundamental ideas about political government
V .; -^ x'v..ial admiiiistration arc identical among all the nations
>o v^i' tlio ouncitonn character, though we must admit dif-
\\Ml
. , , J '.M.>5 N'f.^re KonAn, inM«tod up^n ilio northern onpin of the Cbaldeani
\
^,,. -. !'.»»> Umisu diffownt from the bulk of the population.
.» \ M ..%i xKi t\vnt. Kiiiuhurgh, IS06, p. 155:— compare Tjtftt rf MunkinJ,
w s
CUNEIFORM WRITING. 141
; degrees of development. The Babylonian inscriptions abound
ideographic groups reminding us of the hieroglyphics of Egypt,
t the Arians of Persia borrowed the phonetic system from the
ites, but retained the form of the wedge. As to their artistic
ities, the Assyrians occupy the highest rank, in some of the has-
} of Sardanapalus second only to the Greeks. Some of the Per-
tan seals are likewise of a high, chaste, and sober style of art,
iarly charming by the introduction of picturesque folds into the
' Assyrian garments. The Babylonians, with whom the Shemi-
ement always preponderated, were little artistic; inscriptions
more copious with them than reliefs, and their sculptures are
•ut exception rade in execution, and monotonous in conception.
is difficult to speak about the origin or the early history of
ian art The earliest mention of the empire occurs in the
flyphic annals of Thutmosis m, the great conquering Pharaoh
e XVIIth dynasty, about the seventeenth century, b. c, who
i his victories to be recorded on a slab deciphered by Mr.
."* We hear of the defeat of the king of Naharaina (Mesopo-
); or of the chief of /SaenArar, (Shinar) bringing as tribute blue-
of Babiluj (lapis-lazuli from Babylon). Under Amenophis m,
id Asuruy Naharaina and Saenkar, again among the conquered
ries.^ And, as corroborative of the truth of the hieroglyphical
Is, Egyptian scarabs with the engraved names of these two
have been found in various parts of Mesopotamia.^ At a
rhat later period, under the XXth dynasty of the Ramessidbs,
lief of Bakktan ** offers his daughter to Ramesses XIV, who
Bs her ; and soon after, about the time when the Ark of the
lant was taken from the Israelites by the Philistines, sent the
f the Egyptian Qod, Khons, from Thebes to Bashan, as a remedy
sister-in-law, who was possessed by an evil spirit.^ The
Durse between Egypt and Mesopotamia became soon still more
^nd intimate.** We find Pharaoh Pihem, the head of the XXLst
ty, journeying on a friendly visit to Mesopotamia : '^* moreover,
ccessors and their descendants, — to judge by their names, —
BCH, The Annals of Thotmet III, toI t. of the Transftotioiis of the B07, Soe.
'New series, p. 116.
psirs, DenkmaUr IH Bl. 88.
rAED, Nifuvfh and Babylon^ p. 281 : — Types 0/ Mankind, p. 188, fig. 82.
fptologists identify Bakhtan with the scriptural Bashan ** m vpper Mesopotaimlaj**
eall it, thoogh it is rather bold to call Mesopotamia the ooontrj bordering oa iStkt
Hanasseh. — In oonseqnenoe, some faTor Eebatana,
tea, Transaeiiont R, 8oe. Lit, IV. p. 16 & t
Ptnm, DenkmdUr HI, BL 249.
ICK, Tnmsaeiitnu B, Soe. Lit. 1848, p. 164 A f.
142 THB NATIONS OF THE
are connected with Mesopotamia; inasmuch as the names of Osor-
KON, {Sargon) Takeloth {Tiglath)y NiMRODy and Eekomama {Semi-
ramisj) are altogether un-Egyptian, and strongly Assyrian. About
this time (9th and 10th century b. c.) ivory combs, and decorative
sculptures of Assyrian design became fashionable in Egypt,^ and
show that the Assyrian style of art was already fully developed. The
celebrated black marble obelisk of king Divanubab {Delebor(ui)j in
the British Museum, belongs to about the same period, being
synchronic with king Jehu of Israel (about 820 b. o.), and bears no
peculiar traces of archaism. The archaic human-headed bull and
lion of Arban, published by Layard,*^ must therefore be placed by
several centuries before the obelisk, and may perhaps belong to the
time of the first contact of Mesopotamia and Egypt under the con*
quering kings of the XVIIth and XVUIth dynasties.
** Thoir outline and treatment,'' sajs Layard, ** are bold and angnlar, witH an archaie feel-
ing conrejing the impression of great antiqnity. Thej bear the same relation to the mor»
delicately finished and highly ornamented sculptares of Nimrond as the earliest speoiiiieii»
of Greek art do to the exquisite monuments of Phidias and Praxiteles. The liiimaB.
features are, unfortunately, much iigured, but such parts as remain are sufficient to show-
that the countenance had a peculiar character, differing from the Assyrian type. The noe»
was flat and large, and the lips thick and OTerhanging, like those of a iicyro."
To judge by the drawing of Dr. Layard, knowing the correctness
of his designs, we must observe that the head of the Arban bull haa
as little of nigritian characters as the head of the colossal sphinx*"
before the second Pyramid ; which had formerly likewise often been
compared to a Negro, exclusively on account of the fulness of the
lips, and the defacement of its nose by Arab iconoclasts,^ The fece,
however, on both these monuments, has no particular projection of
is> De Rouq£, Notice^ p. 16: — established also by Birch, **0n two Egyptian cartouches
foand at Nimrond," 1848, pp. 168-60; abundantly figured in Latabd's folio ManumenUtf
Nineveh, 1849.
» Nineveh and BabyUm, p. 276 & f
u« [Since the studies of Lemobmant (MwSe de§ Antigtutii £gypiienne»^ p. 44), and of
Letronne {Recueil des Inscriptions Orecques et Ladnes, II, 1848, pp. 460-86), the epoch here-
tofore attributed to the Great Sphinx, viz : to Amosis (Aahmit) of XVIIth dynasty, has aho
been carried to the more ancient period of the Old Empire, through the successiye explora-
tions of Lepsius (Briefe, 1852, pp. 42-5), Brugsoh {Reinberiehte^ 1866, pp. 10-84), and
more than all by Mariettx, who re-uncovered this rock-colossus in 1868. The enigma of
the '* Sphinx," through the latter*s researches, has ranished likewise ! It is but *'HoEns of
the horizon," t. e. the setting sun. (De Saulot, <* Fouilles du S^rap^um de Memphis,** Le
Consiitulionel, Paris, 9 Dec. 18t4: — Maubt, Dicouvertes en ^ypte, p. 1074) — O. R. O.]
1^ [Makreezer narrates how the nose of the Sphinx was chiselled away by a fknalioal
muslim saint, about 1878: — Of. Fialin di Pebsignt, then "detenu & la maison de saat^
do Doulcns," (De la Destination el de F Utility permanenle des Pyramidet de VSgyptt et de iu
NMe eonlre Us Irruptions Sablonneuses du DSsert, Paris, Sro. 1846). — O. R. O.]
CUNEIFORM WRITING. 143
>wa, and the £Etcial angle is open. The fulness of the lips pecn-
» the Egyptian, or negroid type, reminds the man of science only
ypt, not of negroes ; who, in spite of Count db Gobineau's inge-
hypotheses,^ could not have been the ancestors of the Arian
rchs of Mesopotamia. Though all the human-headed bulls of
ia are royal portraits, just as sphinxes of Egypt were likenesses
B Pharaohs,*^ still, we are scarcely authorized to draw any con-
>n about an Egyptian origin of Assyrian art from the negroid
aps AiBb-Cushite) cast of features of the Arban king ; for, in all
respects, the colossus exhibits the marked characteristics of
Tian art; for instance, in the elaborate arrangement of the curls
leard, the architectural peculiarity of the five feet of the bull,
ul of four, together with the exaggeration of the muscles.
ian art, in its earliest known remains, appears entirely national
ndependent of Egypt ; and it maintains its peculiar type through
icissitudes of several centuries down to the destruction of the
76. We do not mean to say that Egypt exerted no influence
jver on Assyria; on the contrary, there are some bronze
and ivoiy ornaments and statuettes, in the British Museum,
ntly imitated from Egyptian models; still, the Egyptian ex-
but a temporary influence on the decorative element of the
ian style, without modifying the art of Assyria, which can best
situated by the epithet of '* princely." The king, according to
ilic&, sums up the whole national life of Nineveh. Wherever
>ok, we meet exclusively with his representations, surrounded
ivith his court, there with his army, receiving tribute and con-
\g treaties, leading his troops and fighting battles, besieging
sses and punishing the prisoners, hunting the wild bull and the
»f the desert, feasting in his royal halls and drinking wine from
- cups. Even the pantheon of Assyria is mostly known by the
lip, oblations, and sacrifices of the king. The scenes of domes-
e, and of the sports and occupations of the people, which, in
tian reliefs, occupy nearly as much place as the representations
3cted with royalty, are altogether wanting at Nineveh. There
few slabs that represent domestic occupations — a servant curry-
ing a horse, a cook superintending the boilers, and the butchers
B GoiixKAU, in his Inigaliti de» raca humainea^ attributes the artistic faculties of any
an admixture of Negro or Mongol blood, although he acknowledges that pure Negroes
irtistie.
he union of a human head to a lion in Egypt, and to a bull in Assyria, implies an
osis; since the lion and the bull were the symbols of Gods, the terrestrial images of
d beings.
144 THE NATIONS OF THE
disjointing a calf;^ but all this is done before the tent of the king:
it is the royal stable and the r(>yaZ kitchen which we see before us, — ^Ln
fact, "court-life below stairs." The rich Asiatic costume of the
Assyrians, wide and flowing, decorated with embroidery^ fringes and
tassels, contrasts most strikingly with the prevalent nakedness of
Egyptian and Greek art. We are always reminded of the pomp, splen-
dor and etiquette of eastern courts. The proportions of the human
body are somewhat short and heavy, less animated in their action, but
more correctly modelled than in Egyptian reliefe, Nothing but an
occasional want of correctness about the shoulders and the eyes,
which, in the bas-reliefe, are drawn in the front-view, reminds us of the
infancy of art or of a traditionary hieratic style. The anatomical
knowledge, however, with which the muscles are sculptured, even
where the execution is rather coarse, surpasses the art of Egypt in
the time of the XVIIth dynasty. The composition is generally
clear, the space conveniently and symmetrically filled with figures,
and the relief, to a certain degree, has ceased to be a mere architec-
tural decoration : on the palace of Essarhaddon, it has even become
a real tableau. For all this, we cannot appreciate the merit of the
sculptures, if we pass our judgment upon them independently of the
place for which they were originally destined. Accordingly, the
peculiarly Assyrian exaggeration in representing the muscles of the
body has often been criticized ; ^ since it escaped the attention of our
modem art-critics, that this fault is only apparent, not real, being
produced exclusively by the different way in which the bas-reliefe
were lit in antiquity and modem times. Li the hot climate and
under the glaring sun of Mesopotamia, the palaces were built prin-
cipally with the view to afford coolness and shade ; and therefore all
the royal halls were long, high and narrow, in order to exclude the
rays of the sun. They could, in consequence, but very imperfectly
have been lighted from above, through apertures in the colonnade
supporting the beams of the roof. A cool chiaroscuro reigned in all
the apartments ; and unless the reliefs on the wall were intended
altogether to be lost to beholders, it was indispensable to have the
principal lines deeply cut into the alabaster, in order to produce a
flufficiently-intense shadow for making the composition and its details
apparent. The Assyrian sculptors, with true artistical feeling, cal-
culated upon the effect their works were to make in the king's
palaces ; but could not dream that their compositions were to be
1* BoNOMi, Nineveh and iu Palaees, p. 22S-29 ; an ooUto whioh admirablj popalarUai the
costly folios of Botta and Flardih's yinive.
u* BoNOMi, Nineveh and Ui Palaeet, p. 815.
CUNEIFURM ITRITIKG.
145
f the critics of our
exposed, 28 centuries later, to the close iDSpection o
lUy ia well-lighted moseuiUB.
When we claim a peculiar national tj-pe for Assyrian art, alto-
gether independent of Egyptian, we do not mean to deny accidental
figyptian influence, which, however, could not transform Assyrian
sculpture into a branch of Nilotic art The beautiful embossed
bronze bowls, ivory bas-reliefa and atatucttea found at Nineveh, are
certainly imitations of Egyptian models; but we encounter Bimilar
artistical fashions at Rome in the time of Hadrian. They remained
altogether on the surface, and did not affect the uational style. Still,
we do find some artistic " motives," even on the best relicfe of Nim-
rood and Khorsahad, which show on the one hand, that the Assyrian
ecniptora were acquainted with some Egyptian monuments of art;
and on Uie other, that this acquaintance ever continued to be super-
ficial. Thus, for instance, we often meet on Pharaonic battle-scenes,
with the vulture, holding a sword in its claws, soaring above the king,'
as a symbol of victory. The Ninevite artists copied this representa-
tion, but, nnacquMUted with its hieratic symbolical meaning, sculp-
tured the vulture simply as the hideous bird of prey, feeding upon the
corpses on the battle-field, and carrying the limbs into its eyrie. In
a sinular way, the winged solar disc, the symbol of the heavenly sun,
was transformed in Assyria into the guardian-angel of the king him*
seU^ and transferred at a later age to Persia as the Feruer.
The following representation of
an AsByriu) [24] ^ves ua a &ir
idea of the Arian t^e of the Nine-
vita ariatocracy. It is the head
of a statue of the Gknl Nbbo, iu the
Mtish Museum, bearing across its
breast an inscription, stating that
the statue was executed by a sculp-
tor of Calab, and dedicated by him
to his lord Phalckha, (Belochm,
Pulj) king of Assyria, and to his
Itdy Bahkubahit {Semiramu) queen
rfthe palace (about 750 B. c).
The same general cast of features
ii clearly discernible in an inedited
portrait of EssAHHAmiOK [25] (about
680 B. c.) taken fiom the great tri-
nmphal tableau at Kouyundjik, j,,^
now in the British Museum. The
Ninevite artiHta. — who, about the time of this king, introduced a
10
Fig. 3*.
146
THE NATIONS OF THE
new feature into relievot by trying, to combiDe landscape and natonl
Fig. 26.
Pbisonib, (Intdiud).
objects with the great historical
compositionB, — were perfectly
aware of the differences in the
national types also. The two pri-
soners at the feet of king AssJut-
AKBAL m, are evidently not Assy-
rians, one of them [26] being a
Shemite, the other [27] an inha-
bitant of the table-lands of Arme-
nia, if not a Kurd. Sir Heniy
Bawlinson deems them Simant.
Still nobler than EasAHHADDOX
la the Sardanapalitb [28] (636 b.
0.) of the British Museum, a truly
magnificent prince, the fitther of
the king under whom Nineveh
was destroyed, and who, in the
Greek histories, is mentioned
under the same name. Wt
monuments, lately discovered.
Fig.2T.
KraDiiB pRiBOitiB, [IntJiuJ).
and brought to England by Mr. Baasam, are bo exquisitely modelled,
and executed with such a highly-developed senBe of beauty,
that we must rank them among the best relics of ancient art. The
peculiar hair-drees of the king seems to have served as a model to
the Lycian sculptor of the Harpy monument of Xanthus, in the
Br. M. ; and it is remarkable that the female head [29] of an archaic
lioin of Velio, in Italy, flhows the same arrangement of the hair. Velia
ivas a colony from PhocEea, in Ionia, whose high-minded citizens
j)referred abandoning their country, rather than to live under the
CDNEirOBM WBITING. 147
m; of tlie conqueror CtxesoB. The; carried the traditions of
Kg. 28. Fig. 29.
Tiu^ (/Unty«eU.)
Auiatic art into Italy, at a time
when Hellas could not yet
boast of eminence in scnlptore.
Bnt although the hidr-drees
of the YeUan female closely
resemhlee and may be traced
back to Assyrian models, which
are about two centnries older,
"til] ^e cast of the features is not tiie same. It is, as might be ex-
pected, thoroughly Greek. Whilst, as a remarkable instance of the
<^nstancy of national typee, the likeness between the modem Chal-
deaiu (Nestorians) and the old Assyrians is onmietakable. To illus-
t*ate tins properiy, we pve, rade by side, sketches of a Chaldean mer^
^^''^ut of Mosul, and a head from one of the Nineveh scnlptaTea.'*'
it
ng.81.
Aaotan AtanuB.
^■Iigplon, of whose art but few remains have as yet been di^
Unikit Xtw, Uv 24, 1866.
'fcj. "a.
■iS :* iTIOSS OF THE
.. -j^- • ^ttiiR>.-:u. aesid of lapis-lazali and htetnatitc, and
^ ii— i.» E^iti^jrnftioalthaD Nineveh. Ita etatuaty was
-., . :^; ~a::, av-t di&ring in atyle, but only in perfec-
t :,!,.•;■. .i. an Konnments, without exception, are evi-
-'» ;• ^ >fetai:dc oharacter of the country; whither art
,:t. .■^«*4. T-.-'Jt S:=*veh, without ever becoming thoroughly
r -<..■** ■■«**;1<;J in Arian Persia. The royal palacea and
tomba of the Acheemenian
kings yield numerDua epeci-
ntene of Peisian art, mostly
belonging to the great time
of Pereia under Darids Hys-
TA8PB8 and his son Xerxes.
NevertbeleBs, one monnment,
which shows the ori^n of
art under the Achfemenidn,
has likewise escaped the ra —
vages of time, and is proba —
bly the earliest of all th«^
Persian reliefe. We speak of^
the rock-sculpture at Mur —
glidh, close to Persepolis, re —
presenting a man vrith foui —
wings, clad in the long As —
sytiun robe without folds, and
beating on his head the Egyp-
tian crowr called "Atf,"which
is the peculiar distinction of the
God Chnum. The cuneifonn
inscription, above the sculp-
ture, says, with grandeur and
siniplici^ : " I am Ctrbs, the
king; the AchEemenian."[32]
This monument was evi-
s>trv«\'*^ »" honour of Cyrus, but it cannot have been
• M >'»>' iit»^ti»»e of the conqueror, inasmuch as his wingf
' " . iS> \**vrian attribntee of Godhead), and the crown of
s > ■« ibc Ko'l''"'" eymbol of divine power), clearly indi-
' * X \ \'««*. 'Vi>** peculiarity of the costume of Cyrus, which
" *'v»»'t««* without folds, tbrbids us to place the aculpture
"^"'^ ^ ■- i^i^Hs or his descendants ; whose monuments, with-
■^^,A W rv-r*''^ 4lhwl.. London, 1866; PJ»te, pp 392-8,
CUNEIFORM WRITING
149
eption, are characterized by the Persian folds of the gar-
, then, the relief of Murghdb must be the work of Cam-
vho, according to Diodorus Siculus,"* employed Egyptian
Bind was probably the first to introduce art into Persia. Ac-
to the rock-sculpture, however, he did not confine himself
tians, but transplanted sculptors likewise from Babylonia and
to Pasargadse, and dedicated their first work to the lasting
r of his illustrious father (about 630 b. c). Thus, we may
tate that Persian art is a daughter of the Assyrian, a little
i by Egyptian influences, but soon emancipating itself from
f traditions by a purely national development, characterized
very high elegance of the drapery. Bonomi**^ takes the
style, wrongly, for a deterioration of Assyrian art; but his
i is easily explained, since he formed his judgment upon some
[its of a later period, which are now in the British Museum,
>n the drawings of Ker Porter and Gore Ouseley. The Perse
idin, and the ArmSnie of Texier, seem to have escaped his
►n. They are the only ones, notwithstanding, which do full
to the refined taste and the neat execution of the sculptures
jepolis. In comparison with the Assyrian Monuments of
and EssARHADDON, they take the same place, as, in Egypt,
e elegant style of Psammeticus contrasted with the grandeur
tatues of the Amenophs and Thutmoses. We must, however,
ledge that they are inferior to the reliefs of Sardanapalus.
)ugh the head of Cyrus (as shown by the more accurate copy of
Texier^** [33] here presented,)
at Murgh^b, is somewhat
y\\r%. damaged about the nose, it
is sufliciently characteristic
to show its pure Arian type.
The portrait of Xerxes,^** [34]
is a fine specimen of the so-
termed Greek profile, which
we ought to call pure Arian.
The Achfiemenidan sculptors
moreover, were very well ac-
quainted with the peculiar
Cniuf . character of the diflferent na-
0 1, eapite 46.
vek and iU Palaces, p. 815.
mi/jite, la Peru, et la Mitopotamie, IL, pi 84 — <* Bas-relief k Mourgib, C^nff." t
'■ and Flabdih, Pent Aneimne^ pi. 164 ; bat compare the more beMitifU oopj ia
Afmim$.
ig. 83.
Fig. 84.
loQ THE NATIONS OF THE
tional types of tLe inhabitants of the Peraian empire; as we eec
plainly on the reliefs of the tomb of king Darius irjataafios, which
he had excavated in the mountain Rachmend, near Peraepolia. The
king is represented here in royal attire before the fire-altar, over
which hovers his guardian angel, in the form of a human half-figure
rising iTom a winged disc. This group, grand in its eimplici^', ia
placed on a beautifully decorated plattbrm, supported by two rows
of Caryatides, sixteen in each row, representing the four difltrent
nationalities subject to this Jdng, — beeidea the ruling Persians, who
occupy a more distinguished position, flanking the composition on
both sides, and typified by three spearsmen of the royal guard, «id__
by throe courtiers who raise their hands in adoration.
This relief of the sepulchre of Darius iu Persia, is one of the most.
valuable documents of ethnology, second in importance only to king-
Mknephthah's (Sbti I.) celebrated tomb at Thebes recording foam-
types of man."* We see here first the sculpture of a Chaldean, stand-
Fig. 86."'
Lydian. Boitiiian. Niqbo.
ingfor Assyria and Babylonia; it is so striking that it cannot bemis'"'
taken. Next to the Chaldean stands the negro for the Egypto-
jfithiopian empire added by Cambyses to the Persian. It was on Hie
Kile that Persia became first acquainted with negroes, and therefore
chose them for the representatives of Africa ; though the empire of
the AchtemenidfD, ceasing in N"ubia and the western Oases, never
extended over Negro-land, or the Sood^n proper. The third sup-
porter of the platform can be none else than the representative of
the Scythian empire of Astyages. His peculiarly-round skull, which
still characterizes the pure Turkish and Magyar blood, doaignatcs
him as belonging to a Turanian race. The last figure in the group
wears the Phrygian cap, and personifies the Lydian empire of
Crcesus, of which Phiygia, on account of its rich gold-mines, was
the moat important province.
Thus, in the rock-hewn tomb of Darius, (about 490 B.C.) at b time
0/ Mankind, p. 86. fig. 1 ; ond pp. 247-B.
Tksiib, L'Arminii tt la Firit, 11., pi. 126, "Parajpolia — Tombcan daiui le n
J
CUNEIFORM WRITING. 151
when Greek art was still archaic, Persian sculpture preserved
Ji^t characteristic types of mankind in an admirable work of art,
as evidences of the constancy of the peculiar cast of features of
human races. The monumental negro resembles the negro of to-day ;
the Arian features of king Da;rius and his guards are identical with
those we meet still in Pei-sia and all over Europe ; the Turanian (or
Kcythian) bears a family resemblance to many Turks and Hunga-
rians ; the identity of the Assyrian and modem Chaldean physiog-
nomy has been mentioned and proved above; and the Phrygian
represents the mixed population of Asia Minor, a modification of the
^Arian t}T)e by the infusion of foreign blood — Iranian, Scythic, and
Sheniitish interminglings.
Persian art, as a branch and daughter of the Assyrian, never rose
tx) a higher development than under Darius and Xerxes. The dis-
sensions and the profligacy of the royal house checked the progress
of art, which remained stationary until Alexander the Macedonian
destroyed the independence of the empire, and tried to hellenize the
subdued Persians. His endeavors, continued by the first Seleucid®
of Syria, were not devoid of results ; because, even when Persia
recovered its independence and re-appeared in history as the Par-
t:liian empire, all its coins bear Greek inscriptions and imitations of
Grecian types. "We ought not to forget, notwithstanding, that the
I^arthians were probably not Persians proper^ but an unartistical Tu-
rsuiian tribe, held in subjection by the earlier Persians under tiieir
^chaemenian kings, which, in its turn, revolting from the yoke, ruled
tJie Persians for above four centuries.
Some specimens of a peculiar style of art have been lately disco-
vered within the boundaries of the old Persian empire, viz : at Pte-
rinm and JTymphae. They were published by Texier ; **® and it has
t>©en suggested that they might be Median. The bas-reliefe certainly
Pi^sent nothing to suggest any relation to the art of that race which
originated the cuneiform writing ; nor is a perceptible aflinitj^ con-
^picnous between them and the Egyptian style. Nevertheless, the
^tists who chiselled them knew of the productions of Greek genius.
*ke breath of Hellenism has passed over them, as we perceive from
^^ following male [36] and female [37] heads. They are, therefore,
"7 many centuries posterior to the great Median empire. Still, it
^^tild be presumptuous to attribute them to any determinate nation-
*"tyj since none of the highlands flanking Asia Minor, inhabited then
"y aboriginal tribes, were ever completely hellenized; although they
^^le powerfully aftected by the genius of Hellas, whose progress
PL 61, 78,— <* Bas-relief taill^ dans le roo. L*0ffrande"— et seq.
TUE ETRUSCANS AND THEIR ART. 153
of iirt ch&nged now for the third time ; but neither the instinct for
arty nor its habitual practice, has ever yet been destroyed among the
true Iranian race of Persia.
V. — THE ETRUSCANS AND THEIR ART. ^
Thi Etruscans were a mongrel race, the result of the amalgama-
tion of different tribes, partly Asiatic, partly European, both Italian
ttid Qreek. Their language was mixed, though it is still greatly
disputed how far the Greek elements pervaded the aboriginal forms
of speech. As to the origin of the Etruscans : the most probable
opinion is, that Lydians from the ancient Torrhebis in Asia emi-
g*^ted to Italy and became the rulers of the then little-civilized abo-
rigines, who were either Pelasgic Umbrians, or a Celtic Alpine tribe,
^hich had previously and gradually migrated southwards. They
J^^ld the country fix)m the Po to the Tiber, and extended even to
southern Italy. Greek immigrants, principally JEblians from Corinth,
settled among them at a somewhat later period, and the mixture of
diese uationalities produced the historical Etruscans. In regard to
tlxe details, the standard authors on Etruria differ in their opinions.
It^oul-Rochette takes them for Pelasgi, modified by Lydians;
^Ixereas Niebuhr denies the Lydian immigration related by Herodo-
tas; the Tyrrhenians being with him foreign conquering invaders,
l>ixt not Lydians. Still, the monuments of Etruria bear evidence
l>oth to the early connection between Etruria and Lower Asia, and
to the existence of an unartistic aboriginal population of Umbri,
Sioali, &c.
This view is supported by a great orientalist, Lanci,^** who distin-
f^xishes three periods of Etruscan literature : — 1st. When the Phoe-
i^oo-Lydian elements arrived in Italy ; 2d., when the Greeks began
to nux with it, after the advent of Demaratus ; and 3d., when Qre-
^i-aii mythology, letters, and tongue, preponderated. Similar is that
^f Lenormant,^*^ in perceiving three phases of civilization in Etruria
— **une phase asiatique, une phase corinthienne, une phase ath6-
^^nne." I^ notwithstanding, we remember how, as late as 1848, the
^hole stock of words recovered fix)m inscriptions amounted to but
^^^y-ihree ; ^ and that, — ^besides a few names of deities, like ^SAB,
**C^od" (Osiris ?),— the formula ML A VIL "vixit annos," CLAN
^vrert di Michaslamoklo Lahoi intomo aW Iteniione Etrutca delta tiatua Todma dd
^**^ Vatieano, Roma, Aprile, 1887.
** Fngment snr T^tade dea yases peintes antiques, Revue Archiol,^ May, 1844, p. 87.
^«vis, CUiu and Cemeleriee of Etnuia^ London, 1848, pp. xiii-T, that iB to nj,
^'^ M cannot be explained from Qreek and Latin roots.
154 THE ETRUSCANS
"filius," and SEC "filia," comprised all now known in reality of the
lost speech of the Tyrrheni ; we may well exclaim with the prophet,
" it is an ancient nation, a nation whose language thou knowest not"
Whatever be the pedigree of the Etruscans, they were a hardy am
enterprising nation, full of energy and skill, ready to receive improv
"mentfl from foreign populations, even if, in their institutions, the;
were rather conservative. History shows them as a free, aristocratic
and manufacturing nation, characterized by a marked practical ten
dency,^ by little idealism and feeling for beauty, but much ingenuilj;^-
in applying art to household purposes and to the comfort of private
life. They were, in fact, the Unglish of antiquity, — ^but they had no'C^
the good luck of the British islanders to be surrounded by the eea^
and thus to have enjoyed the possibility of maintaining and develop—
ing their independence without foreign intervention. Few dangers
threatened the Etruscans from the north : they protected themselves
sufficiently against the incursions of savage Gauls, by fortifying theix*
towns, the cyclopean walls of which are still the wonder of the tra-
veller. It was principally towards the south that they had to contend.
with powerful foes. The maritime states of Cumee, Corinth, Sy
cuse, and Carthage, interfered with the extension of Etruscan navc^'
enterprise, and prevented its full development on the Adriatic an
on the Mediterranean. Still, tiie Etruscans were strong enough
defend their own coast, and to exclude the establishment of indepe
dent Greek and Punic settlements on the Tuscan territory. A mo
important and finally fatal enemy arose in their immediate vicini
— Rome, with her population of hardy agriculturists, and a seni^
bent upon conquest and annexation. Accordingly, wars recurr
from time to time, from the foundation of the city until 120 B.
when the Tyrriienian country was finally annexed to Rome. Neve
theless, the city on the Tiber had long previously felt the influen
of the Etruscans in her institutions, laws, and religion. Etruriaga
kings and senators to Rome. Ilcr sacerdotal rites, her works o
public utility, the dignified coHtume of official splendor, and
rently even that univer«al popular garb, the toga, were all of Etru
can origin.
There are principally three features in the history of Etruria, whicH
had a peculiar influence on its art. Being of mized origin themselv
the Tuscans displayed a greater recei)tivity of exotic influences, tharm:
more homogeneous nations, who feel always a kind of repulsion
against foreigners. Being exposed to the attacks of the Gauls, ther-
had to live in towns ; and tliorofore commerce and manufacturing
industry were of greater importance among them than agricultu
Lastly, their history presents no epoch of great national triumphs, el
AND THEIR ART. 155
vating the patnotism of the people, and inspiring the poet and artist.
Art being everywhere the mirror of national life, we find these pecu-
liar features of the Tuscan history expressed in the painting^ and
sculptures of Etruria. They lack originality. The artists borrowed
their forms of art from all the nations with whom their country came
into contact. Idealism and a higher sense of beauty remained foreign*
to them; in consequence, they never reached the highest eminence
of art Under their hands, it became principally ornamental and
decorative, mechanical; and, above all, practical and comfortable
among these obesos et pingueB EtruscoB. Whilst temples and their
ppopylsB are the principal objects of Greek architecture, the walls of
the town, the bridge, the canal, the sewer, and the highway, charac-
terize Tuscan art
This Etruscan want of originality and peculiar receptivity of foreign
influences extends not only to the forms, but even to the subjects of
their paintings and sculpture. They rarely occupy themselves with
their own myths and superstitions, but deal principally with Greek
mythology as developed by the great Epics and even Tragic poetry
of Greece.
All the artistical forms of Etruria were imported from abroad.
Micali, in his Monumenti Antichi^ and Monumenti Ineditiy has pub-
lished so many and such various ancient relics of Etruscan workman-
ship, that a three-fold foreign influence on Tuscan art can no longer
be doubted, viz : Egyptian, Asiatic and Greek. Besides these, we
fiiid that the bulk of the nation must have clung to a peculiar kind
o£ barbarous and ugly idols, intentionally distorted like the patasci of
tlie Phoenicians. These deformed caricatures continued to be fabri-
oated in Etruria to a rather late period : ^ they are an evidence of the
fiBMst that there was an unartistical element in the Tuscan nation,
never polished by the Lydian and Greek immigration. The easy
introduction of foreign forms of art shows likewise that there existed
no higher national style in Etruria previous to the Tyrrhenian
influences.
The most peculiar of all the foreign forms of art among the Tus-
^tuig is the ScarabseuM, that is to say, the beetle-shape of their sculp-
^'Med gems. They must have borrowed it direct fix)m Egypt without
^i^y Qreek inter-medium, since the scarab-form of gems is exceedingly
'•'e ID Greece, and not of so early a period as the Etruscan scarabsei.
Id Egypt this form was always national, being the most conmion
Vn^bol of the creative power of godhead. The Egyptian, beholding
""OiiHAmD, SfonnaUimmagini in Brotuo, BuUetmo delT Imtituto, 1880, p. 11 ; and An-
^^ ^piVti'tichMurfftn, Chi^. 1.
166 THE ETRUSCANS
the beetle of the Nile with its hind legs rolling a ball of mad, which
contained the eggs of the insect, fix>m the river to the desert, saw in
the scarabeeus the symbol of the Creator, shaping the ball of the
earth out of wet clay, and planting in it the seeds of all life.^ The
Egyptian artist often represented this symbol of godhead ; and when
*he had to carve a seal, (the sign of authenticity by which kings and
citizens ratify their pledged word and engagements,) he cut it on
, stone, which he carved into the shape of a beetle, as if thus to place
the seal under the protection and upon the symbol of godhead, in
order to deter people both from forgery and fix)m fidsehood. Placed
over the stomach of a mummy, according to rules specially enjoined
in the " funereal ritual," it was deemed a never-foiling talisman to
shield the "soul" of its wearer against the terrific genii of AmenthL
The Egyptian symbol, however, possessed no analogous religious
meaning for the Etruscans when they adopted the form of the
scarabseus : and even after they had abandoned it, they still retained
the Egyptian cartouche^ which encircles nearly all the works of Etros-
can glyptic.
Besides the scarabsei, we find in Etruria several other Egyptian
reminiscences, — head-dresses similar to the Pharaonic fashion,*" and
even idols of glazed earthenware, entirely of Egyptian shape ; for
instance the representation of Khons, the Egyptian Hercules ; ^ of
Onouris, the Egj^ptian Mars ; or of sistrums and cats,**' all of them
most strikingly Egyptian in their style.
A certain class of black earthenware vases decorated with stamped
representations in relief, many of the earliest painted vases, some
gems mostly of green jasper, and the marble statue of Polledran
now in the British Museum, are by style and costume so closely con
nected with the monuments of Assyria, tliat it is now difficult U
doubt of a connection between Etruria and inner Asia. The disbe
lievers in the Lydian immigration explain the Oriental types oj
Etruria by intercourse with Phoenician merchants, and by the im
portation of Babylonian tapestry, — celebrated all over the ancien
world, — which might have familiarized the Etruscans with tin
Assyrian style and type of art. But the use of the arch in Tuscai
architecture finally disposes of this explanation, since we learned tha
the arch was known to the Assyrians, but not to the early Greeks
It was introduced into the states of Hellas at a rather late period, abou
iM HoRAPOLLO N1LOU8, Hieroglyphiea^ transl. Coet, London, 1840; — "How an onlj
begotten," J X, pp. 19-22.
i» Monumenti delV IntiUuto, toI. 1, pi. XLI. fig. 11-12.
u« MiCALi, Monumenti Antichi^ tay. 45-46.
1*7 Idem, Monum. Inediti, tav. I, II, XVII, L,
AND THEIR ART. 157
the timcB of Phidias. Had this architectural form been brought to
Etiuria by the PhoenicianB, it would have reached Greece at the same
time as Italy, or earlier ; whereas the contrary is the case. The
earliest architectural arch we know is in Egypt, and belongs to the
reign of Harnesses the Great ^ Monsieur Place and Dr. Layard have
discovered brick arches in the palaces of Sargon and his successors
in Assyria, and on the Ninevite reliefe we often see arched gates with
regular key-stones. Etruria was the next in time to make use of the
irch. The Lydians, neighbors of Assyria, must have been acquainted
with arched buildings, and in their new home made a most extensive
use of this architectural feature for gates, and for sewers ; of which
the celebrated Cloaca Maxima of Rome, built by the Tarquinii, is the
most important still-extant example. It is, therefore, rather amusing
to perceive that Seneca,^ having before his eyes this monument of his
coimtry's early greatness, thoughtlessly alleges that Democritus, the
contemporary of Phidias, invented the principle of the arch and of the
key-stone. Indeed, the Romans were no great critics : Seneca ex-
tracted the above-mentioned fact (!) from the Greek author Posidonius,
and trusted his Grecian authority more than his own knowledge.
Democritus was probably the man who introduced the arch from
Italy into Greece, and got the credit of its invention among his vain
fellow-citizens.
Of all the foreign influences on Etruscan art, the Greek was the
niost powerful. It soon superseded both the Egyptian and the
Oriental types. But here we ought not to forget that many of the
Italic colonies of Graecia Magna came from Asia, not from European
Greece, and that the art of Ionia proper and of the neighboring
countries exercised at least an equal influence on the Italiots with
^t of Greece proper. Our histories of art, hitherto, have not paid
^cient attention to the development of art among the Asiatic
Greeks; although the monuments discovered and to a certain extent
Published by Sir Charles Fellowes, Texier, Flandin and others, yield
*^ple material for a compriehensive work on the subject, which
°%ht probably show that not only the poetry, history or philosophy,
^f the Greeks, but even their art, had its cradle in Asia Minor. At any
'^te, the numerous colonies of Miletus, Phocsea, Heraclia, Cyme, and
^er states of Ionia and ^olis, carried the principles of Greek art
"^er than Greece proper.
As to the Greek influence on Etruria, we have to distinguish two
^ Dot three periods : the early Asiatic Ionian, which introduced the
""Bn QAEDnB Wmmisov, Andeni Egyptiana^ t. 1, p. 18, & II, p. 800: — erud^ hfitk
^« ire, howerw, oertainlj m old m Thotmm IIL
158
THE ETRUSCANS AND THEIR ART.
rigid archaic style of the Tuscan bronze-figures;'** the later Doi
style, carried to Tarquinii jfrom Corinth by Bemaratus, which d
racterizes the potteries of Italy ; and perhaps a still later Attic stg^
chaste and dignified, such as we admire on the best Etruscan vas
Inasmuch, however, as all the names of the artists inscribed on 1
vases, the alphabet of the inscriptions, and the style of the drawi]
are exclusively Grecian, there are many archsaologists who do i
attribute them to Etruria, but believe they may have either b<
imported from Greece, or manufactured in Etruria by guilds of Gn
artists who maintained their nationality in the midst of the Tosca
The national type of Tuscan physiognomies is rather ugly :entii
different from the Egyptian, Bhemitic, Assyrian or Greek cast.
is characterized by a low forehead, high cheek-bones, and a coa
and prominent chin. The following wood-cut [88] shows two arcb
heads from an embossed silver-relief found in Perugia,'^ now in
British Museum. The next figure is a frtigment of a statue, [89]] act
Fig. 88.
Fig. 89.
Etbubcan Heads.
VuLOiAN Hbad.
turcd out of a porous volcanic stone called Nenfro, It was found
Vulci, and is remarkable for the Egyptian head-dress and Etruso
features.*® The head of Eos, or Aurora^ [40] from a celebrated bron
now in the British Museum, found at Faltefona in the province
Casentino,*® gives a poor idea of the Tuscan feeling for beauty; sti
the liveliness of the movement and the excellent execution of t
statuette cannot but excite our admiration. Another head [41] o
bronze figure in the British Museum strikingly exhibits the Etrusc
^*> Tho Etruscan bronzes closely resemble the archaic Greek fignrM : still, the peon
Etmscan physiognomy, and the national fashion of shaying the beard, diitingoiih fl
from the early Greek monuments.
>*> MiLLiNoiir, Ancient Inediled Monummtt, m, pL
MS Monumenti deW InstUuto, I, pL XLI ; and Lkhoib, 7bm&««Mx UnuqitOt Atmali ddP in
tvfo, 1882, page 270.
!•* See also Mioau, Man, Inediti, pp. 86-98, taTola XIII, 1 and 2.
THE ART OF THE GBEEES. 159
t^ of featoies. These four specimeiiB suffice to show the pecoli-
»(. 40. ng. 41.
Hitfo^ and the difference between, tihe art of Etnuia and that of
Ae gDiTOanding nations. It occupies a higher rank than the art of
Phcenida, hat it is inferior to the Greek, since it remained dcpend-
^ Dpon foreign forms, and was onahle to acclimatize itself
tlwronghly in npper Italy.
ABT OF TBE GREEKS
It was the Greeks, who, among the Japetide nations, occupied the
"^oet important place in the hiatoiy of mankind. Though compara-
^^ely few in number, they have, during liie short time of their
^tional independence, done more for the ennoblement of the human
'*<ie, than any otiicr people on eartb. It was among the Greeks
r^*t the genius of freedom, for the first time in bistoiy, expanded
** wings in highly dvilized states, even under the most complicat«d
Illations of aristocracy and democracy, of unity, suzerainty and
f*<le«lism. Under the rule of liberty, the Greek mind dived boldly
^*ito the sea of knowledge, and along with the treasures of science
**CQred that idea of plastical beauty and measure, which pervades
Ml the Hellenic life so thoroughly that even virtue waa known unonget
*l*at gifted mce only as lakaaya^a ; that is to say, beauty and good-
ness. The power of Greek genius manifested itself not only by its
intensity when applying itself to science and art, but likewise by its
expansion and ferdlity. All the shores of the Euzine, of lower
^taly, Sici^, Cyrene, and condderable portions of the Gaulish coast,
*n« studded with Greek colonies, proceeding from the mother
IGO THE ART Of the GREEKS.
country like bee-swarms, not in order to extend its power, but to
grow up themselves, and to prosper freely and independently.
Within the same period, Macedonia, Epirus, and Hie inner countries
of Asia Minor, up to the confines of the Shemites, were pervaded
by Greek influences in art and manners; and when at last exhausted
by their unhappy divisions, the Greeks lost their independence, the
hellenic spirit still maintained itself in art and science; and, earned
by Macedonian arms all over the Persian empire and Egypt, con-
tinued to live and to thrive among nations of a high indigenous
civilization, Greece, conquered by Rome, as Horace says, subdued
the savage conqueror, and imported art and culture into the rude
Latin world. Absorbed ethnically by amalgamation with Roman
elements, Hellenism survived even the political wreck of Rome, and
rose to a second though feeble development among the mongrel
Byzantines, who, well aware that they were not Greeks, although
speaking the Greek language, never ceased to call themseWes
Romans. Even now their country is called Roum-ili, by the Turk,
and they call their own language Romaic. Down to our own days.
Greek genius exerts its humanizing influences over the most higWy
cultivated part of the world, constituting the foundation of all ih^
most comprehensive and properly human education.
The national character of the Greeks, as expressed in their history,
is fully developed in their art, which from its very beginning ^®
characterized by freedom and movement, restricted by the ino^
delicate feeling for measure, and refined by a tendency towards tb^
ideal, without losing sight of nature. Progressive in its charact^^'
Greek art often change its forms of expression, — we may say fico^
generation to generation, — with a fertility of genius, easier to "^
admired than explained. In Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian scO^l
ture, we noticed successive changes in the details, but scarcely
real and substantial progress. Among all those nations, the
ments of art were not materially different from their highest devel^^
ment ; whilst in Greece we are able to trace the history of sculpf*^
from comparative rudeness to the highest degree of eminence *
human perfectibility, under the rule of fireedom, has never b^^
more gloriously personified than in the Greek nation.
The question of the origin of Greek art has often been raised
antiquity as well as in modern times, but the answers are altogetl^
contradictory.
The celebrated Roman admiral Pliny, a "dilettante" who compil ^
his Natural History indiscriminately from all the sources accessil^
to him, preserved the .charming story of the Corinthian girl, w^
drew the outline of the shadow of her departing lover's face on t^
TUE AKT OF THE GREEKS, IGl
wait, and mentions it as the first artiat'ical attempt. Her father, he
continues, filled the outline up with clay, and baking it, produced
the first relief. AVe can scarcely doubt that thia pretty tale is
derived from some Greek epigram, which was popular in the times
of I'liny, for connecting art with love; but it cannot satisfy criticism,
Winckelraan, the father of scientific archisology, deduced the Greek
statue i priori from the Herma or bust; forgetting that Hermaa and
Imsts, where the head has to represent the whole figure, belong to
the later, reflecting epoch of sculpture. No Uttle boy ever tries to
ilraw a head atone, nor can he enjoy its representation ; he looks
immediately for its complement, the body, without which he thinks
it deficient. Indeed, buBts and Hermaa remained unknown to the
national art of Egypt and Assyria ; moreover, the earliest sculptural
works mentioned by Greek authors are statues, not busts. So are
all the Palladia and Dsedalean works, the outlines and general fea-
tures of which arc known from their copies on vases, coins and
^eme."' The types of the earliest coins are figures, though soon
socceeded by heads. Steinbiichel, with apparent plausibility, de-
rivea Greek art from Egypt. Still, it is rather going too far when
he connects its rudiments with the mythical Egyptian immigration
of Cecrops to Attica, and of Danaus to Argos, hypothetically placed
about 1500 B.C., when Egj-ptian art was highly developed. What-
ever* be tlie truth about the nationality of Cecrops and Danaus, eo
mixch is certain, that imitative art was nnttnown in Greece for at
leA^t seven centuries after the pretended date of their immigration:
sincse the earliest records of works of art carry us scarcely beyond
tl»^ end of the seventh century, b,c., and the earliest works extant
do not ascend beyond the first half of the sixth century. Indeed,
Gi'<5«ce and Grecians existed a long time before they possessed atatu-
ari^s,"* (Plutarch, in JVitma, says that images were by the learned
coDfiidered symbolical, and deplored. Numa, the great Roman law-
giver, forbade hia people to represent Gods in the form of man or
beasts; and this injunction was followed for the first 470 years of the
republic."*) Another opinion, that Greek art is a daughter of the
ABsyrian, is likewise often hinted at ; but, as already mentioned, the
earliest works of Greek sculpture are anterior, hy a score of years, to
the bloom of the Ljdian empire, by which alone Greece could have
become acquainted with the art of inner Asia. But though we cannot
connect the rndiments of Greek sculpture either with Egypt or Assyria
"^ Pior. Editard Qirhasd pabliahed manj of them in hia " Ctnturitn,"
"" pAOiAKUfl. lib. VIII., >nd XXII. ; &□<! lib. IX.
** Vtmo, ajmi Aagutt. dr. Civil. Dti. lib, TV., o, 6:— R. Paynk KsiauT, Sj/mheUtal
'^™>ffu^}t of ArKiml Arl and Mytkohgy, London, 1818, p. 71.
11
I
162 THE ART OF THE GREEKS.
and Babylon, we must still admit the early influence of Egyptian (Saitic)
and oriental art over Greece. A peculiar school of ancient scidpture,
to which the invention of casting statues is attributed, developed
itself in the island of Samos between the 30th and 55th Olympiad
(657-557 B. c.) extending from the time of Psammeticus of Egypt
to the epoch of Croesus of Lydia, and Cyrus of Persia ; and history
contains many evidences of the intercourse of the Samians with the
kings of Egypt and Lydia, and with the merchants of Phoenicia.
The types of tiie coins of Samos, — the lion's head and bull's head, —
are similar to the Assyrian representations. As to the Egyptian
influence, Steinbiichel justly lays peculiar stress upon the rude archidc
type of the silver coins of Athens with the helmeted head of Minerva,
wliich was persistently retained by the republic even in the times of
her highest artistical eminence. It certainly shows the eye, repre-
sented in the Egyptian front-view, whilst the angle of the lips is
miHcd, and smiles in the later pharaonic manner. All the earliest
coins and bas-relieiB of Greece are characterized by the same pecu-
liarity, and some of J;hem retained even the Egj'ptian head-dress in
slightly modified forms. The anecdote preserved by Diodorus
Siculus, concerning Telecles and Theodorus of Samos,(who are said
to have made a bronze statue in two halves, independently of one
another, which upon being joined were found to agree perfectly), was
likewise explained by the invariable rules of the Egyptian canon;**'
though, according to our views, it has nothing to do with Egypt, and
owes its origin probably to the traces of chiselling that removefl
the scam of the cast all along the figure, and which being of a diflfe-
rcnt color from the unchiselled surface of the statue, was mistaken
for ancient soldering.
The indubitable connexion of Greece with Egypt, under the Salte
dynasty, could not fail to have great influence on art The Greeks
ii^aiiuid from that quarter their acquaintance with the different
moclianical processes of sculpture, carving, moulding, casting, and
ohiflclling: though, too proud to acknowledge their debt to foreigners,
they attributed the invention of the saw and file, drill and rule, to
the mythical Cretan Daedalus, or to the Samian Theodorus, the
t'Idor; at any rate, to artists natives of the Archipelago in proximity
with E^ypt. It seems, indeed, that the opening of Egypt gave a sud-
lon impulse to sculpture and painting among the Hellenes: for nearly
all the earliest works mentioned by the ancients belong to this period,
with the exception, perhaps, of the casket of Cypselos, and of the
i« DiODOR., i, 98:— 60 f.:— Mi?LLiB, Archaohp'e, { 70, 4.
THE ABT OF THE GREEKS
163
golden statao of Jupiter, dedicated by Oypaeloa at Olympia."" The
athletic Btataes of Abrhachioh'" (SS Olympiad), Fbaxidahas (58
OL), ftnd Bhbxibios (61 01.), at Olympia, of Cleobis and Bteok, at
Delphi** (aboat 50 01.), of Hakhodics and Abibtoqeiton, at Athens
|6T OL), all works of the Samian echool, (and among tiiem the
works of art dedicated by Alyattee and Croeens to the Delphian
temple), were the resnlt of the intercourse with Egypt : and, from the
description <^ some of tiiem, as for instance, the etatae of Arrhachion,
we Bee that their rigid attitude mnst have resembled the Egyptian
statues. Still* whatever be the foreign influences on the beginnings
of Greek art, oobody will ever take tiie most archaic Greek relief for
a epecimen of Egyptian or Assyrian art Though such Greek mdi-
inentB are less elaborate than the royal works of lltebes, Kinereh, or
pmeepoliB, tbey have a pecuhar national s^le unmistakably Greek.
IThe earliest of all the existing Greek marble reliefs ia the fragment of
» throne found in Samothrace, now in l^e Louvre ; [41 J which certainly
Fig.«.
Kg. 42.
belongs to the beginning of the
"til centoiy B. c.'" and is probably
coat«ntporaneoiis witii the Pana-
uieuao vases"* characterized by
the figure of [42] MiHEETA. Both
of t^em are mde, and influenced by
the Egyptian style. StiU, the long UmmwA.
*°^ straight nose, the prominent
^=hiu, and the absence of individualism in the representation, ate all
M distinct from E^ypt as from Aasyria.
*" Ormini MSuu Mm to p
»PW>od ptwurior to OffdM.
■ tinatAB, iL, IS, fi.
■ th»t both thew Hehale ■onlptnrw mmt belong to
I) HtLumna, Ja«fari SudOtd MoHMmmlt, t. UL, 1,
164 TBE AST OF THE GBEEKS.
The sense of beauty was not yet Boffioientlj developed among
Qreek artdsta ; bat it ib remarkable that even in its radiments Greek
art, unlike the Egyptian,"' had nothing to do with portraits ; it was
not the king, but the hero and the god who became the objects of
the artist's creation. Not less striking is the complete absence of
the landscape in Grecian art. The human form and aaimated Datoif
are for the Greek the exclusive object of representation ; accordingly,
he personifies day and night, the aun and the moon, time and the
seasons, the earth and the sea, the mountains and the rivers ; he gives
Uiem the features of men ; but the human fignre he draws is always
a lype of the race, not the effigy of an individual.
The peculiar archaic type, characterized by the elongated form of
the nose, and the prominent and somewhat pointed chin, maintainec
itself up to the time of Phidias, preserving tiie characteristic featoies
of the early Hellenes. We find the same profile on the coins of Do-
rian and of Ionian States, in Sicily, in Attica, and in A^ Minor.
The following heads will suffidently ezphdn our statement. Tig.
Kg. 48.
Hg-M.
ATHimAH MWIBTA. {Pulttky CoH')
CORIHTBUa Coof.
48 is the type of the Athenian tetradrachms. Fig. 44 is &e enlarged
copy of a Corinthian ailver coin. The following wood-cut is taken
from the coins of Fhocaea, in Ionia [45]; whilst Fig. 46 is copied
from one of the statnes on the pediment of the temple of .^Igina,
dedicated to Jupiter Panhellenius — the god of all the Greeks— -soon
after the battie of Salamis (Olymp. 75).
to [The &rt of euili repreBeulB the iiutiiuiliTe geniu af tlie two pwplt, ■■ dbww ii
InteUeot ta in blood.
"iBsTptiaca n^npuinm fknm plana plmnpaibna,
Qrmett pl«nunqn« ohoreli " —
MjaAnrLiiDi (Di Qtido. 5#eral.) ; vhioh ii Jnrt tha dlffarciiMlwtWMnCMaBdlftwlV-
Und pnritHiUm and South BanpMn osUtoUol^. — 0. B. 0.]
THE ART OP THE GREEKS. 165
Fig. 46. Rg. 4ft.
PHOOJIAN COXV. JEOINA StaTUB.
le mythical victory of the united states of Hellas over the Tro-
jaii.8, supported by all their Asiatic kin, represented on the pediment
of "this temple, was intended to symbolize the recent victory of the
Greeks over the Asiatic host of Xerxes.
One generation more carries us at once to the glorious time of
Pericles and Phidias, to the highest development of ideal grandeur,
88 Been on the sculptures of the Parthenon, never surpassed by
lumaan art^ — the beauty, pride and triumph of youthful Greece lives
in them. We might have taken one of the Parthenon fragments
in tbe British Museum, which, althoagh the nose is mutilated, would
give an idea of the genius of Phidias. But artistic eminence was
not confined to Attica alone ; in Argos and Sicyon, in Sicily and in
Graecia Magna, in Ionia and Cyrene, sculptors and painters grew up
swond to none but to Phidias. For more than one century, down to
the time of Alexander of Macedon, all the intestine wars, revolutions
and temporary oppressions, could not arrest the majestic flow of
Greek art, characterized by freedom and ideal beauty. The head
'^ a child [48] from a Lycian relief"* and of a warrior, [49] from a
monnment of Iconium ^^ (Koniah) in Lycaonia, show that Hellenic art
lonrished even in those countries where the bulk of the nation was
Jiot Qreek, though we ought not to forget that all those monuments
were evidently the work of Hellenic artists ; for, as Cicero justly
'^niarks, all the lands of the "barbarians" had a fringe of Greek
^untriea where they reached the sea.^'* The sculptures of Lydia,
^ f QiiB, Am Mmeure, IH, pi 22S.
"•Ttti,!, Armimie, II, pi. S4.— 1.
•^ Stp, n, ir, — Coloniarum vero^ qum e$ty dedueia a OrtQu .... quam unda mm
*^*9tt Ita hurbar&mm agrii guati adtexta videiur ora eue Oraeicc.
THE ABT or THK GREEKS.
of all the coantrieB of A«a Minor, differ little from the mona
tB of Greece proper.
ho ^e of the Sicilians and of the Italiots ia somewhat ma
erso ; principally characterized hy lie fiill and roond chin of t
Hg.48.
JiTOAOIClAK SOLDIEB.
Fig. 60.
females, aa seen in the following wood-cut [50] of Proaerpina, tal
from an intaglio in cornelian, which belongs to my collection. '*
sometimes find tiie same peculiar chin e"*
now among the females of Calahna t
Sicily, hut eapeeiallj on the island of Isc
where, according to a tradition, the Gi
hlood of ite inhabitants was scarcely m
by foreign intermarriages.
One feature, sufficiently explained h
institutions of Greece, is common t
these monuments of Hellenic art, vis
absence of portraits, — individuality
merged into the glorification of the )
form by a purely ideal treatment, i
in life the idea of the State abaorl
interests and even the rights of the individual, eo individua'
ignored in the art of Greece ; we never meet with portrait*
all the time of Greek independence ; for even the represe
meant to be portraits were ideal. Alcibiapbs, according to
Alexajidrinus,'" became a Mercury, and Pericles looked a '
A rock-relief on a tomb in Lycia, at Cadyanda, the cast of
>" Admonk. advtmu gatUt, p. 8fi.
ART OF THE GKEEKS.
167
now in the British Museum, '^ inscribed with the historical names of
Seeatomno$, Maoa, Seakoi, ^i., contaioB no portrait, bat only ideal
£garea The Cb<e8U8 of the magnificent vase of the Louvre might
be taken for a Jupiter, were it not designated by the name. It was
not before the time of Alexander the Macedonian that real portrsita
began to be made. Lysistratna, brother of the great sculptor Lysippus,
was in Greece the first who made a plasterfcast of the face of living
persons, and who, according to Pliny,'™ made real likenesses, whilst
his predecessors had tried to make them rather beautiful than faith-
foL Pliny's testimony is fully bonie out by the remaining monn-
ments of art belonging to the period of Alexander : they show during
the life of the great king some marked attempts at individuality,
thongh idealism is not yet excluded from the portrait. The head of
the conqueror of Persia, on his own coins, ie scarcely distinguishable
from the ^e of his mythic ancestor Hercules. Under his successor,
Xysimachus, the portrait of Alexander on the Macedonian coins ia by
£trmore individual. The beautiful bust of Demosthenes'* [51] in the
TatJcan, though it be the work of a later age, is certainly a copy of
B bust contemporaneous with the last great citizen of Greece. It
exhibits Ihe peculiar features and lisping mouth of the eloquent
unfortonate patriot ; still, the upper part of the head is undoubtedly
ideaL A classical cornelian in my collection, with the intaglio head
c^Demetrins Poliorcetes [523, shows the efforts of some artists of the
Fig. 51.
Fig. 62.
DSHITBIDS POLIOKOBTIS, (PaJtzliy (Bfl.)
Macedonian period to blend idealism with individualism. This
"ig's heroic beanly made the task easier; but as, in those times,
' pottnut always implied a kind of apotheosis, a bull's horn was
"' ^^wii of die Britith MnMiua, LToiu Ktwm, Nos. 150-1&3.
"^XIT, 44. i*ViM!ONTi, leonofraphit grtejut, PL 29, Sg. 3.
168
THE AST OF THE OBEBKS.
added to the head to designate DemetriuB as Hie bod of Neptnne;
whilst in ordor to combine the honi with the human featares, the hair •
waa carved stiiF, reminding one of the rigidi^ of a bull's bur.
Equally grand is the portnut of Pereeus [SSJ the last king of Mace —
donia, on a coruoliau cameo in the imperial libraiy at Paria.'** It sc^
much rcsemblos aome ancient hero, tha^
for a considerable time it waa taken £3>
an ideal head of Ulj-Bses. Indeed, if w«
wish to get real Hellenic portraits, w«
must leave the territory of Qreece, and
seek for them among tiie more realistic
nations pervaded by Hellenism, amid
whom Greek art descended &om the
loftier heights of imaginative beauty, to
tread the humbler paths of reality.
HiUierto no actual portrait haa been dis-
covered belonging to the times of repub-
lican Qreece. The following beautifdl
head [54] on an Asiatic silver coin, in the
British Museum, which bears the simple
inscription BAZiAEnz, (the coin) "of the
king," is with the greatest plausibility
attributed to the younger Cyrus : the die
being sunk by some Ionian tireek at the
time when tliis Satrap of Asia Minor roae
in rebellion against his brother Arta-
xcrxcs, and assumed the title of the king.
Still, the features can scarcely be fairly
taken for a portrait ; they are altogether
ideal, in fact the embelliahed representa-
tion of the purest Arian type.
The aboriginal barbarism of the remoter provinces of the Mace- ■
donian empire,— which was strongly modified, hut never entirely -
overcome by the civilization of the conquerors, — renders Uie history ■
of irolleniBm in Asia, after the death of Alexander, most instructive. .
It is rcconled on the relics of its art, cspociully on the coins of thoae m
Greek dynasties which were not surrounded by Greek populations. .
From the Rhoroa of the Euxine to the confines of India, they pro —
claim the supremacy of Greek genius. Still, Hellenism maintains*
its glorj- only there whore a continuous, uninterrupted, influx of^
Greek elements keeps up the original blood and spirit of the con —
.MlLMN, MoHUmcnl, Infdi
m Franfait ot June, 1856.
., 1, XIX ; &nd FrontiaplMe to the UvUrlai artkioL 4» FAtAr—
TUE ART OF THE GREEKS. 169
qaerors, as for instance at the court of the Seleucidsa at Antioch, and
of the Ptolemies at Alexandria, But hero the degeneratiou of the
royal houses could not destroy the fertility of Hellenic art ; though in
all the countries which were locally separated from Greece, HelloniBm
decUned, and went over into barbarism bo soon as the original Greek
blood of the conquerors was amalgamated with, and absorbed by,
native intermixture.
The coins of the kingdom of Baetria give the moat striking illus-
tration of this general rule. During the wars between the Seleucidee
and the Ptolemies, Theodotus, tho governor of Baetria about the
middle of the third century, b.c., declared himself independent of
Syria, and founded the Greek dynasty of the Bactriau kingdom.
About the same time the Parthians rose likewise in revolt against
Antiochus Theos, and their Bucceaa cut the Bactriana off from
Gteece proper, and even from the Grecians of Syria. Still, for about
fl century, Greek art beyond the Hindoo Kuah did not decline.
The portrait of king Eucratides, king of Baetria, b. c. 170 [553, ^'
oo the coins, a moat creditable apecimeu of tho taste and workman-
abip of his artiste.™ The isolation of the royal family, however, and
itB remoteness from Greece and from Hellenic influences, unavoid-
ablj^ brought about a relapse into barbarism. King Hermteua, lord
of .B'SCtria, b. c. 98 [56], on a coin in the British Museum, is, accord-
Pig. 55.
Fig. 66.
Fig. 67.
EAnPHTRKI.
- 1o his features, apparently a descendant of Heliocles; but the
"^workmanship of the coin is heavy and coarse, and after seeing it we
c^Ei scarcely be aurpriaed at learning that his dynasty was soon
evi.p«rBeded by rude Turanian invaders, who, having no alphabet of
llieir own, maintained at first the Greek, and then adopted the
Txxdiau letters and language. In the execution of the typea of their
coiiis, they exhibit the rudest barbarism. King Kadphysea [STJ
* For theM aad oUier eiampleB. of. Wilson, Ariana Aaligna, LotidoD, 1641.
4
i
~S^ as; or THE GREEKS.
aBJtt 3E»3*b«d in Greek characters, on bie coin,
tf. 'Isiic^im. : bat the shape of his sknll is Turanian^
LT ajsc '^am been a half-civilized and prohablj-^""
• - £--» . '3b .i::sk.'uM coins is equally instructive, and leads r^
■' j_-: --^L. ri* iUcedonian conquest destroyed at once'^^*
--i_; ■.:T^m::>;as ind civilization ; for, although Alezandei —^ i
^ --^ ?: '•■31 asiiai* and maintained the court etiquettes^Be
1. iisiiiiisradon of Persia, yet both he and his cour —-
->..j..-:<*. Te-Mifis. snd eould not transform themselves into«r3o
. ^ ^. <t.-;-»9s:c$ in Asia, the Seleucids, were still more
^ r^ li. *afa.'(ia of the empire. They therefore removeifl
— ■-■: a^iitf .-apital of the empire from Babylon, whicliKrA
- a:- tc;! -i^'y flourishing, so far west as Antioch ; ancM^ — ai
r-. :-.^ ^vk mannerB and despotic centralized-ci\iliza -m-
■-, -ir-v-aoM adjoining the seat of dominion. The ont =-
^ -.. -. .^ • >i.c li-'j long be kept in subjection : and during tbi-J^c
^ . .,;..,■. >.-,.aAi~j» Theoa and Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt,_-=i,
^-^ -- -THsrse «iwd op the Parthiana (256 B.C.), and at tiifc-^c
,^ ^ 's..:;,aa. ii-Twmen established the Parthian empire iy™ — ^
^•. ^ . . ;•-. ^^ts S^leucidre, who could not hold the i nimlij j_l
-, -t. "^i^-s. P-t Arsaccs did not go back t» the Achfeme
-^ :>. iw ii'V^ ^^^ Arian Persians in subjection, who froin^^^^
'- -;* V A'osauder had been the rulers of the Empire ^^
-. - . ,at«r b* vharacterized as the re%'ival of the Scythian^^
, ^. -,,^,^ Tho Parthiana had no indigenous art of their" ""
, ^ V Lu-'ian. they were ou qaMxaKni, not iiiendd of art,*^*"
.,. >v'r-v»w their artistic forms from their neighbors,
>.;v . ;:■•■ Kadons had done before them.
iss; ^. li :""'" ompire, tliey copied the Greek language and
ilie Greek types of the Seleu-
- ; *■ cidie on their coins ; and the
p^mraita of Arsaces I. [58],
B, c. 256, and of (Phraates I.)
Absacks V. [59], B. c. 190-
165, on their silver coins in
the British Museum, can
scarcely be distinguished
from Greek coins, as regards
ftrt: hut the globular shape
of the Parthian skull cha-
racterizes them snflieieufly
w Lvoui, lU dontOt S.
Fig. 69.
THE ABT OF THE GEEEKS.
171
as uot Hellenic. The conquest of the Syrian Empire by the RomanB
BOOB cot off the inflaence of Helleniam, and isolated the Parthians,
wVinoA ftrt. mlATiRed irradu-
Kg. ai.
Kg. 60.
Abbacbs XIX.
whose art relapsed gradu-
ally into thoir original har-
harism. TheportraitofAr-
saces Xn. [60] (Phraates
m.), B. c. 50-60, belongs
to the beginning of the
decline of art, though this
king waa a contemporary
of LuculloB, Pompey, and
Julius Ccesar. Arsaccs
the XlXth [61], (Volo-
geees IV., a.d. ]96) ex-
hibits a rudeness as if all the traditions of art had become forgotten.
Still, be was a contemporary of the emperor Commodns. One genera-
tion after him we see a new, national, Anan art reviving in Persia
under the Sassanides.
Similar causeH led to similar results in the Crimea, or as the
ancients called it, in the Taurian or Cimmerian Chersonesus.
Greek colonies from Heraclea and Miletus eatabliahed themselvea
here among the aboriginal barbarians, and
introduced art and civilization. Kjngs of
these nations stood in fiiendly intercourse
with Athens and Byzantium, who used to
buy here their com ; until Mithridates the
Great [62], king of Pontus, occupied the
country (in 108 B.C.) which was to become
the scene of his suicide. His portrait with
the rich flowing hair, probably a copy from
a statue representing him driving a cba-
riot,"* belongs to the wonders of Grecian art
The Greek dynaaty of Mithridates, in the
Crimea, died off in tie second generation with Asander ; and was
raceeeded by a long aeries of indigenous kings, who, without any
luetorical importance, maintained their sway down to the 4th century
of our em. During their reign the Greek colonies of Panticapteum,
Ghersonnesas,Phanagoria,and Gorg^ppia, lost their Hellenic charac-
ters by the continuous immigration of barbarians ; and all the tradi-
tions of art disappeared little by little among the half-breed inhabi-
tants of the country, — ^nntil all Grecian blood, and with it, civiliza-
tion, became absorbed by intercourse with the barbarians. The
■•> Tuoom, leonofraphie, iL p. 182 i note 4, Hilu editicin.
Fig. 62.
HlTHKIVATI*.
^^,
*^^
r^r iar z-r the gkeeks.
r=eis -f iimriaxxes L [63] (13-17 b. c), Rheacapori*
:-jn:-.:=m. md Eh^oaporis HI. [65], (212-219), from
s Irrrsn. MiisKiiii, show the progressing rudeness (A
K^ u. Fig. ee.
EXIKCFOKIS II.
RuKSCfPOBia TIL
, .^j^ le TT^v as the ebbing of Greek blood among e
■a;-:i::i. ' wio, shx'ording to their features, belonged
1 - -■ r;n *;^lv instructive specimens of the powei
v.: iitii-'c. ..-I Hellenism in Thrace, Cilicia, Adiahcne.
> . ■ii^.tif vvuntries, — clearly proving that foreign
a..-. ■.■6*:L: iKiong unartistical races for any length of
.-.v :.;v i::*! «wase so soon as the artistical race whicli
^ .■t^i.'.rii* tiiijwughly amalgamated with, and hat
t. •j.-ii. ."I ^e natives.
,.;. THE AST OT SOME.
:;tf Tsvival of letters, when the attention of th*
- > t' '■,:ilv was for the first time turned towarda tl«
• . It. i.* statues and reliefs found in the peninauli
^ -aj ; *">J *''c antiquaries liked to explain anj
.?,;-.« ^-'Jo T'ivy's history, and Ovid's metamor
:t »*i 41 that time nearly unknown; the studj
> titrjj-od subordinate to that of Roman; au<:
., , :- **jcw ix?garded as illuatrutions of the Romai
-.- MC ,•«?:<* hand, "Winckehnan and his philosophi
. ii.vw-r'.'riticiBm to the relicsofancientart, treat
^ i, .trrortance to the literary remains of classica
.•-.■ii.*C Jh^w" spread all over Europe, that thi
,«,:v-u<ik *rt at all J and the father of scientific arche
THE ART OP ROME. 173
ology, Winckelman himself, says : »85 « j Jefy those who speak of the
Roman style of art to describe its pecuUarities or to determine its
character." About thiatime it was proved with considerable display
of erudition that fine arts were paid, but not honored, at Rome. Plu
tarch was cited, who says in sober earnest that, however we might
admire the Olympian Jupiter, nobody would wish to become Phi-
dias :** and Petronius also,"" who, though speaking satirically, still
expressed the common Roman feeling by saying, that ^ a nugget of
gold is more beautiful in the sight of God and man, than anything
produced by those foolish Greeks, Apelles and Phidias.' Accordingly,
it was believed that all the Roman sculptures are the work of Greeks,
mostly freed-men, who lived in that capital of the old world. Such
views were quite in keeping with the prevalent idea that Roman and
Greek mythology was altogether identical. The monuments of
Rome, however, were soon more thoroughly sifted; and a number of
works of art were discovered at Pompeii, nearly all of them of
Italian workmanship, — and that, between the emperor Augustus
(under whom the town was rebuilt, after having been nearly destroyed
l>y an earthquake), and the emperor Titus, under whom it was
buried. Archaeologists are, therefore, now enabled to fix more
precisely the peculiarities and the character of the Roman style;
Although we must acknowledge that it is but a slight modification of
^i^ek art The original Romans had no feeling for fine art ; they
'•'ere the offspring of unartistical Umbrians and Sabines, with an
*^ixture of Etruscans, who themselves possessed only a varnish of
^ superinduced. The few monuments which adorned republican
^Txxe before the conquest of Grsecia Magna, — ^the statues of the
^^pitol and the eflSgies of the kings — ^were without exception of Tus-
^li workmanship ; so were their copper-coinage, their house-ftimi-
^'^^j their earthenware and bronze vases. The Romans never vied
^th their neighbors either in mechanical skill or in artistical feeling ;
^^ir only task was conquest and aggrandizement. When at last,
by the accumulation of wealth, luxury and desire of display intro-
i^ced a yearning for works of art, and tiiat statues and pictures began
^ play an important part at all the public shows, triumphs and enter-
^^nments, it was easier to plunder the provinces and to fill Rome
^th the most celebrated treasures of art from the tepples and
^^^^et-places of Greece, than to get them executed by native artists
^ the Tiber itselC Still, the growing demand and £ftiling supply at
length fostered art at Rome ; and though the artists were mostiy of
^ign extraction, — for it was not respectable for a Roman to be a
» (Mwif ^SlMC^ p.897. » VUa PnkUi. vn Satyrkon, o. 88.
174 THE ART OP ROME.
sculptor — Roman nationality impressed its stamp on the coins and
gems, relie& and statues, marbles and bronzes, of the time of the
Emperors. The principal features of Roman art are a somewhst
ponderous dignity, and a want of poetical inspiration, but withal a
close imitation of native, national truthfulness, and great regard fox
individuality; without that Greek freshness, freedom and hannony,
which rouse in the beholder the consciousness of the divine nature
of our soul. The composition of the Roman works of art is heavy,
the execution often over-polished and empty. Whilst the Greek
artist selected his subjects from mythology, the Roman liked to re-
present sacrifices, triumphal processions, military marches, batties,
and ^' allocutionsj'' marriage-feasts and other scenes of domestic life.
The Greek idealized the features of great men ; the Roman did not
ennoble the ugliness of old Tiberius, the idiocy of Domitian, and
the ferocious looks of Commodus and Caracalla. The Greek made
scarcely any distinction, in sculpture, between the Greek and the
barbarian — ^the same idealism surrounds them both, and assimilates
them to one another; the Roman artist made a charaeteristical dif-
ference between enemies of Rome and the civis Ilamanui. Still, at the
time of the Emperors, the Roman type itself had ceased to be con-
stant. Citizenship having been extended to half a world, barbaiianB
constituted the bulk of the army, and their equally-barbarian officen
were raised firet into the Senate, then to the imperial throne. Accord-
ingly, the artists of Rome gave, on the whole, less importance to the
type than to the costume of the foreign hostile nations, by which
alone they differed from the mongrel Romans, who then represented
a cosmopolitan amalgam of all the white races. On the great
cameos of the time of Augustus and Tiberius, at Vienna and Paris
(which, by their dramatic and picturesque composition of the gronps,
materially differ from Greek reliefs), the Pannonian and Yindeliciaa.
prisoners have no individual features; nor is the statue of the "river
Jordan " on the triumphal arch of the emperor Titus characterized.
by a Shemitic physiognomy ; but, on the column and arch of Tnyan^
which contains the best of all the Roman works of art^ we easily^
recognise the Dacian [70] whose features are perpetuated in the Wal*
lachian of our days. In the dying gladiator of the Oapitol, and on.
the sarcophagus of the Yigna Ammendola,^ we see the Celtic Qwal
[71] represented ; and Mr. Gottiing recognises an ancient Geiman
[69] in the statue of a prisoner which adorned a triumphal arch al^
Rome.
After the eclectic idealism prevalent under the reign of th»
Emperor Hadrian, we no longer find any endeavor to fix the
1* MonummU Intditi deW Instituto Areheolopea H Roma, 1, PL
THE AK T OF HOME.
175
natioDal {tecnliaritiGs of foreign nations on monamebte of art. The
Teutonic Markomans on the oolamns of Antoninas, the Turanian
Parthiaas on the arch of Septimus Severue, differ onlj by their coa-
tDme from Dacinns, and from the Roman soldiers who figlit against
tbem; and we mast admit that Hie pharaonic Egyptian artists
remained nnanrpassed^ even by Greeks and Bomans, in the accuracy
with which they observed and rendered the national type of all the
tribes with which they happened .to come into contact. The Assy-
rians and Persians were second in this respect to the Egyptians; still
they were, on the whole, f^thful enough, whereas with the Greeks any
national peculiarity merged in the glorification of the human form : -
accordingly, Egyptians and Asiatics are by them drawn and scalp-
tared with Hellenic features. The Koman is by fiir more truthful,
bnt his art is short-lived. Before Augustus it is either Etruscan or
Qreek ; after Septimus 8eyeruB it loses its national character, and
step by step transforms itself into the Byzantine Christian, Two
ceatories cany us from the beginning of Roman art to its decay ;
its Ml bloom lasted only just for the score of years which embraces
ilie reign of the emperor Tr^an, since under Hadrian it lost its
Roman features, and was swamped by an elegant and refined imita-
tion of every style of art About the same time that the imperial
throne fell into the hands of Asiatic Syriaus, of Africans, Arabs, and
northern barbarians, Roman art became barbarous, and revived only
when, aboot the time of Justinian and his successors, a new nation-
ality,— the Grseco-Byzantine — consolidated and ciystallized itself
under the influences of Christianity out of &e mixture of all the
races in the Roman empire.
The earliest authentic Roman portrut
we know is the likeness of F. Cornelius
Scipio Afi^canns [67]."* All earlier effi-
gies were cither not portraits at all, — as
{or instance, the seven Tnscan statues of
the kings, mentioned in the old authors,
^bich stood before the Capitol, — or
ih<!T are too indistinct to be of ose for
etlmology. This applies to the heads
^e see on the &mily coins of Rome, upon
which &e ma^stratcs liked to perpetu-
ate the memory of illnstrious ancestors.
^one of these silver coins are anterior to
''^ JtK S69 8. 0 ; their size is small
Kg. 87.
Scipto AnuoAmra,
<■ TiMMWTi, Utntfti^lLit I
I, Puu, 1817, pL m, Ag. 2.
176
THE ABT OF BOH E.
and their workmanship little artiatical. Beeidee, we know froxx^
Fliny that the family pride of the RomanB cared more for the nam^ ^
than for the likenesses of their anoestore. The admiral complaii:^ ^
that whilst the original wax-effi^es represented the great men sue -b
as they really had been (they were probably casta of the &ceB of tb^ ^
deceased), a later age delighted in silver husta and in the workinar=a_—
ship of great mastera (probably Greeks, and given to idealizing > .
without regard to the likeness. Pliny's complaint cannot apply t — ^
the portrait of Scipio, which is entirely individual, and of that Bter — -^-
and energetic cast which folly expresses the Itomaa characte^^KT
Scipio may be taken for a good specimen of the Roman p&tiicia — — ^
type; for, at his time the aristocracy had not yet lost its nation^^^^
purity by the admixture of foreign blood. Kot less characterist^S- ^
is the head of Agrippa [68], — the ftdend, minister and son-in-law < ^. ^
Augustus, aud maternal ancestor of the emperors Caligula, ClaudiK:.z^La
and Kero. Next to the Homan type represented by these two bigfa~'^ -y
expressive portraits, let us consider iha features of their enemi^^^
Fig. 69 is the bust of a "harbarian" fbtmd ia Tngan's forum, now -^ j
Elg. 6&
Kg. 60.
TiPiANiufl Aqbippa, (Pultik!/ call.)
the British Afuseum. Mr. Combe, in his description of the ancii
marbles of the British Museum, after adverting to the feelings
rage, disappointment and revenge strongly marked in this
inclines to believe that the head was intended to represent Anuini'
the German hero, who defeated Varus, and was defeated by
nicus. Mr. Gbttling, in an essay which has become veiy popular :
Germany, attributes this head with specious reasons to Thumelica
the fighter of Ravenna, son of Arminius. We therefore scarcely e
in seeking the original Teutonic type in this excellent bast
THE ART OF .BOUE.
177
The effigy of Decebalus, — prince of the Daciana [70],*^ is copied
Crom a bas-relief orij^Dally belon^ng to
the triumphal arch of Tngan, which hj the ^'^ ™'
Addition of later patchwork has been trans-
£>rmed into an arch in honor of the
emperor Constantine. The effigy is pecu-
liarly interesting for its resemblance to the
present Wallachians, tme descendants of
the ancient Dacians. This similitude
'between the Dacians and Wallachians is
not exclusively confined to the cast of
Matures nor to the costume, since we see
on the relieft of the column of Trajan, duux.
decorated with episodes of his Dacian
tfsampfugn, that even this moral character has in one respect remained
-tJie same. The Bomans seem to have been peculiarly struck by t^e
^rocions treatment of prisoners among these Bacians; and they
did not f^l to represent the Dacian females, who tortured the disarmed
«jid fettered Romans with raving brutality. The same feature
recurred in the Hongarian war of 1849. Hungarian prisoners were
-Ciortnied and murdered by the servile Wallachian population, — the
^iemales being always tiie most cruel among them.
"We copy the head of a Celtic Gaul Hg. 7i.
1^1] from a sarcophagus found in the
-v^Deyard Ammendola at Borne. It
\M characterized by a peculiar Gallic
necklace (torques), and by angular
ezpresuve features. For those of our
'^aden who are less acquainted with
^fi latest u:«hffiological researches
** mention the fact, that the cele-
brat«d dying-Gladiator of the Capitol
™*8 been recognized to be a Celt, by Ciino Gaol.
■^bbyw and by Baoul-Rochette.
'Phis 8u^;eets a digression. Having given the earliest effigy of a
^It, we feel bound to copy likewise the features of a Norman, in
^'Aerto put the principal ancestors of the inhabitants of the British
|aUada and of North America side by side. William the Conqueror
^ved in times and among nations nnpropitioua to art: his Hkeneas,
U2] therefore, cannot be peculiarly characteristic It is taken from
'"Btuovm, FffffWilmM, Boni*, 1690, Fl 44, '•TlotoriaDmatok."
* Olwft«iWni fofrala tUilmadH OltMMn moribonde: — BuOttmviWHt^ YTU, 18S0,
^W.; MB|Mra Flutt, XXXIV, 10-24.
178
ABT OF BOHE.
Fig.ra.
the celebrated "Bayeux tapestry," ■*" which is contemporaneoos with-
this kiag, and attributed by traditioift
to the oeedle of Mathilda, qaecn of the»
conqueror. "We are aorry that, together—
witlt the Konnan type, we are gnahlc— ■
togiveaetoDdardAnglo-Saxon effigy; -^
but queen Mathilda does not Beem to-^^
have remarked any peculiar difler
ence between these two difl^rent na
tionalitieB; which, indeed, were ot
the same Bcandinavo-Teutonic stock^^^^
— deduction made of the crowd ot - ~
continental "flibuBtieiB" whoflocked b]^E=^s
the colore of William, and who were^^^^
Normans only by comteay. Accord^
ingly, king Harold, on the Bayeux tapestiy, resembles his coosin^^^^
William, with the slight exception, that he and bis Anglo-Sazon^^^^
wore mustachios, whereas the Kormaus are closely shaved.
We continue. If it should now be asked what representationB ot ~ — ^
the different nationalities of old have to prove about the origioa^^E-^
"unity" or "diversity" of the human race, we point to the unmistakable^^^=
constancy of the typps of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Wallachs, Ne
^rocs, Jews, — which are at the present day exactly such aa were reprc '^
rented on ancient monumenta, — and quote Dr. Frichaid's word^^^^"
iifl to the importance of this fact : " If it should be found that within^c^^^—
the period of time to which historical testimony extende, the distin =
i^uishing characters of human races have been constaat and nndevi -
iiting, it would become a matter of great difficulty to reconcile thi^^^^
conclusion with the inferences obtained iix}m oQiet consideru- -
tions." '*■
To return to Roman art Its importanoe stands in no relation to iti^^^^
real merits ; it had a marked influence not only over early ChristiaiL^c^— '
sculpture, but even on nicdireval and modem art. The works of "^^
Egypt, Assyria, and Etruria, belong altogether to the domain of "^^
lirchteolog}' : modem artists disdain to be instnictedbytheiD,aItJiough -^^-
rbcy might lo.im from tlicm ttiat no style of art ever muntained —
itself on any other basis tlian nationality; — but they cannot emantn- ""
]iate themselves from Greek and principally &om Roman influences.
Tt belongs to the peculiarities of our age, that, whilst the purity ot the
plastical forms of the Greek statues could not fiul to maintain their
importance as models for statuaries, the Roman bas-relief continues to
ART OF AMERICAN NATIONS. 179
l>e imitated by our sculptors. They prefer its crowded, melo-drama-
tic groups, and the slight attempt at perspective (by raising tlic
figures of the first plan and gradually depressing those of the second
and third), to the graceful and simple Qreek bas-relief, which is regu-
lated by the artistic feeling of the sculptor, not by unartistical rules,
— ^for instance, on the friezes of the Parthenon and of the Mausoleum.
Sat, we ought not to forget that the sculptors of our day belong
xnostly to the neo-Latin nations : and being imbued with the spirit of
Homan literature in preference to that of Greek, they feel instinctively
wi greater attraction towards the works of imperial Home, than of re-
2>ablican Oreece. So, too, does th^ bulk of the public; which appre-
cnates much more the elegance of the statues of the Belvidere, — all
of them works of the Roman period, — than the sublime beauty of
t:he Elgin marbles, and the chaste drawing on some vases of Etruria
wuid Grecia magna.
We have now, in the course of our ethnological survey of the
liistoiy of art, arrived at the decay of the nations of classical anti-
cjoity, and reached the dawn of Christian art We might easily
pursue our researches down to the present day, through the Byzantine
period, into the exclusively-national art of Italy, of Germany, of
Spain, of France, of Belgium, and of Holland ; but the characteristics
of all these '* schools," or rather nationalities, of painting, are so well
Isnown that it is not necessary to point out their diversity. The
liiatoiy of Christian art has often been written, and leads invariably
<t>o the result, that art never developed Uself but on a national baeie ;
^hat elo9e imitatian of foreign farms never could impart life to art; and
thai eeleetieism invariabfy leads to destruction. Accordingly, the
^Academies of painting and sculpture, founded upon eclecticism,
^nd rejecting art's national development, became always and eveiy-
^i^&ere the tombstones of art
VIII. — ABT OF AMERICAN NATIONS.
Thb time has not yet arrived for writing the history of the indige-
>Uiiis art of the Bed-race. The monuments of the ante-Columbian
civilisation of America but littie regarded in their country, arc
Excessively rare in Europe. There are but few persons, either in the
United States or the Spanish republics, who care for antiquity. Tlie
^'^glish race is too much occupied with the interests of the present,
^e Spanish too much disturbed with fears about the future, and
^^tefore, botii too unsettled and too uncomfortable, to devote
laueh attention to the relics of an antiquity, which, however impor-
I
I
180 ABT OF AMEBICAN NATIONS.
tant for the philosopher and the historian of human civilization, haa
neither the charms and beauty of the Grseco-Roman period, nor the
historical interest of Egyptian, Assyrian, or early Christian art. Tlie
Red nations, of whose works we speak, are strangers to us ; their
civilization remained entirely unconnected with our hiatorj-; and
was too different from, and too inferior to, the development of th&
JapetidcB, Shemites, and Turanians. Even Chincae art has a greater
chance of becoming the object of study, than the monuments of the
mound-builders, of the Toltecs and Aztecs of Mexico and Central
America, and of the Quichuaa and Aymaras of Peru and the Lake
of Titicaea. China is etill a mighty empire; its civilization, how-
ever strange, cannot bo ignored by us ; and the monuments of
Chinese art may facilitate a correct appreciation of the institutions,
the religion and morals, of more than three hundred millions of
men, — with whom, at the same time, traffic is profitable.
American art, on the other band, is in no way linked to the present
iige. The refined amateur is repelled by tlie homeliness of most of
the artistical relies, which the historian is, as yet, unable to connect
with certain dates and personages. This is the reason why but very
few persons care for Mexican, Central American, and Peruvian anti-
quity ; and how it comes to pass, that among all the public Museums
of Europe there are but two, the Louvre at Paris,'" and the Britisli
Museum in Loudon, whicli systematically admit American monu-
ments into their treasuries of art. Of private collections I know but
four: the Central American antiquities at the country-seat of the
late Mr, FreudontJial, in Moravia (Austria), who fell a victim to his
zeal in searching for antiquities in the tropical climate of Guatemala,
and died soon after his return to Vienna; the extensive collection
of Mr. Tllide at Handschuhsbeim, near Heidelberg (Grand duchy
Baden); and the two Mexican and Peruvian cabinets of MM.
Jomard and Allier at Paris. M. Adrien de Longp^rier published,
in 1852, a Notice of the monuments exhibited in the American Hal!
of the Louvre, from which we see that it contains :
I. — 680 relics of Mexican art, consisting of mythological statuettes,
vases, gems, seals, utensils, instruments of music, weights and mea-
sures in volcanic stone, granite, basalt, terra-cotta, bronze, crystal,
obsidian, jade, jasper, and wood.
n. — A few fiiigments from Palenqufi.
ni. — About three hundred statuettes and vases, implements and
>* The LoaTre fans, within Urn Uat few years, acquired the Meiican Antiquities or M.
lAtoiir ADard, pnbilahed in I<ord Eiogsborough's ^te&l work; noeived ob gifts tli« equal]}''
I InporlAnt PeruTian antiqaities of Mons. Angrand, together with tbe Bmiillet' colleolioDa of
9. Masaieu de Clairral, Audifred, T. ScbSelcber, and loTeral other gCDttemeii.
ART OF AMERICAN NATIONS. 181
woollen fikbrics of Peru, fix>m Cozco, Lambazequ^ Quiloa, Bod^gon,
Arica and Tmxillo.
IV. — Some twenty artistical objects from the Antilles and Hayti.
The collections of the British Museum have not yet been described
and published. Huddled together as they are, in one of the smaller
rooms, with Hindoo, Burmese, Japanese, and Chinese idols, and
with the implements and curiosities of the South-Sea isles, they fail
tx> attract the attention of the visitors. The Mexican Cabinet con-
sisting principally in pottery, or in statuettes and reliefs in terra
^otta, is one of the most extensive, and shows that the traditions of
Aztec art long survived the conquest by Cortez ; since we find a
Spanish Viceroy moulded in clay by a native artist, who did not fail
to distort the features of this Spanish hidalgo into the typical Mexi-
can forms, no less than to give him their American cast of skull,
smd of the cheek-bones ! The Peruvian antiquities are likewise ex-
dnsively of baked clay ; some of them gems of native art. The
Skfaseum might easily enrich its American treasures; for, as I
Learned from the most reliable sources, many Peruvian gold and
silver idols find their way into the Bank of England and the Eoyal
&f int, where they are melted down ; since they have no artistic, if
^at archseological, and still greater, it would seem, monetary value.
Many American Antiquities were published in the extensive, and
3iore or less costly works, of Kingsborough, Humboldt, Lenoir,
Warden, Tschudi, Rivero, Waldeck, Catherwood, d'Orbigny, Stephens,
N'orman, Brantz Mayer, Bartlett, and Squier ; but, failing to interest
:he public in the same way as Asiatic and European antiquities,
Jbey remained unknown beyond the circle of some ethnological
scholars, so that few persons are aware of the extent and the artisti-
cal importance of the Monuments of America. We have, in the
following wood-cuts, selected the most characteristic and best sculp-
mred specimens of the ante-Columbian art of the new world, in hope
diat they may become the means of exciting a greater interest for
diem on both sides of the Atlantic. As it is the object of illustra-
dons to instruct by view, as well, and often more than by explication,
me add but few words to them.
The great majority of the ancient monuments of America will for-
ever remain unconnected with history,*^ — ^mysterious relics of a civi-
>* [I perceiTe tliat an anonymous **Tiator'* advertises in the National InteWgencer (Wash-
ington, D. C, ISth October, 1856), a forthcoming Tolume, wherein " more than twenty
Scotlemen, embracing the bench, the bar, the clergy^ and members of the medical profes-
■ioD, bare come forward ** — all in Western Virginia, too — and are actually going to vouch
f<or the indubitable authenticity of that ** canard" — so famous, among arohceologists, as
lir. Schodcralt's Ohio pebble, engraved in 22 different alphabets at ** Grave Cnek/latP*
To UcHdUkte its reappearance in good society, no less than to increase the receipts of
182 ART OF AMERICAN NATIONS.
lizatioii which they alone record and expound. Mexican antiqaitiee^
however, will soon receive an additional importance by the publica-^
tion (as we learn from his friend Mr. E. Geo. Squier) of M. Aubin^
the French savant who has devoted a life of study to the researches
on the Aztec language and literature; having, by a residence of thir-
teen years in Mexico, and by the lucky discovery of the collections
and MSS. of Botturini, become able to obtain all the materials and
the information for deciphering them, so as to elucidate the histoiy
of the Aztec empire previous to Cortez. A few years hence, the
ante-Columbian history of Mexico will be as accessible to ub as the
early annals of any European nation ; for hieroglyphical documents
are not wanting which contain this information : whilst the researches
of Botturini, which in the past century were cut short by the Span-
ish Inquisition, have been now resumed by M. Aubin ; and, in his
hands, have afforded the key for reading these sealed books.**
The hunter tribes of America evince no feeling for plastical beauty;
yet withal, like the Turks and the Celts, they have a considerable
talent for decorative designs, and some perceptions of the harmony
of colors. The originality and ornamental combination of their bead-
work and embroidery is sufficiently known, but they always fail in
rendering the human form. Far higher was the civilization of that
race which preceded them in the trans- Alleghanian States.. We call
that ^* Muteutn,^* I ^ve this announcement a wider circulation than the threatened book ii
destined to obtain, by referring the curious to Squibb's ''ObBenrations on the Aboriginal ^
Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," New York, 8yo., 1847, pp. 71-9 (Extract from the t
Trantaetiona of the American Ethnologiecd Society, Yol. ii.) ; and to 7)fpet of Mankind^ pp.
662-8.— G. R. G.]
1** Among recent articles which show how this new school of American archsBologists m
augments, — consult Squikr, ** Aztec Picture-writing " {yew York TVibune, Nov. 24, 1 862) :
Babtlbtt, ** The Aboriginal Semi-ciyilization of the Great California Basin, with a Refuta-
tion of the popular theory of the Northern Origin of the Aztecs of Mexico*' {New Tort^
Herald, April 4, 1854): — Aubin, '^Lnng. Americaine. Langue, Litt^rature ct £critnr»0
Mexicaines " {Encyclopidie du XIX"* Steele, Tome xxvi.. Supplement, pp. 500^7) : — Squibk,
**Let Indient Guatusot du Nicaragua" {Athencsum Franfais, 22 D^combre, 1856): — Priii8K=
d'Avennes, "Honduras — Am^rique centrale {L' Illustration, Paris, 8 D^cembre, 1Q^6):
Bbassettb db BonRBOUBa, ** Letter from Rabinal — Department of Vera Paz " {London Athe —
vcevm, Dec. 8, 1856) : — Idem, " Notes d'un Voyage dans TAm^rique centrale — Lettre k M.
Alfred Maury" [Nouvellet Annates des Voyages, Paris, AoAt, 1866): — with Squik&'s cri-
tique on said letter (Op. cit., D^c. 1866): — TrUbneb, **The New Discoveries in Guatemala,'^
and ♦* Central American ArchsBology" {London Atkencntm^ 12th Jan., and 81st May, 1866) s
since enhanced in interest by Don Jos£ Antonio Ubbutia*s *< Discovery of additional Mo^
numents of Antiquity in Central America" {Ibidem, 18 Dec. 1866). The now work of Db-
SoHBRZEB brings another distinguished pioneer into the field; and we have reason to hopi»
tliat much light will be thrown upon the Indian languages of New Mexico, California, &c. «
by the conjoint researches of two gentlemen eminently qualified for the task — Mr. Johh R-
Babtlbtt (late U. S. Boundary Commissioner to Mexico, and now Secretary of State for
Rhode Island), and Prof. Wm. W. Tubneb (of the U. S. Patent Office, Washington, D. C.>.
ART OF AMERICAN NATIONS.
isn
MODMP-BCILOKI-
-Chem "mound-builders," from the regular fortifications which they
"Slave erected iu several of the western and southern States.'" The
Ufatchez, destroyed bj the French of Louisiana, in the last century,
^eem to have, in part, belonged to them. A moat characteristic, — we
rsnay say artistically-beautiful — head [73] in red pipe-clay, the work-
laanahip of these unknown mound-builders, dug up and published
tiy Squier,'" exhibits the peouliar In-
dian features so faithfully, and with ^'^- '*■
^uch sculptural perfection, that we can-
not withhold our admiration from their
^rtistical proficiency. It proves three
■tilings: Ist, That these " mound-build-
^ys" were American Indiant in type : —
^d. That time (age ante-Columbian, but
^cberwise unknown,) has not changed
tix^ ^9P^ °^ ^'''^ indigenous group of
j^oes:— and 3d, That the " mound -build-
QjS "were probably acquainted with no
Qtlier men but themselves. In every
^f-»,y confirming the views of the author
of t^ania Americana.
The monuments of Mexico partake more of the decorative charac-
terv and we cannot but admire their ingenuity in making use of the
most refractory materials for artistical purposes. The following three
headfi were all published by the various authors of AntiquiUs Mexi-
tain-ea. Fig. 74,™ carved of wood, is remarkable for ita finish and
ele^r^LTice; fig. 75*" belongs to a statue of volcanic stone; fig. 76*"
is of emaragdite, agreen, hard, gem-like stone, which cannot, by our-
*elvc56, be worked otherwise than by steel or bronze, and requires the
actionof the wheel and emery. All of them are characterized by the
iM [^'WhiUl correcting proof, I learn, with the lieopest regret, of the demise, at New Tnrk
im U&e ttth Dee. 1856. of Dr. Hehha:!!* £. Ludehiq ; wiiom I san qnit« well there liut Oc-
tober- Oar mutual friend Mr. Tbijbneb will deplore, with our fcllow-atndenta, this sadden
luas the more, aa he bos in preas the crowning moaumont of Ll'dewiq'b arduons Inbars — the
■' BibatVP^SI of Aiurican Abon'final Linguiitia" — the MSS. of which We loolied oier
t»getl»er, in London. — 0. R. 0.]
<M .JLtHmt Mmumtnti oftht MiiiUiippi Vafley. 1(!4S, p. 245, Bg. 145.
vm ^utpiiUi IfaieaiafM [Bilatian da Trou ITzpfd. du Cap. Dupaix, 1806-7, dririni df
Caataltiit — piLT LiiiO[B, Wahdis, Farpt, BabadKhi, St. PaiiaT, &e., Paris, 2 vols, folio,
1884>— pL Mii. fig. lai, p. 63— 2pde EipW.
*• Urn. pL Ti. p. T— Ire E.pW.
*• Htm. Supplement, pi. »ii. p. Ifl — Smo Eipid. : — compnre also HtncHDiiiT ( Vuti da
OtntiUhat, Puis, foL 1810, pL 66], "Tele grsTJs en pierre dure pur les IndJcns Mujt-
'**i~ {Sutardia. tr. Williams. London, Sro., 1S14, ii. p. 206) ; who coneiders the etoae «
*''*'*Cdite, and tfas worknuuuhip New Orenndian.
184 AHT OF AHEBICAN NATIONS.
peculiar features of the Central American groap of the Bed-iH'
Fig 74. Kg. 7B.
Mjcxioan Gbm.
Ubxioam HnioAL hanuKiHr Mixioas Statvi.
Kg 76 in the formation of the skull, as well as by ti
high cheek-bones.
The drawings of the Mexican Meroglyph
and pictorial MSS. are of a conveniional
decorative character. The following gr
froui the astronomical JFejervary codex, is
serted to represent the state in which they
tray the phases of the moon, according to A
mythology. We see first the suu and
moon quarrelling [given in wood-cat 77]:
next group, in the original MS., shows
defeat of the moon, which in the third gi-ou
swallowed by the sun ; the fourth figure represents the triumpl
sun; in the fifth, the conqueror (very unseethetically) spita the I
of the moon out, as symbol of the first quarter.*"
"We imerely figure one specimen; the subject being hardly iut
gible without the colon of the original-
Of a higher importance are the antiquities of Central Amer
though a comparison of the dificrent publications on the ruint
Palenqu6 clearly shows, that a fiiithful, copy of those monnm<
belongs still to the desiderata of archiEology. The idiotic head |
published by "Waldeck,™ with the peculiar artificial deformatjon of
*" EiNOBBOBOuau, Antiquiciet of Mtziea, iii. ; " MS. in tbe poawaslon of Oabriel I
-nrf—igs. 8, 6, 6, 7.
" Vt/ya^t Pitloraqui H ArcUologique dan* la pravinet dt Titeatan, 16S4-6, Pftrii,
1837; pi. xiii. p. 105 — "Relief utronomique dePaleaqaS" — (diffcrentl j f^*ro In Dii
DaeriptioB, 1822. pi. 3.)
ABT OP AXEBICAN NATIONS.
Fig. 77.
HsxioAji Ii-ivHiaAnD MS.
■knll ; and the teiTft-eotta idol, [179] ;**
~~bott from Yucatan, — show a ten-
^'^ticj towards decorative art; which
*^*t8 even the hnmau form merely
*" Ornamental parpoeea, and there-
«ope lays a peculiar Btress on the head-
*^"^«a, eyebrows, wrinkles, and other
**^eea8orie8, in preference to the purity
^ the principal forms. In fact we may characterize the relief of
*^*Uiique by this peculiarity, which we observe in a smaller degree
**** Mexican teliefe.
^ l^e few monuments of Guatemala hitherto published, among those
'^^^covered by Squier, are of a purer taste and higher artistical cha-
^■*ter. This inedited colossal head [80], obligingly communicated to
"'from his well-etored portfolio, found by him at Yulpat^s, in 1853, but-
"^ tdtm, pi. xii. — "Idole et Vue en terra coits."
v^-
AKT OF AMERICAN NATIONS,
1 beauty all we knew before of the art pf the Red-race. T7}^^'
Bimplicity of design, tbo exqaiaii^-:*^
^'& ^- fiiiUh of execution, and the earuesw ^^
expression of the bead in question [to^iiso
which our wood-cut does not do ade- — *—
quate juBticc), place it on an equal XL
footing with the productioas of anv ■*
Japetide race. Still, the Indian chnrar- ,
ter of the features attests sufficiently — .
its indigenous origin. We owe this ^
gem of American sculpture to the libe-
rality of Ms. Sqdibe; whose name in ^~-
asBociated with so many important re-
Bearchcs and enterprises, that he has.^^-^
been able easily to transfer to ub they=^
honor of publishing the best of air ^~^
American statuary. To it we add, n— _
specimens of Central American atyl(y=^
three heads from one of his publishe* -^^^1
works.'"
Pig. 82. Fig. 83. '^^H
"We copy from the work of de Eivebo and von Tscuvni,'" the ■
lowing terra-cotta head [84], as a specimen of I'eruvian art; aud^
order to show the affinity of Indian art all over America, we c(si
pare it with a Mexican terra-cotta. head [8S].^ The resemblaa
in artistic treatment between both figures is most striking.
Tschiidi, with an exaggeration easily explicable in the discov^
and commentator of monuments formerly unknown, compares
Peruvian vase to any Etruscan work of potterj- ; but, even if we n=:
dissent from his view in respect to the workmanship of the head p^
« Kicai-agui, Now York. 18S2— No. 8!. from i., p. 802, '■ Hoi from Momntombila,"
82, frotn !i.. p. 62, "IdoUM Zspittcro"— No. 63, it., p. fi2, fame seal pta res.
■x Antipurdadti FenanBt, VioiiDS, 4to.. ISGI, Atlu, lamitiK ix. — hod q\
*" AntiqltilU Mtxicaina, 2Dde Eipfdltiou, pL ixir. fig. 71, p. 20.
when we behold two most exquisite
term-cotta lieada of the British Mu-
seum; wliieh, according to the lobel
on them, were found in the neigh-
borhood of Lake Titieaca. Both ,
of them are hero edited for the first i
-tirxke. The male head [86] compares advantageously with works C
of* ZEgrjitiau or Etruscan artisanship, whilst preserving the charae- I
of the Indian race; and the female head [87], with its artificial i
PnoTTAx Taii,
Peruvian Fkh:
deformity of the skull, gives us the highest idea of the artiatical
endowments of the Aymaras.
These few specimens of the indigenous ante-Columbian art of
America show sufficiently the constancy of the Indian type — aB pre- j
served now in the very geographical province whence each relic has i
188 ON SOME OF THE
■
been derived— during all the 'historical period of the New World, gr^^
its great difference from Chinese and Japanese works of art, CoviM
we hope that the monuments of Central and South America mig^
attract the attention and excite the interest of more American scholar
than hitherto, the theory of the Mongol origin of the Red-men woul-
soon be numbered among exploded hypotheses, — to be forgottew
like the fond illusions of Lord Kingsborough ; who succumbed pre
maturely, 'tis said, fortuneless in pocket and aberrated in mind
owing to his sincere and munificent endeavors to deduce '^ Americai
Indians " from the falsely-supposed "/oirt Ten Tribes of Israel."
IX. — ON SOME OF THE UNARTISTICAL RAGES.
Count de Gobineau's publication on the Inequality of humat
raees^is certainly a work sparkling with genius and originality, i
indulging in some wild hypotheses not supported by history. E
one of his most startling assertions he derives the aptitude for a2
among all the nations of antiquity, from an amalgamation with Blm
races. For him, Egyptians, Greeks, Assyrians and Etruscans, tm
half-breeds, mulattoes ! We would not notice this strange and aL^
geiher-gratuitous hypothesis, had not several other works — ^unsci^
tific, but important by the intense popularity they have acquired^
held out the exj)ectati()u that the Black races might, after «
turn out to be artistical, and hence bring about a new era of sv
Sober history does not encourage such dreams, nor can the past c
the Black races warrant them. Long as history has made mentio
of negroes, they have never had any art of their own. Their feature*
are recorded by their ancient enemies, not by themselves. Egyptiar
kings who, from the earliest times of antiquity, came often inU
collision with the blacks, had them figured as defeated enemies
as prisoners of war, and as subject nations bringing tril)ute. Thei
grotesque features, so much diitcring from the Egyptian type, mad
them a favorite subject for sculptural supports of thrones, chain
vases, &c. ; or painted under the soles of sandals, of which instance
abound in Museums as well as in the larger works on Egypt.
To the many examples of monumentjil negroes furnished i:
"Types of Mankind," we add two that are inedited, due to M
Prisse d'Avennes's friendship for his old Egyptian comrade, Mi
Gliddon. The first [fig. 88] is accompanied by the following memo
«» Eaaisur VlnfgaWi det Races Humainei ; 8vo, vols. I, 11, 1863; III, 1854; IT, 186C
Of., on the same subject. Pott, Ungleichheit Menschlicher Kfuaen haupt$dchlich vom tprach
witsenscha/i lichen ttanJpunktef 1856.
UNARTISTICAL RACES. 189
{■odtK^: — "Tombeau ie Sehampthd {'Th.h'beB),-~Boas AmoutiophJJl"
Fig. 88.
Athlk uid AfrKan.
(Thebitn Sculptarea — XTtlth dynut;— 16th ceo tnTT B. C.)
— ftfcont the 16th centuiy B. c. The P>g- 88-
M^cond [fig. 89] is the head of one
of two ezqaiaitelj-designed and
colored full-length negroes, identical
in strle, supporting a "Vaee peint
ijaune, traits rouges) sur les parois
du tombean de AicMnou, pr&tre
charg^ de I'autcl et des ^ritures da
grande temple de Thebes, sons
RAvass Vn,— XX' dynastie (hypo-
ed de Qoumah)." The firet cor-
w>l)orate8 that which, since Morton's
<^J, has ceased to be disputed, viz : the existence, during all the
monumental period of Egypt, of at least three dUtinet type$ of man
along the Nile, Egyptian, Shemitic and Nigritian; the second (which
point, Mr. Gliddon's and M. Prisses's long familiarity with Egypt
**nder them competent authorities to assert), is identical, after 3000
190 ON SOME OF TBB
jeoTB of time, with the ordinaiy class of black Blavea still imported
from the upper Kile-basin for sale in the bazaars at Ouro.
Both these monuments belong to the XViith and XXth dynaetieB,
which carried the arms of the Pharaohs to tlje upper Kile and to the
Euphrates. The other artistical nations of aatiqaity knew littie of
the Kegro-race. They did not come before Solomon's epoch into
immediate and constant contact with it We see soon after, bov-
ever, a negro in an Assyrian battle-scene of the time of Sarooh, at
Khorsabad £90].'" He might have been exported from MempliiabT
Phoenician slave-dealers to Ami,
f^s-^- where he fell fighting for his
master against the AssyriaiiB; who
did not fail to perpetuate the
memory of such an extraordinary
feature as a blaek warrior mnrt
have been to* them. On that re-
markable relief of the tomb of
DariuB . HystaspeB, at Perscpolis,
(itupra, p. ? fig. 35) we have seen
the negro as a representative of
Afiica. The Greeks seldom dre*
blacks: still, on beautiful vases ^^
KnoM*BAD-NM«o. t*>e British Museum we meet wi*^
the well-known negro features io "
battle-scene. [See the annexed plate IX, fig. 1]. Another sac*
vnae, with the representation of Hercules slaying negroes, has be^'
published by Mioali."" Etruscan potters, who, aa already remarkff^
liked to draw Oriental types, moulded vases into the shape of a neg*"
lioad, and coupled it sometimes with the head of white males ^
females. The British Museum contiune several of these very ch *
nictoristie utensils. [See Plate IX, figs. 2, 3, 4]. These two Eh*:
nan vnsos are not older tlian the 4th century B. c. — probably between ■
200 and 250 b. c. Tlic medal-room of the British Museum contun^
besides, throe silver coins of Delphi, age about 400 b. c; having o*
Olio (ace the head of a negro, with the woolly hair admirably iodS
cated ; and on tlic other a goat's head seen in front-view, between
two dolphins, the usual type of Delphi. "We know likewise several
Konian cnmoos, wbioli represent negroes with all the refined elegaaC
of the imporiul o\wvh [91]. Thus we possess effi^ea of negroe*
drawn by six difforont nations of antiquity: Egyptians, Assyrikoff-
IVrsians. Greeks, Etruscans and Komans; from about the 18& oeDr
"■ BoTtA, JTmomm a Ximin. pi. Sa
UXARTISTICAL RACES. 191
tury B. c, to the first centuries of our era, which all speak for the
unalterable constancy of the negro type such as it i^ oi
\9, in our own days. We see that it was not only ^'
the color, but the peculiar type that struck the
ancients; and which the Romans, for instance,
knew quite as minutely as any modem ethnolo-
gists. Petronius, who lived under the emperor
Xero, describes, in his Novel, three vagabond
Uteraiy men who, having taken passage in a
ship on the Mediterranean, suddenly discover that
it belongs to a merchant on board, whom two of
them had previously robbed. Dreading his revenge, (PuUzky Coii.)
one of them says :
"Eamolpiifl, being a scholar, has certainly ink with him: let us therefore dye ourselyes
from top to toe, and as Ethiopian slaves we shaH be at his command without fear of torture;
for by the change of color we shall deceive our enemies." Bat Geiton exclaims in reply :
"■if color alone coald transform onr shape ! for many things have to conspire that the lie
Kus^t be maintained under any circumstances. Or can we fill our lips with an ugly sweU-
iBfi? can we crisp our hair with in iron? and mark our forehead with scars? and distend
^^ shanks into a curve ? and draw our heels down to the earth ? and change our beard into
* foreign fashion ? — artificial color besmears the body, but does not change it." ^
Voltaire has somewhere wittily remarked, " the first white man
'^'ho beheld a negro must have been greatly astonished ; but the
'^^^^soner who claims that the negro comes from the white man
^^nishes me a great deal more."
3fegroes, however, are not the only unartistical race. "We have
*tready spoken of the Shemites among the whites, and wo must add
^ them the Turanian or Turk-Tartar family of nations ; that is to say,
^« Hungarians proper, the Turks and Turkomans, the Finns, and
*^ine mi^cnttory tribes of southern Siberia ; none of them ever having
^^>)daced any painter or sculptor. But not even all the Japetides are
^^dowed with artistical tendencies. The Celts and Slavonians, and
^^ong the Teutonic races, the Scandinavians, had no national art
^^^e imagery of their epics and lyrics is neither picturesque nor
^^alptaral ; th^ buildings, pictures and statues, are characterized by
5^ ^ peculiar type, and are either the works of foreigners, or servile
^^HitatioiiB of imported models. The Turks and Celts have, at least,
pecoHar feeling for ornament, for decorative art and harmony of
^^Ioib; but all the other nations mentioned above have never felt
^-iiat inward impnlse which prompted even the semi-civilized Toltecan
^ T. PiTBOaii AmiiTEi, Satirkonj cap. CII : — compare the extract from Virqil in TSfpt»
^r Mtmimd{p. 266); and the qnoUtion fh)m r>ocMAM*s FabUt: (p. 246) which is but the
A^biaa or Puvtaa dreis of the same idea in .Esor's.
192 SOME OF THE UNARTISTICAL RACES.
nations of America to build ^gantic structures and to adorn them
with sculptures and paintings :^^* the genius of art has never smiled
upon them. But, such being the indubitable facts of history, have
we therefore to consider Hung^ans, Celts, Shemites and Scandina-
vians, as lower races than the ante-Columbian Aztecs of Mexico, and
the Aymaras and Quichoas of Peru ? Are we, because some nations
got peculiar endowments not shared by otheriraces, to transfer these
facts into the moral, social, and political sphere ? Are the scientific
facts about the original "unity" or "diversity" of human races, and
their equal or unequal mental and artistic endowments, to bear
upon their political, social, and legal treatment ? Are the Shemites
to be despised because they cannot understand epics and theogonies!
and the Celts oppressed because their imagination predominates
over their reasoning faculties? and the Negroes enslaved because
they never arrive at orthography or grammatical correctness? Witt
the Hungarians, if they could be forced to forget their language and
to speak German; and the Poles, if they merge into the Russiai^^
family, become more useful to mankind than in their own languages ^
Will they, by changing their idiom, change their national peculiar!-"
ties? Can they develope themselves under oppression and on ^
foreign basis, better than in freedom and in their national individii.—
ality? To all these questions there is but one reply: whatever
their origin and endowments. They are all men; that is to saj"
beings possessing reason and conscience, responsible for their action
to their Creator, to mankind and to themselves, able to recognis^^
truth, and to discern between right and wrong, and therefore they*^
are equally entitled to "life, liberty and pursuit of happiness."
'"[So true is this remark, that Waldkck ( Yucatan, p. 84) relates how the MeridaUot
excellent imitators and clever workmen to this day; possessing, like their anoestors, an innate^
power for sculpture and drawing. Again, in a more austral and less artistic part of America,
the mu/a//o -breeds between Indians, negroes and Portuguese, have much talent for art
(Debret, Voyage pittoresque au Brfail, III, p. 84). In spite even of Islamism, this perdu-
rable race-instinct breaks forth in Egypt among the Theban felldkt; whose BenvenDto
Cellinis, with the humblest instruments, manufacture <* modem antiques" with safGicient
skill to gratify that " love for Egyptian art " professed by the most fastadious Anglo-Sazoo
tourist. Ali Camm5onee was, during my time at Thebes, the Shkykh of native artists in
that line. My friend Mr. A. C. Harris, and myself, supplied him with all the small tools we
could spare (bits of tin and glass, broken penknives, nails, old tootlibrushes, &o.), in hopes
through such means, under Providence, to flood the market with antiquarian enriosities
satisfactory to **les badauds;" and thus obviate the necessity for their chipping the laomi-
ments. (Sec my Appeal to the Antiquaries^ London, Madden, 1S41, pp. 189->46).— Q. &.Q.]
HINDOO AND CHINESE CIVILIZATIONS AND ART. 10'^
X. — HINDOO AND CHINESE CIVILIZATIONS AND ART.
The penmsula of the Iiidiia and Ganges is separated from the
tj^aiuland of Asia, by sand-deaerts and ranges of inaccessible moun-
tjiins. The few long and narrow passes which lead through these
mountains, were rarely used as means of communication with the
Weet and North, for they are the home of warlike robber-tribes, ac-
customed to levy black-mail on the surrounding populations. The
correnta of the eea, and the directions of the winds, led the eater-
prise of the Hindoos to the South-East, to the Malay peninsula and
its island-world. It was thiUier that India sent her culture and re-
ii^on : untouched by the lively development of the classical western
ffOT-ld, she remained unconnected with the current of our history.
Scarce and faint were the legends about that great country of the
fAst, which, in times of elasaical antiquity, reached the "West by the
way of Persia and Arabia. The mythical tradition of the triumphs
of Bacchns, and Hercules, was all that reminded republican Greece
of the homo of spites and gems. Guided by this tradition, Alex-
ander the Macedonian reached the frontiers of the foble-land; but
even his adventurous spirit had to give up progress into the interior.
The elephants, which he brought from the upper Penjaub, decided
tHe bsttlea of hie successors for more than half a century after his
death; down to the time wheu the last of them went up the Capito-
Ijue hill, in the triumph of Curius Dentatus. This animal must have
lived foil fifty years in Macedonian harness after the war with
pyrrliUB, being the last evidence of the unrivalled eastern conquests
of the great Macedonian. The Roman Legions were never able to
surmount the difficulties which barred accesa to Hindostin ; and a
few merchants and ambassadors were the only western people, who,
daring the times of classical antiquity, had seen the sacred rivers of
lUe peuiusula.*" The development of society, religion, government,
and art, with the Hindoos, their institiition of castes, their single and
efficient system of self-government, their elaborate code of law, their
epic and dramatic poetry, and their stupendous works of architec-
ture and sculpture, are, therefore, all of indigenous growth. They
ape certainly not derived from, and many of tbem are probably
mucli anterior to, the Macedonian invasion ; which could not have
left any lasting trace ; both from its short duration, and from the
^ Ou i)t thcBT successful trsTeltera, Babdksanci, g)y«B db the fint descripi
Hiidoo r<xk-teinp1« adomed wilh the seulptnreg of ao androgynouB God. Bm ^
'/■J ato»«iiil, E.hg. Phyi. i. p. \\i.
13
I
194 HINDOO AND CUINE8E
comparatively small extent of the territory overrun by the forces of
Alexander, and even of Seleucus and Demetrius, his Syrian and
Bactrian successors.
[The Punjab remained under the nominal sway of the Macedonians for about ten yem*
when this supremacy was thrown off by Sandracottos (ChandraffupUi)^ about 817 B.O.; •
when Seleucus of Syria found it wiser to make peace with the rebel Hindoo nga, ind to
give him his daughter in marriage. The Qreek kings of Bactria, from Demetriu to
Henander and Apollodorus, — that is to say, for about one century — ^were likewise snxentfitf
of the country on the Indus until 120 b. o. Still» they resided in Bactria; and there is s^
trace of Greek mythology, and consequently of Greek art intimately connected with i^
anywhere in the Punjab : on the contrary, the Bactrian kings put the representation o^
the Hindoo Shiva and of his bull Nandi on their coins struck for the Indian domimoQ^
Hellenism, therefore, did not spread along the Indus, but it had to y^eld to HindooisoL
After the Macedonian visit, Hindostin remained for more than a thousand years undi^^
turbed by foreigners; outliving the fierce contest between Buddhism and Brahmanistf^ *
civilizing by the former the Malay peninsula, and extending its moral influence to T
and China, whilst the latter converted Java about a. d. 800. Two centuries after
event. Shah Mahmoud, of Ghuzni, the monotheistic fanatic, called <*the destroyer <^
idols,*' overran the north of HindostjUi, burning the towns, sacking the temples, mm-"
breaking the images ; and settled his Patt4n and Affgh^ followers in this fertile eouni
Ever since his time, northern Turanian conquerors found no difficulty to invade
either for pillage or for conquest Timur, Baber, and Nadir Shah, flooded the country wii
their followers, in succession; and planted a numerous Mohammedan population,
iBlamite dynasties, among the effeminate Hindoos. Arab merchants spread, at the
time, over all the coasts and islands, and converted Malay-Java (which had previo
accepted the civilization and religion of the Vedas) to Isl&m; about a. d. 1400. Still,
bulk of the population of the peninsula remained unshaken by the purer religion an.
social institutions of the Mohammedan conquerors. European invaders came next Moi
systemically than their Mussulman predecessors, they broke up the legal institutions an
the traditions of indigenous administration. They swept away the old aristocracy
gentry of the country ; but the character of the Hindoo, and his views of God and
of law and society, remain unchanged. The population lives among, but does not in
with, their former rulers, the Mussulmans ; nor with their present European
(to use a geological simile) are in India the two newest strata of recent date ; covering th
primary formations mechanically, but failing to transform chemicaUy the old plu
rocks of Buddhism and Brahmanism.]
"With the ITindoos, religion, institutions, and art, are (as eveiy
where amid aboriginal races) in the most intimate connection
the physical features of the country. Here the exuberant power o;
tropical vegetation, equally gigantic in creation and in destmction,
subdue the energies of man. The sudden changes of temperature,
the tropical rains which, in the course of a few hours, swell the rivulets-
into a great stream, — the snowy mountain-peaks and mighty rivers,
— the jungles that, with their lofty bamboo, encroach upon every
inch of ground left uncultivated, — the strange trees, of which eveiy
branch becomes a new stem, — the powerful animals, from the ele-
phant, and tiger, down to the white ant dangerous to the works of
CIVILIZATIONS AND ART. 195
loman industry by its enonnous numbers, — in short, all nature
tppears in such overwhelming features, that the Hindoo gives up
he continuous struggle with it, and finds his reward not in activity
>at in passive contemplation. His imagination soon gets the upper
land of his understanding; and in mythology, art, and science, takes
in unrestrained flight into the transcendental^ the monstrous and
ihapeless.
The Hindoo adores " nature," as well its destructive as its creative
)ower ; he recognises a soul in every living creature ; he believes in
he transmigration of the soul ; and therefore throws the corpse of
lis beloved into the Ganges or into the fire, the sooner to be dissolved
nto its original atoms by the pure elements. The "iVtrvana," with
ho ancient Buddhists, and the '^ Yoglid' with the Brahmans, that
B to say, the losing of the individuality in contemplation — a death-
ike state— being with him the noblest aim of life and the highest
legree of sanctity, death has no terrors for him : — ^he flings himself
inder the wheels of the triumphal car of Shiva at Jaggemaut, and
Ae widow willingly ascends the pile with the corpse of her husband.
En the nature around him, destruction being always followed by
immediate regeneration, he believes creation to be an uninterrupted
cycle of one and the same life, only changing its form; and his poets
nng, that
** Like fts men throw away oM gu-ments, and clothe themselres in new attire,
Thus the soul leaTes the body and migrates into another.''
Nature being to the Hindoo the incarnation of Godhead, he has
& deeply reverential feeling for it ; and adorns his works of art with
flowers in such a profusion, that man and his actions become often
only accessories of this adornment. Still, it is not in an arbitrary
'^wity that he sheds his flowers on poetry and sculpture ; they always
liave a deeper, symbolical meaning.
Boring the inundations, when the valley of Bengal is nearly lost
''^der the waters, the petals of the Lotus flower alone swimming on
^^ waves, bear evidence that the vital powers of nature have not
*^n destroyed by the floods. This flower became, therefore, the
symbol of life and of creation : it is the throne of all the Gods, and
^^pecially of Brahma the creator.
The representation of Kama, the God of Love, is one of the most
S'^cefully symbolical — though entirely unplastic, specimens of
*fiiidoo imagination. It is a smiling child with bow and arrows,
^^ng on a parrot. The bow is a bent sugar-cane adorned vnth
^wers, the string is formed by a row of flying bees, and the arrow
^ ^ lily. Thos the Hindoo tries to represent the gentleness and in-
^i^staQcy, the impudence and the innocence, the sweetness and the
"^^^ of love, in one and the same image.
196 HINDOO AND CHINESE
In the same symbolical way, the Goddess of Beauty and Pleasure
18 the Goddess of Nature ; for, Nature is always beautiful, and the
l)eautiful always natural. She is the wife of Shiva — the God of
Destruction, and holds a flower in one hand, with a snake coiled
around it : since pleasure is blended with danger, as life and beautj-
with death. ,
I cannot enter here upon Hindoo Architecture, nor give any
details of the wonders of the cave-temples, some of them resembling
our churches by their nave and aisles. Space forbids me to speak of
the colossal tanks in the south surrounded by huge buildings, and
adorned by grand flights of steps ; or of the deep wells in the west,
cut into the rock and surmounted by a series of galleries, to afford
cool shade in that hot climate. I must not here enumerate their
triumphal monuments, their columns decorated with reliefs, their
grand arches surmounted by statues. SuflSice it to mention the &ci)
that Hindoo art, through all the epochs of its history, was entirely
indigenous and peculiar to the peninsula. The great palaces^
temples, and tombs of the Mohammedan princes bear not th^
slightest resemblance to the native architecture, being themselves
analogous to the mosques of Cairo, and the seraglios of Constantinople
or of Moorish Spain.
The character of Hindoo sculpture is similar to Hindoo poetry ^
it is eminently feminine. Wo find with their artista always a deli-'
cate feeling for the pleasant and graceful, as well as for the pompous
and adorned, whilst they fail in their attempts at grandeur, — bein^
either crushed by the exuberance of the decorative element, or losing
themselves in tasteless and adventurous exaggeration. In general^
their statues and reliefs are true in the principal forms, and soft ani-
elaboratc in execution.
The sculptors are peculiarly successfnl in rendering the expression
of deep contemplation, or of religious devotion. The representa-
tions of domestic life are of the greatest sweetness ; the feminine
passive character of the Hindoos being admirably portrayed in their
pleasant simplicity. But when a God is to be drawn in action, and
his power to be symbolized, the artist failed in his task : unable to
reproduce superhuman power by idealizing the human form, he
betook himself to unartistic and symbolical methods, as by multi-
plying head and hands. Such symbolical personifications of Godhead
are not at all exclusively Hindoo ; they were not unknown to the
mythology, and earlier poets of Greece. The Giants, with their
hundred arms; Geryon, with three bodies; and Polyphemus, with his
eye on the forehead ; are subjects of art as unplastio as any creatures
of Hindoo imagination. But the Greek sculptors avoided to represent
CIVILIZATIONS AND ART. 197
such myths, whereas the Indian artists had often to deal with them ;
and we most confess, that sometimes they succeeded in conciliating
them with good taste, by giving prominence to the principal pure
forms, and treating the monstrous appendages as decorative accesso-
ries. Monstrosity is, on the whole, not the principal character of
Hindoo art ; but monstrous idols excite the curiosity of the European
visitor of India more than artistically-carved statues ; he buys them
and carries them to the "West, on account of their very oddity.
Hence, our public collections and curiosity-shops are swamped with
foor-handed and three-headed monsters, which ought not to be taken
for fair specimens of Hindoo art, though they have given rise to
the general belief that Hindostdn has no art worthy to be noticed.
We can scarcely wonder that such is the case, since the public at
large — let us boldly avow it, — cares little for art: how then should
it take an interest in an art founded on myths, institutions, and a
culture which has scarcely any affinity with our own civilization ?
The few scholars, on the other hand, who devote their time to the
literature of Hindostdn, are but too often philologists, without any
artistic education. "We have, therefore, no publications on Hindoo
art, such as those of Champollion, Rosellini, and Lepsius, on Egypt,
or of Texier, Flandin, Botta, and Layard, on Persia and Assyria.
The most important sculptures of India have not yet been copied;
and the collections brought to the West have not been made with
the view of giving a correct idea of tlie peculiar stj'le of Hindoo art
in its different schools and epochs. The confusion becomes still
greater, by the fiact that the old mythology of Brahmanism has, with
» few slight alterations, remained the religion of the population down
to our days. Idols are cast and carved continually, and their barba-
roQs gtyle throws discredit on the better specimens of former ages. '
Oar knowledge of Indian art is only fragmentary, and scarcely autho-
nzea ns to assign its proper position to every monument, either
artistically or chronologically. Still, a few fkcts are sufficiently ascer-
Wned, to serve as a clue in the labyrinth of Hindoo art
The rock-caves, with their fantastic, exuberant, and somewhat
f ^ggerated reliefe, are all of Buddhist origin. They are more chaste
*^ Btyle than the idols of the present worshippers of Shiva; and
^long to a period of Indian history, classical for art and ^/Oetry,
^m 600 B. c, to about 800 a. d. By a strange coincidence, it is the
***>ie period in which Phidias and Praxiteles and Lysippus, and the
^man artists of Augustus and Trajan, flourished in Europe.
Still more graceful, and more serene, are the Hindoo sculptures of
*"« ide of Java, which we meet in the ruins of the temples of Boro-
^0 and Barandanum. The great Sir Stamford Raffles, and the
^nibay Asiatic Society, have published a few specimens of those
Kg. 61.
198 HINDOO AND CHINESE
excellent reliefe; which may be placed among the bestprodnctioiiBof
art. The following drawing of a coloiB»l
head of Buddha [91]*" in a volcanic stone,
now in the Glyptothec of Munich, mftj
give an idea of the elegance and femiiuii*
character of those sculptures.
The great bulk of the idols, in the eo^
lection of the British Museum, of tt*-*
East India House, and of king Louis ^'
Munich, belong to another style, whic^
we call the florid style, characterized i^^
its best specimens by an elaborate el(^^
ganee, and often by affectation of sweet- —
neee, with a prolusion of ornaments whiclf^
"'"""'*' encumbers the figures. Fig. 92, from i^
bronze of the British Museum, representing Lakshmi, the Qoddeee^
.of Beauty, or Hindoo Venoa, is a fair specimen J
^s- ^- of this style ; which belongs to the XVth and -
XVItb century of our era, and is efill imitated by
the modern artists of India. There are some rude
figures, of an entirely difterent style, in some
of the Museums of Europe ; and again othem
evidently archaic in their type : still, all of them
are characterized by the same long pointed nose.
the same mild eye, and the same sweetuess of
expression in the ova! face, — which form still the
distinctive marks of the high castes of Hiii-
dost^n.
It is peculiarly interesting to see a school of
art, 80 eminently feminine, apply itself to the ser-
vire of a more martial race ; trying to represent
the feature? nnd the court-life of the Turanian Dynasties, established
in the XVII — XVUIth century all over the peninsula. The minia-
ture-paintin<!;s of the time of Shah Jeliin, Jeh^ngir, Akbar, and Ao-
rengzeb, are really admirable. Whether they represent the splendor
of a gorguous court, or portray scenes of domestic life, there is such a
gentle delicacy of feeling displayed in them, such a modest grace in
the attitudes, and such a charm, especially in the female forms, that
they are us pleasing, even to European taste, as the tales of the Ara-
bian Nights. And yet there is no perspective to be met with in those
paintings ; the manner of shading the figures is unnatural ; the cos-
tume is strange, and the grouping somewhat awkward. All this is
*■* Othiiar FkARE, Ittd. Mylholofit I Knd Sib Staxvobd Eafili^ J«tb.
CIVILIZATIONS AKD ART.
loy
Fig. 02.
iNDUM PBIMOB, (Pulixky Coll.]
Fig. Q3.
eminentlj lEndoo ; but the features of the pereons represented mark
tiieir foreign origin. The likeness of a prince
of the honee of Timtir [92], probably Darab
the brother of Aureugzeb, on a eardonj'x-
cameo of my collection, shows a Turanian
cast of features.
Fourportraita ofMohammedan princes and
statesmen in India, of the time of Aureog-
9!cb (1658-170T),— selected &om a large col-
lection of likenesses painted by contempo-
rary Hindoo artists and now adorning my
Indian Mnsenm — are most remoidcable for
their excellent characterization of the differ-
ent races of the Muslim aristocracy in India,
during the XVHtb century. Shah JbhXn
[93], the Grand Mogul of Delhi, from 1628
to 1658, is the grandson of Akbar the Gre»t, who was grandson to
£abor, — founder of the dynasty of the Mo-
rals, which gave an uninterrupted succeusion
of six great mlers to India, from 1494 to
1707. Babor, a Turkoman from Fcrgh&na,
"was the fourth in descent from Timhr-leng;
and, though promiscuous polygamy is apt to
destroy the national type of any race, we still
behold, in this portrait of Shah Jeh&n, the
old Turanian character, resembling the por-
traits of the Parthian kings.
KhXn KeAinrA, the Qeneral-in-Chief ofthe
Saltan of Beejapoore in the Dekhiln, is a Ta-
xnnl convert to IslJm. [See his portrait, slightly enlarged, tinted to
^ve the color of his skin, in Gliddon's " Ethnographic Tableau" (No.
■46, Hindooy) at the end of this volume.] He represents the aboriginal
negroid (/>raptdtan) race ofthe southern table-lands of Hindostin; not
to be confounded with the Brahman race of the Gangctic valley —
"which is not aboriginal, but a conquering race coming originally from
l>eyond the Hindoo Kush, and closely allied to the Arians of Persia.
Ehdn £h&nna'B Chief^ Mahh6od Adil Shah [94], of Beejapoore,
claimed descent from the present Osmanlees. His ancestor, Yusstif
!Ehln (1501), founder of the empire of Beejapoore, having been
the son of Sultan Amnrath H., of Anatolia, his round Turanian sknll
is still inore characteristic than that of Shah Jeh&n.
Shah Mirza [as snch he stands in the *' Ethnographic Tableau,"
(So. 28, Uaiek Tatar)}, the Chancellor of the kingdom of Golconda,
is aaUsbek Tartar: and MollahRCkha [95], his chief clerk, cannot
Shah JtoJlji.
HINDOO AND CHINESE
\
Holla H B(Skba.
disown his Arab descent ; the cnnmng Sh- ^
mitic features are nnmistakeable. Mt^^^^
Khan, [96] the Affghfin General-in-Chief «:^^^
Golconda, is stamped with the peculiar ch^^*"
racter of his race. We see in this remarl^*'^'
able assemblage of the atatesmeD of Qo^^ *''
conda, under the reign of Bnltan Abd-Atf^'
lih Kobcha, (about the middle of theXVIItl*^^
century,) all the elements of Mohammedim*^ -"
conquest in Hindostdu. Whoever has livefc^ "*
for a while in India will recognise in thenc*^
tlie moHt characteristic typee of lelamit^^^
aristocracy in the Dekh&n, as it is still eeentf^^
at the Court of the Nizitm.
The European conquest of India has not improved art among tbe^^
natives. Trying to imitate their European lords, and struck with the^=*
peculiar effect of light in our drawings and paintings, the Hindoo *^^
painters have lost the traditions of their own art, and are lapsing "^3
into barbarism, wherever the contact with Europeans is great — for "*
instance, in Bengal: whilst the painters of the Dekh&n are somewhat ^
better, though not equal to the masters who produced those nsiniatnre- — '
likenesses, &c., of the greater time of the Grand Moguls.
The preliminary remark, that we do not know sufficiently the mono- "
raents of Iliudostin to characterize the different schools and epochs *
of art, applies with still stronger ft)rce to the peninsula east of the *
Ganges. We know, however, the monotonous statues of Buddha,
carved and cast by tlie artists of Birma, well enough to see that Bir-
uicse art is clumsier than Indian ; whilst the features of the stataea
are altosjcthcr different from the Hindoo cast As to Biam luid
Cochin-Cliina, concerning their art, we were unable to get any fiuts
whatever. These countries are visited only by a few merchants and
missionaries, who ignore art. China is by far better known, in Ma
CIVILIZATIONS AND ART. 201
respecti than the Malay peninsula and its adjacent countries ; and
<leserYe8 the attention of the ethnologist and philosopher, since it is
the country where the Yellow-race has developed itself on founda-
tions entirely peculiar and entirely indigenous. In China all the citi-
zens are politically equal : legally there are neither patricians, nor
slaves, nor serfs ; neitlier privileged nor unprotected classes in the
country. The priests form no hierarchy, the officials are not chosen
from among an aristocracy of birth. The Yellow-race has not been
trained by theocracy, nor ennobled by chivalry. From the very
earliest times, we find with the Chinese a thorough centralization ; a
well-organized bureaucracy, open to competition ; a paternal despot-
ism, carefully superintending, regulating, repressing and suppressing
the moral exertions of the people, and providing that nobody should
aspire to a position to which he has not become entitled by his train-
ing, and his degrees taken at the regular examination. The emperor
sits on the throne as the incarnation of sober common sense ; the priest
is the servant of the state ; the church and school are police-establish-
ments, by which the Chinese is taught blindly to respect authority,
officials, "law and order," and to which every child is sent to learn
practical sciences. In fact, it is the system of patriarchal, enlight-
ened, absolutism, — so much praised by the statesmen of continental
Europe, and many self-called "radicals** of England; the system of
a nobility of merit and office ; of centralized functionarism ; of select
committees and boards of inquiry ; of orders in council, and volumi-
nous instructions for the people how to behave so as to become happy ;
of checks and counter-checks; of spies and denunciations; of police
regulations and vexations. In short, China is the country of enlight-
enment, of equality, and of the bamboo, — paternally applied to every-
body, from the prime minister to the humblest tiller of the ground.
These institutions show clearly that the Chinese is endowed with
a sober and dry imagination, that cold reason predominates, and that
the creative power is scarcely developed in him. Accordingly, we
find that reverie, depth of feeling, and philosophical research, are
unknown to his literature. His artists never attempted to create an
ideal: they are materialists and flat imitators of nature, struck
rather by the difference than the affinity of forms ; their aim is there-
fore always the characteristical, not the beautiful. This tendency
leads them to exaggeration and caricature. Imitating nature in a
servile manner, the picturesque is much more in their way than the
sculptural ; the naked form remained altogether misunderstood by
them. They do not see and copy the principal outlines, but the
accidental details: the wrinkles, the hair, or the swelling of the
muscles. As to drapery, tliey imitate principally its folds, and seem
to forget that they cover a body.
202 HINDOO AND CHINESE CITILIZ ATIONS, ETC.
In regard to the muteriala employed by the Chinese artist, ^^*
find that he excels in casting of metals, and diat no stone is so lu::^^
as to deter him by technical difScnltieB from employing it :^S3*
carves in wood and ivory, he chisels the marble, he cuta the gem.t:^*'*
moulds the clay, he makes the best potteiy. Wood-catting and Uth^ ^"^
graphy were indigenous in China, long before Europe knew thein^czm.
We may say without exaggeration, that all the materials, and th«=Ae
most important of the workmanship of the West, are known 8mon^-«=ag
the Yellow-race; and that in skiU and industry the Bon of the Cele^ -^b-
tial empire surpasses the Japetide. But how to deal artistically witL^^ih
a material, how to combine it with, and make it subservient ti — i — ",
the idea of the work of art, this remained an unsolved problem t^:Aio
the Chinaman. Seduced by his mechanical skill, he seeks th.^c=ie
highest aim of art in overcoming practical difficulties : accordinglj^^y,
he delights in treating hie material in the most unsuitable way, —
transforming ivory into lace; or sculpturing, from hard stone, figTirea
covered with a net of unbrokeu meahes. He startles the mind by
the patience with which he makes artistical puzzles, instead of ex-
citing the imagination by the composition, and creating delight
through the purity and beauty of forms.
Tlie preceding two heads give an idea of the type of the Yellow-
race and Its art. Fig. 97 is the smiling portrait of a high functioniuy,
from a cameo in my collection. Fig. 98, the head of the frowning
God of the Pokr star, comes from a statuette in the British Moseum.
Both of them are intensely characteristic specimens of an art never
iniluenced by foreign agencies ; and scarcely showing any affioitv
with the sculptures, either of our classical western, or of the contei^
minous Hindoo civilization.
F.P.
GBANIAL CHARAGTEBISTIGS. 203
CHAPTER III.
THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RACES OF MEN.
BY J. AITKBN MBI08, ILD,
Of USUAL sum cm OV FHILABIlLWUi, flULOW Of XBB OQtTiWB Of fRBBSAII^
MsMBfl. NOTT AlTD GlIDDOM:
Mt Dkak Sibb. — In answer to jonr Tery polite request of Jane 14th, that I should
jou with a brief statement of the progress and present condition of Human
u and the intimate and important relations which it bears to the great problems
of Ethnologj, I send yon the accompanjing sketch, which jou must receiye cum grano
•aiis^ inasmuch as it has been drawn up during the hot and oppressiye nights of mid-
summer, and amidst the exacting interruptions necessarily attendant upon the practice
of mj profession.
HaTin^ as you are aware, deyoted some portion of my leisure time, during the summer
of 1S55, to arranging and classifying the magnificent collection of the late Dr. Morton,
preporatory to issuing a fourth edition of the Catalogue (the .MS. of which was presented
to the Academy of Natural Sciences in December last), I haye thought proper to embody
iti this sketch some notice of the additions and changes which this Collection has under-
gone since the demise of its illustrious founder. In attempting to set forth, in a general
irmj, the cranial characters which differentiate the Races of Men, I haye indicated the
tx-oe Tmlue, not only of the Collection itself, but of the labors of Dr. M. also. For by
determining those constant differences which constitute typical forms of crania, we esta-
l^lish the fundamental, anatomical facts or principles upon which a true classification of the
Himimn fiunily must be erected.
In the treatment of my subject, you will obserye that I haye confined myself chiefly to a
vimple statement of facts, carefiilly and designedly abstaining from the expression of any
opinion upon the prematurely, and perhaps, in the present state of our knowledge, unwisely
maooted questions of the origin and primitiye afliliations of man. Not a littie study and
wAeetioB incline me to the belief that long years of seyere and earnest research are yet
saeeeMsiy before we can pronounce authoritatiyely upon these ultimate and perplexing
l>rdbl«ms of Ethnology.
Very truly yours, &c.,
FiiLAO., Dboskbxb., 185(1. J. AITEEN MEI08.
204 THE CRANIAL CH AR AC lEBISTlCS
I.
** How much nuij the AiiAtomist see in the mere skull of maiil Howaiok
more the physiognomist ! And how much the most the ^w**v-^|fr^^ vbo is i
physiognomist ! I blush when I think how mneh I onght to know, tod of
how much I am ignorant, while writing on a part of the body of msn viueb
is so superior to all that aeienoe haa jet diaoorered — to all bdief^ to lU
conception !
<* I consider the system of the bones as the great outline of »"f", and tke
sknll as the principal part of that qrstem.**
Latatbb, Atoyt en Ph^nogmmg.
A COMPREHENSIVE and carefully conducted inquiry into the cntiial
characteristics of the races of men, constitutes a suhject as unlunited
in its extent and variety, as it is important in its results. Such ai^
inquiry is essentially the zoolo^cal consideration of man, or, iJ*
other words, the consideration of man as a member of the gre^^
animal series, and the consequent application to him of those fimd^^
mental laws which concern the subordination of parts, and the est^^^
blishment and correlation of specific forms.
The first step in this inquiry, is the determination of those di^^
ferences by which we are enabled to discriminate between th^^
human cranium and that of the lower orders of animals. Lawrkkc^^
long ago indicated, in his valuable LectureSj the importance of thi^^
procedure. "As the monkey-race," says he, "approach the nearestf^
to man in structure and actions, and their forms are so much like^
the human, as to have procured for them the epithet^ anthrapo-^^
morphous, we must compare them to man, in order to find out tiie
specific characters of the latter; and we must institute this com-
parison particularly with those called orang-outangs."' Such a
comparison between the cranium of a negro and that of a gorilla,
has been admirably drawn by Prof. Owen.^ The second step leads
to a recognition of the points of difference and resemblance between
the crania of the various groups composing the human family. Now
in elucidating these resemblances and differences, we lay the founda-
tion of anthropology, or man zoologically considered. But our
cranioscopy, to be properly initiative or introductory to anthro-
pology, must be comparative, — not humanly comparative only, but
zoologically. In other words, as naturalists — using that term in
its most comprehensive sense — we must recognize the commence-
1 Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, Physiology, Zoology, and the Nataral History of
Man. By Wm. Lawrence, F.R.S. London, 1848, p. 88.
* Descriptive Catalogue of the Osteological Series contained in the Mosemn nf the Royal
College of Surgeons. IL 785. 1853.
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 205
ment of cranioscopy in the lower series. If we first compare the
crania of the lowest types of maa with the most anthropoid of those
of the monkey group, and then carefully observe the nature of the
relation between the so-called superior and inferior forms of each
group, respectively, and finally compare these relations together, we
commence our studies properly. For in so doing, we in reality
study the extent, nature, and significance of the wide gap which
appears effectually to separate man from the brute creation. I say,
appears — and I say it advisedly, inasmuch as in nature's plan there
may be no gap at all ; the intervening forms may have become
extinct, they may, unknown to us, be living in some unexplored
regions of the earth ; or they may yet appear, at some future period,
to substantiate that harmonious and successional unity which seems
to underlie the entire system of the universe.
In the accompanying table will be found a series of figures repre-
senting the juvenile, or immature, and adult skulls of the anthropo-
niorphous monkeys, the adult or permanent forms of the lower types
l>oth of men and monkeys, and, lastly, a well-known representation
of the highest form of the "human head divine," — all arranged in
<^ixformity with what appears to be the indication of nature. Such
^^ arrangement shows us, at a glance, that among the different tribes
^f monkeys, as among the various races of men, there are numerous
^5T>e8 or forms of skull ; that for each of these natural groups, there
^* « gradation of cranial forms ; that the greatest resemblances be-
^^^een the two groups — resemblances indicating the existence of a
^'^asitionaiy or connecting link as a part of nature's plan — are to be
^OTight for in or between the lower types of each, and not between
^l^^ lowest man and highest monkey, as is generally supposed ; that
^es nnde^oped crania of the Chimpanzee, Orang, and other higher
^>T>e8 of monkeys, more closely resemble the human form than when
ftxlly evolved ; that for each of the lower human types of skull, there
Appears to exist among the monkeys a rude representative, which
aeema remotely and imperfectly to anticipate the typical idea of the
former, and to bear to it a certain ill-defined relation ; and, lastly,
^at the best formed human skull stands immensely removed from
the most perfectly elaborated monkey cranium.
From the comparative methods above referred to, we learn that
^e human head differs from that of the brute creation in many im-
P^'tant respects, — each as the proportion between the size and areas
7 the cranium and fistee, the relative situation of the fiice, the direc-
^on and prominence of the maxillse, the position and direction of the
^^pital foiamen, the proportion of the fecial to the cranial half of
^^ ocdpito-mental diameter, in the absence of the os inter-maxillare,
206 THB OBAHIAL CH A B A CTBBISTIOS
OF TBE EACES OF KEN.
207
in the number, aitaation, and di>
rection of the teeth, &c. These are
a few of the differential elements
which separate man &om the qnad-
rumana, and the vationB genera
and speciea of the latter from each
other. But the chief value of theee
osteological differentia lies in their
perfect applicability to man, and
the facility with which they enable
us to distinguish between the vaii-
OUB human types. Thus, in the
best developed and most intellec-
tual races, the 8upraK)rbital ridge
is smooth, well carved, and not
much developed; aa we descend
towards the lower types, it becomeB
more and more marked, untii, in
the African and Australian heada,
it has attained its maximnm de-
velopment. In the Orang, this
feature be^ns to assume a greater
importance, while in the Chimpan-
zee, its enormous size renders it a
characteristic mark. Here, then,
ifi the evidence, to some extent, of
gradation, in a seemingly exclusive
ethnographic mark, whose signifi-
cance is elucidated by a resort to
anthropology. Again, it is curioiu
to observe bow certain adult animal
characters appear in man during
the fcetal period only. Thns, in
some mammals, as the Bodentia
and MaiBupiaiia, we find, as a per-
manent feature, an inter-parietal
bone. In man, the occipital bone
consista, at birt^ of four parts,
which are not consolidated until
about the fifth or sixth year.
Each of these parts ia developed
from distinct ossific centres. For
the posterior or proral portion, an-
208 THE CBANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
atomists generally recognise four snch centres, arranged in pairs, the
two lower uniting first, and afterwards the two upper, so that, be-
tween this superior and inferior portion, a line of demarcation
— sutura prorse — remains until the time of birth* According to
Meckel, the superior portion is developed fix>m two bony pnncta.
In consequence of this distinct ossification, the superior angle of
the OS ocoipitis continues as a separate piece during intra-uterine
life, as was long ago noticed and described by Gerard Blaaus,
in his work (Anatome Contraeta) published at Amsterdam, in 1666.
The interest attached to this embryonic feature arises fix>m its re-
markable persistence as a triangular inter-parietal or supra-occipital
bono, in juvenile Peruvian skulls, as first pointed out by Dr. F.Bbl-
i.AMW in a paper read before the Naturalists' Society of Devon and
C'ornwrtlU and afterwards by Dr. Tschudi, in a paper on the ancient
Peruvians.' Dr. Mixchin, in a recent highly philosophical article,
entitled, Cmtributions to Craniologyy^ while contending for the central
i>r vortioal origin of the bi-parietal bones, is disposed to question the
oxistenoo of this supernumerary bone as an ordinary normal condi-
tion of fa^tal life. However, his argument on this special point is by
no moans conclusive. The os inter-maxillare, found in some of the
Quadnimana as a permanent character, has also been demonstrated
ns a tninsitional mark in the human embryo.* Did my space permit,
i>thor oxamplos might be given, illustrative of the value of human
iMubnology as a guide in the study of the specific and generic cha-
nu*tors of the animal kins^lom.
Tlio want of information, such as above set forth, led Monboddo
and Konssoau, nion of undoubted learning, to speak of the relation-
ship of the gvMius HiMuo to the Quadrumana in terms contradictor)'
to all oonvot anatomy and physiology. "II est bien d6montr6," says
Koussoau, *M|uo lo Singe n*est pas une vari6t^ de THomme, non
siMilomont pari^oqu'il est priv^ de la faculty de parler, mais, surtout,
paixHMju'on ost sur que son esp^e n'a point la faculty de se perfec-
tionnor, qui ost lo oaraot^re specifique de Tespfece humaine; — exp^
rionoos qui no pannssont pas avoir ^t^ faites, sur le Pongos et
I'l^umng-Outang, avoo assez de soin, pour en tirer la mSme conclu-
sion.*'* Monboddo, loss cautious, expressed his belief in the specific
identity of man and the orang. Even White, not properly under-
standing Xaturo*8 method in that " Gradation" upon which he wrote,
* Kainhurgh Now riulosophical Journal, 1844, p. 262.
* l)iO)lin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science, Not., 1866.
* Seo somu ronmrks on the inter-maxillary bone, by Prof. Leidy, in Quam and Sharptjft
Human Anatomy, 1st Ainer. Edit, Yol. 1, p. 143.
« l)i-cour8 8ur les Causes, &c., note 10.
OF THE RACES OP MEN. 209
peaks of the orang as having the person, manner, and actions of
lan.''
Still higher and more complex propositions engage the attention
r the cranioscopist. What is the nature of the skull as a whole,
nd what is the nature respectively of its different parts? Why
lonld it be composed of 22 bones, and no more ? What is the
leaning of the sutures, and what their relation to individual and
fcoe forms of the skull ? What are the relations of the cranium to
le bony skeleton on the one hand, and to the delicate organ of
lougfat and sensation, which it encloses, on the other ? What are
le laws of its development 7 When has it obtained its fuU growth,
nd what are the indications of this fact ? Is this period the same
1 all the varieties of men ? Does the cranium give form to the
rain, or, vice-versa, does the latter mould the former to itself?
XThat are the relations of cranial form to mental and moral mani-
festations,— '^ to capability of civilization, and actual progress in arts,
iciences, literature, government, ftc. ?" Is there one, or are there many
primitive cranial types or forms ? If one, how have originated the
fistinctions which we now perceive ? If many, what are the distin-
guishing peculiarities of the primitive forms ? Are these peculiari-
ties primordial and constant, or can they be adequately accounted
for by the action of external causes ? To what extent is the form of
the cranium modified by climatic conditions, habits of life, age, sex,
intennarriage, &c. ? Does intellectual cultivation modify the form
of the skull ? Can acquired modifications of cranial form be trans-
initted hereditarily ? If so, what are the laws of this transmission ?
b there for skull-forms, as Flourens has said of races, '^ an art of
PWerring their purity, of modifying them, altering and producing
^^ ones ?*•• Are the few leading cranial types which we at present
•'Mounter in the human fiimily, primary results of certain cosmo-
Sooic causes, which ceased to act the moment after their formation ;
^» «re they the secondary, or even tertiary and quaternary results,
•> Count de Gobineau supposes, of the intermixture of races, occur-
^ at periods antedating all historical and monumental record ?*
Such are a few of the leading questions which arise from a thoughts-
^ examination of ihe human cranium,— questions which I indicate
°^ rather as exemplifying the scope and philosophical character of
^**uioecopy, than with the view of answering them in detail. In-
Aa Aeeovnt of tho RtgaUr Qi«dati<m in Man, and in difftrwit Animals and Vegttablta,
^ Bj Chas. WMte. London, 1799.
tk rinatinet «t de rintelfigenoo dot Animanx, par P. Flovrens: Sme Edit, Paris, 1S61,
* Wd sar Hn^gafiU dso Baoss Hnmainsa, par M. A. de Gobinean: Paris, 1858, roL 1,
14
210 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
deed, such an attempt, in the present state of our knowledge, would
be premature, and therefore liable to the errors inseparable fipom
hasty examinations. Some of these questions, it is true, have al-
ready been answered ; some are being solved even now ; while othen,
such as the law of divergent forms, are professedly among the most
obscure problems in the whole range of scientific inquiry. Neverthe-
less, I call the attention of the reader to a brief and general analysis
of some of the most prominent of these subjects, as the best method
of showing the importance of this newest of the sciences, its nature
and power, the methods of procedure adopted, and the results which
may reasonably be expected to flow from its cultivation. And I
do this designedly, for I have been actuated, in contributing this
paper to a popular scientific work, with the desire of presenting a
novel, and with me, favorite study, in its proper light before the peo-
ple, hoping thereby to arrest the progress of certain ill-founded sufr
picions, which, in some quarters, have sprung up as the result of a
fear that the inquiry was detrimental, instead of advantageous, to the
best interests of man.
Cranioscopy is a new science. Dating from the time of Blumsh-
BACU, with whom it fairly begins, it is scarcely 70 years old ; and its
cultivators, even at the present moment, number but a few names.
Indeed, so little attention has been paid, in general, to the Natural
History of Man, that we find Lawrence, so late as the summer of
1818, expressing himself in the following words :^^ " Accurate, beau-
tiful, and expensive engravings have been executed of most objects
in natural history, of insects, birds, plants : splendid and costly pub-
lications have been devoted to small and apparently insignificant de-
partments of this science ; yet the different races of man have hardly,
in any instance, been attentively investigated, described, or compared
t-ogetlicr: no one has approximated and surveyed in coxyunctioD-
their structure and powera : no attempt has been made to delineate
them, I will not say on a large and comprehensive, but not even of^
a small and contracted scale ; nobody has ever thought it worth whil<^
to bestow on a faithful delineation of the several varieties of mar^
one-tenth of the labor and expense which have been lavished agui^
and again on birds of paradise, pigeons, parrots, hunmung-birdfl^
beetles, spiders, and many other such objects. Even intelligent an<^
scientific travellers have too often thrown away on dress, arms, oma —
ments, utensils, buildings, landscapes, and obscure antiquities, th^
utmost luxury of engraving and embellishment, neglecting entirelj^
the being, without reference to whom, none of these objects posses^
either value or interest In many very expensive worka, one is dis- —
^ op. cit., p. 84.
OF THE RAGES OF MEN. 211
)pointed at meeting, in long snccession, with prints of costumes —
immer dresses and winter dresses, court and common dresses — 'the
earer, in the meantime, being entirely lost sight of. The immortal
Btorian of nature seems to have alluded to this strange neglect in .
^serving, ^ quelqu' interSt que nous ayons a nous connaltre nous
Smes, je ne sais si nous ne connaissons pas mieux tout ce qui n'est
IB nouB.'" Indeed, )*rhether we investigate the physical or the moral
fttore of man, we recognize at every step the limited extent of our
Dowledge, and are obliged to confess that ignorance which a Rons-
tau and a Bufibn have not been ashamed to avow." — ''The most
lefiil, and the least successfully cultivated of all knowledge, is that
* man ; and the description on the temple of Delphi (Fvoj^i (fsaurw)
mtained a more important and difficult precept than all the books
' the moralists."" Twelve years after this was written, we behold
r. Morton compelled to conclude a lecture upon " The different
omtM of the SkuU as exhibited in the Five Races of Men" without
3ing able to present to his audience either a Mongolian or a Malay
LtdlJ^ Our surprise at this will be somewhat lessened, however,
hen we call to mind the fact that, at this time, the celebrated Bin-
lenbachian collection contained but 65 skulls. And now, in 1856,
e are again reminded, by a British ethnographer, of the difficulties
hieh b^et the study of cranioscopical science. '^ It is truly surpri-
ng," says Davis, "how great the destruction of human crania,
1-important for our design, has been, and how rapidly all such
snnine remains of the Britons, Romans, and Anglo-Saxons are now
leaping from tixe grasp of science. The progressive enclosure of
IT wild tracts, the extension of cultivation, and the introduction of
more perfect agriculture, have in modem times destroyed multi-
idea of the oldest sepulchres, and all that they contained. And it
unfortunate that the researches of antiquaries, who have opened
UTOW8 and excavated cemeteries with inquiring eyes, have been
most equally fatal to the cranial remains of their occupants. Arms,
eraonal ornaments, and other relics deposited with the dead, have
eneraljy engrossed attention, to the exclusion of the tender and
^gile bones of their possessors."^^ Notwithstanding these obstacles,
n BuflToD, ••!>• 1* Natnn de VHomme,'* Histoire NatoreUe Gin^rale et Partieiili^n. Paris,
4^ T. 2, p. 420.
^ DiMoonsorriiMgalit^; Prafkee.
» Letter to J. R. Bartlett, Esq., Tranaaetiona of the Ameriean Ethnologioal Bodety, VoL
., New Tork, 1S4S, p. 217.
M Crama BritaBBiea. Delinealioiii and Peaoriptiona of the Skulls of the Barlj Inhabitanta
r the Britidi Uanda ; together with Notioes of their other Remains. By J. Barnard Davla,
I. B. C. &, F. & A., ale., and John Thnmam, M. D., F. 8. A., fto. London, 1S56, Beoade
., p. 2. Judging firvm the firdi Uocade. thin adminible work promises, when completed, to
212 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
however, it is cheering to know that the lalxHS of Blumxruch.
Morton, Prichard, Lawreitoe, RsiziuSy l^nssov, and othen, have
at length resulted in the establishment of a ThtMouruB JBthnohgieut,
consisting of a vast number of well-ascertained fietcts waidng thf»
application of more efficient methods of generalization.
Again, the novelty o£ the science, the startling character of some
of its propositions, and the unfortunate errors which have been foisted
upon it by certain hasty theorizers, whose speculative zeal has outran
the slow accumulation of £Btcts ; and its apparent relation to a dubiovB
science,^ have all conspired to bring the cranioscopical department of
Human Natural History into disrepute. But its political importance
alone outweighs these errors ; for amidst its manifold details wemiut
seek for the reasons of the diversities so evident in the human £Eumly;
the extent, permanence, and meaning of these diversities ; and tlie
best means of harmonizing the discrepancies in modes of thou^t
and action flowing therefrom. It endeavors to elucidate the societaiy
condition of man by appealing to a correct anatomy and phydology,
and the zoological laws ba^ed upon these. Not a few ethnologists
have indicated its importance in their writings. Thus Courtbt di
Lisle'® attempts — and I think successfully — to show that Political
Economy is necessarily founded upon our science. Enox" and
Ellis^® dwell with emphasis upon its political significance^ while the
Count de Gobineau'® seeks in it the solution of those sadden and
apparently inexplicable changes which have given to European his-
tory so enigmatical a character. A moment's reflection will show
that the connection here attempted to be established is a perfectly
logical one. K the acts of an individual are to a considerable extent
ooiwtitute the moat Talaable contribudon to Ethnography that has appeared slnoe the pub*
licAtion of the Crania JEgyptiaca of Morton. The text betrays eyidence of much thought)
extensive research, and oritioal obserration of a high character, while the immeroiii
lithographic representations of ancient British and Roman Crania are azecnttd in tke iatil
stylo of art.
^ The fdndamental propositions of Phrenology are eqnally tme of Craniosoopy. Of tha
truth of these propositions, there can be little doubt ComparatiTe Anatomy, Pfayaology,
and Pathology, all tend to substantiate the multiple chtfraoter of the stiuoium and ftmetioa
of the brain, and demonstrate that mind is not only eonnected with bndo, but eoBBceCsd
with a particular portion of it little doubt can be entertained of the genend adaptation
of the skull to its eontents. Thus nund, brain, and enudnm art eonneetad. Tboi Ut
HoiMioe confirms Phrenology; but in the "mapping-out details," to which tb» foDowen of
(Jail and H[iunhoim have so unwarrantably resorted, Phrenology is no longer % ■oienm,
M Ia Hcienee Politique fond^ sur la Sdenee de I'Homme, &o., par Y. Conrtol dt Xirie.
Paris, imK
» The Raoes of Men: ft Fngmtmi, by Robert Knox, ILD., Iw. Aav.Bdil., Pfailadi.,
ISM.
!• IHnIi Rthnology, SooiaUy and PolitieftBy Gomidered, by Geo. EDia. PuUia, ISttL
I* Op. oit
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 213
the oatward expressions, or fonctional manifestattODS of the orgjwi-
ism, and if the acts of a society are the sum total of the individual
acta of its members, then it necessarily follows, that the civil history
of a nation in great measure arises from, and is dependent upon, the
natural or physical characters of its citizens. Thus, then, paradoxical
■8 it may seom, the polygamy of the Orient, the canntbaliem of the
8oath Sea Islands, the difl'ereucea between the civilizations of Europe
and Asia, between the artistic powers of the negro and the " Cauca-
sian," are so many indications of the philosophical value of human
08l£ology. . »
But to the American citizen, especially, does our science recom-
mend itself as one wortJiy of all consideration, since upon American
•oil, representatives from nearly all parts of the earth have been
lathering together during the last two hundred years. The peaceful
aud semi-ci\'ilized Toltecan man — once the proud master of our con-
tinent, which he busily dotted with forts and mounds, with mighty
monamenta and great cities — has jast been swept away by the unre-
lenting hand of the longer-headed bnt less intellectual nomade of the
Jlorth — ^the red Indian — who, in his turn, is suffering annihilation in
■che presence of, and by contact with the yet larger-headed Teuton of
^ttrope. While the lozenge-faced Eskimo of our Polar coast-line is
^^lystcriously fading awny, under the action of intiuences tending to
^-^nder the extreme north an uninhabited waste,*' from the old world
^ steady stream of human life, a heterogeneons exodoa of various
^■^ces of men, is inundating our soil, and threatening to change our
^ytitire political aspect by the introduction of novel physical and
^intellectual elements. The Scandiuavian, the German, the Sclavo-
,^-» i»n, and the Kelt of Southern Europe, the follower of Mahomet, and
.g^lie disciple of Confucius, the aboriginal Red Man, and the unhappy
tjfcildren of Africa, have in congress assembled in tbe New World —
Kiot brought together fortuitously, for chance has nothing to do with
the history and destiny of nations — but impelled by laws of hnmani-
tstrian progress and change, aa yet bnproperly understood. All these
fa»Te assembled to work out the problem of human destiny on the
**ne hand, and the stability of our boasted republic on the other,
T-^et the American reader steadily contemplate this picture, and study
ite details ; let bim give ear to some of the momentous questionB
■^"lijch are anxiously disturbing the peace and quietness of this con-
gress,— the ultimate disposition, for example, of the prognathous
man. imported by our English forefathers, and left with us, a feariiil
dement of discord, — the opcrationB of tbe " manifeat destiny princi-
* Sm Tbe N&tun] Hiftorr of tho Humaa Species. Ac.. By IJeuL Col. Cluu. lUmilloii
9*raJ^, edited bj S. KaFeimid, Jr., M. D. BosUm. 1651. p. 2M.
214 THE CRANIAL G H A B AC T£ R I S TICS
pie'* in the Ificaraugaan Republic, &;c. Furthermore, let him otmr
template the members of our National Legislature daily debating
questions involving the antipathies and affiliations of the races of
men, without the slightest notion of their tnie ethnological import;
let him not be unmindful, also, of the various political parties and
secret associations which have suddenly sprung up in our midst, and
are based upon ethnical peculiarities ; let him behold the Chinaman
celebrating his polytheistic worship in the heart of a Christiaii com-
munity, and within the shadow of a Christian temple ; while npon
Beaver Island, and about Salt Lake, another institution of the East)
polygamy, flourishes in rank luxuriance. Let the American leader,
I say, contemplate all this, and in his anxiety to know the causes of
these strange phenomena, the labors of the cranioscopist, in conjuno-
tion with those of the philosophical historian will assume their fall
importance.
From a long and comprehensive study of history, a European
thinker,^ of profound erudition, has at length, in the diversified
ethnographic peculiarities of the different races of men, detected and
formuled the cause of the apparentiy mysterious revolutions and
final decadence of once-flourishing nations. — " Toute agglomeration
humaine, meme protegee par la complication la plus ing^nieuse de
liens sociaux, contracte, au jour meme oil elle se forme, et cachi
parmi les elements de sa vie, le principe d*une mort inevitable. . . .
Oui, reellement c'est dans le sein mSme d'un corps social qu'existe
la cause de sa dissolution ; mais, quelle est cette cause ? — ^La dSgitU-
ration, fut-il repliqu^ ; les nations meurent lorsqu'elles sont composees
d' Elements dSg^nSrSs Je pense done que le mot degin&ri,
s'appliquant k un peuple, doit signifier, et signifie que ce peuple n a
plus la valeur intrins^que qu'autrefois il poss^dait, parce qu'il n'a
plus dans ses veines le mfeme sang dont des alliages successift ont
graduellement modifi6 la valeur; autrement dit, qu'avec le mfemc
nom, il n*a pas conserve la meme race que ses fondateurs ; enfin, que
rhomme de la decadence, celui qu'on appelle Thomme d6g6ner4, est
un produit difterent, au point de vue ethnique, du h6ro8 des grandes
epoques. Je veux bien qu'il possMe quelque chose de son essence;
mais, plus il degen^re, plus ce quelque chose s'att^nue U
mourra definitivement, et sa civilisation avec lui, le jour oh. r^Ument
ethnique primordial se trouvera tellement sub-divise et noy6 dans des
apports de races 6trang^res, que la virtualite de cet 616ment n'exe^
cera plus desormais d'action suffisante."
Undoubtedly, the Science of Man commences with Buffon and
LiNN-fius — ^Buffon first in merit, though second in the order of time.
n Be Oobinean, op. dt, pp. 8, 88, 80, 40.
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 215
By the writers anterior to their day, but little was done for human
phyBical bistoiy. Among the classical authors, Thucydides, the type
of the Grecian historians, treated of man in his moral and political
aspects only. The nearest approximation to a physical history is
contained in his sketch of the manners and migrations of the early
Greeks, and in his history of the Greek colonization of Sicily. The
books of Herodotus have more of an ethnographic character, in
consequence of the account which he gives of the physical appear-
ance of certain nations, whose history he records. Hippocrates theo-
rizes upon the influence of external conditions upon man. Aristotle
Bnd Plato also distantly allude to man in his zoological character.
From the Romans we derive some accounts of the people of North
Africa, of the Jews and ancient Germans, and of the tribes of Gaul
and Britain. Of these, as Latham has appropriately observed, ^'the
Oermania of Tacitus is the nearest approach to proper ethnology
that antiquity has supplied."
JastsjEUS and Buffon, in their valuation of external characters —
such as color of skin, hair, &c., — bestowed no attention upon the
osseous frame-work. Of cranial tests, and of bony characters in
general, they knew nothing, or, knowing, considered them of no
value. Hence, although Linnjbus, in his Systema Natursdy brought
together the geuera Homo and Simiaj under the general title Anthro-
pomorphaj and although Buffon, filled with the importance of human
Natural History, devoted a long chapter to the varieties of the human
species, yet the first truly philosophical and practical recognition of
the zoological relations of man appears in the anthropological intro-
duction with which the illustrious Cuvier commences his &r-famed
Rigne Animal.
By the publication of his Decades Oraniorum — commenced in 1790,
and completed in 1828 — Blumenbach early occupied the field of the
comparative cranioscopy of the Eaces of Men. In consequence of
the application of the zoological method of inquiry to the elucidation
of human natural history, that work at once gave a decided impulse
to the science of Ethnography, and for a long time exerted a consi-
derable influence on the views of subsequent writers upon this and
kindred subjects. Unable to satisfy the constantly increasing de-
mands of the present day, its importance has sensibly diminished.
The general brevity of the descriptions, the want of both absolute
and relative measurements, and the defective three-quarter and other
oblique views of many of the skulls, render it highly unsatisfactory
to the practical cranioscopist. Moreover, the number of crania
(sixty-five) possessed by Blumenbach was too small, not only to esta-
blish the characteristics of the central or standard cranial type of
216 THE GBANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
each of the many distinct groups composing the human &iiuly, bot
was also found to be inadequate to demonstrate the extent^ relstioiiii
and true value of the naturally divergent forms of each group. Prior
to the time of Blumsnbach, however^ Daubenton had already written
the first chapter in cranial osteology, by his observations on the buiA
cranii, and the variations in the position of the foramen magniim
occipitis.^ For the second chapter — the study of the cranimn in
profile — ^we are indebted to Camper, who identified his name with the
fiicial angle." Scemmebing applied the occipitd^x)ntaI arch, tbe
horizontal periphery, and longitudinal and transverse diameters c&
the cranium to demonstrate the differences between the heads d
Europeans and fTegroes.^ During the publication of the Deeads^
the celebrated Jno. Hunter, of London, began his scientifioo-medic^
career with an inaugural thesis upon the subjects under consider^^
tion.^ Nineteen years after the publication of the pentad, by whic?-^
the six decades of Blumenbach were completed, Morton's great am-^
ori^nal work, the Crania Americana^ was given to the world.* Fro^^^
that time, human cranioscopy asserted its claims to scientific consj:^^
deration, and gave a decided impetus to anthropology. In 184^^
jfrom the same pen, apeared the Crania JEgyptiaca^ which Prichak:::^
hailed as a most interesting and really important addition to o
knowledge of the physical character of the ancient Egyptians."
The only elaborate English contribution to cranioscopy, is th<
Crania Britannica of Messrs. Davis & Thumam, the first decade o:
which has but recently been issued fh)m'the British press. To
sterling merits of this work allusion has already been made. Of
scientific labors of those eminent Scandinavian craniolo^ts an
antiquarians, Professors Betzius of Stockholm, ISllsson of Lund, an<
Eschricht of Copenhagen, I need not here speak. To the ethno — '
graphic student the writings of these savants have been long an^
favorably known. The French have done but little in this pardcu^
» See Memoirs of the Rojal Academj of Sciences for 1764. 8ur la DiffiSrmee du CfrtnC
TVou occipital dam V Homme el dofu let autre* Animauz.
A Dissertation sur les Vari4t^ Naturelles, &a, ouYrage posthume de IL P. Oampa:. Fuiii
1792.
^ Ueber die Eorperliche Verschiedenheit des Negen Tom Europaer. FrankAirt lud
Mainz, 1785, p. 50, et seq.
^ Disputatio Inaagoralis qnsdam de Hominum Varietatiboa et hamm eanalt expomni^
Ac. Johannes Hunter, Edinburgi, 1775.
v Crania Americana ; or a Comparatiye View of the Skulls of Tarioiu Aboriginal Natiaa
of North and South America, &c. By Samuel George Morton, M. D. Philada., 1839.
^ Crania .^gyptiaca ; or, Observations on Egyptian Ethnography, &c By Samuel QeOfK*
M^^rton, M. D. Philada., 1844. Published originally in the Tranaaetiont of tha Amv.
Philopoph. Society, yoI. IX.
« Nat. Hist, of Man, 3d edit. p. 570.
OF THE BA0E8 OF KEN. 217
tment of science. The names of Serres, Foville,^ Oosse,*
ler, Blanchard,^ and others, however, are b^re the public
connection. As £Bur as I have been able to ascertain, cra-
bas received more attention at the hands of the Germans,
igel, of Prague, has given us a philosophical dissertation
snial forms, the mensuration of the skull, kc^ To Pro£
ve are indebted for a classification of skulls.^ Br. C. 6.
I an elementaiy work on Craniosoopj, indicates and developee
extent the principles which should guide us in our examina.
the different cranial formations, in their relation to psychical
ns.^ In a subsequent work, he comments upon and explains
inciples more fully.^ Passing over the names of Bidder,*
Spoendli," KoUiker,* Virchow,*® Luc»,*^ Fitzinger® and others,
conclude this hasty enumeration by calling attention to the
18 and masterly work of Pro£ Huschke, of Jena, — the result^
e informed in the prefstce, of nine years study and reflection.^
the exception of an admirable paper on the Admeasurementt
a afthe principal groups of Indians of the United StateSy con-
by Mr. J. 6. Philips to the Second Part of Schoolcraft's
L the Abori^nal Baces of America,^ nothing has been done
iology on this side of the Atlantic since the demise of Dr.
• Indeed, the labors of Mobton embody not only all that
nation da Cr&ne resultant de la m^thode la plus g^n^rale de conyrir la Tdte det
8S4. Also, Traits oomplet de I'Anatomie, de la Phjsiologie et de la Pathobgie
le Nerreox, 1844.
sor les D6foniiatioii8 artifioielles da Cr&ne. Paris, 1866.
^ au Pole Sad et dans rOc^anie, &o., Anthropologie, Atlas par Dr. Damoutier;
Smile Blanohard. Paris, 1864.
rachongen fiber Scbadelformen. Von Dr. Joseph Engel, Frof., Prag, 1861.
Sehadelbildang lar festem BegrQndung der ICensohenrassen. Von Dr. A. Zevne.
16.
ixfige einer neaen and wissenschaftlich begriindeteQ cranieeoopie (Schadelelire}
. G. Cams. Stuttgart, 1841.
der Cranioscopie oder Abbildnngen der Scbedel- and AntUtzformen Bemehorter
nerkwaerdiger Penonen yon Dr. C G. Caras. Leipiig, 1S48.
■anii Conformatione. Dorpat, 1847.
Ige sor Entwiokelang des Knochensjstems.
r den Primordialscbadel. Zarich, 1846.
lie des Primordialschadels. (Zeitscbrilt ftor 'WissensohaflHcbe Zoologie. 2 Bd.)
r den Cretinismas, namentlicb in Franken and fiber patliologisebe Sobftdelfonneii.
L der pbjsik. — medic. Oesellsebaft in Wfirsbnrg, 1862, 2 Bd.)
cle hamana, Heidelberge, 1812. — De Symmetria et Asymmetria organorom aniin-
nprimis cranii, Marbargi, 1889. — Schadel abnormer Form in (}eometrischen Abbil*
tm Dr. J. C. G. LacsB. Frank, am Main, 1866.
die Sehidel der Avaren, &o. Von L. J. Fittinger. Wien., 1863.
del. Him and Seele des Menschen and der Tbiere naob alter, Gescblecht and
^estellt nacb neaen methoden and Untersachangen Ton Emil Haschke. Jena, 1 864.
aiation respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribei
ited SUtcs. By H. R. Schoolcraft Part IL Philadelphia, 1862.
218 THE CRANIAL GH A B ACTERISTIOS
has been accomplished for this science in America, but also tKne
chief part of all the contributions which it has, from time to tin^L. e,
received from different sources. It is well known to the ethnoL o-
gical world, that at the time of his death (1851), he was slowly acrr^d
carefully maturing his views upon the great leading questions c=)f
his favorite science, by researches of the most varied and extensi
character. From the cranioscopical details which constitute so i
portant a feature in that elaborate work, the Crania Americana^
had been gradually and almost insensibly led to occupy a mo
comprehensive field — a field embracing ethnology in its physiol
gical and archaeological aspects. The Crania jXgyptiaca was
foreninner of a contemplated series of philosophical generalizatioErmfl
in Anthropology, — the matured and positive conclusions of
of severe and cautious study. In this series, so long contempla
so often delayed for critical examination, and at last so unexpected!
and I may add, so unfortunately arrested. Dr. Morton fondly ho
to develope and clearly demonstrate the fundamental principles
elements of scientific ethnology. But Providence had ordered othe
wise; for at this critical juncture — so critical for the proper e;
sition of Dr. M.'s long treasured and anxiously examined views,
well as for the proper direction of the infant science — he was stricke ^=^^
down, and the rich mental gatherings of a life-time dissipated in *
moment/*
Through the munificent kindness of a number of our citizens, hi-*^*
magnificent collection of Human Crania, recently increased by th- -^®
receipt of sixty-seven skulls from various sources, has been perma^^^
nently deposited in the Museum of the Academy,*^ a silent bu-^^^
expressive witness of the scientific zeal, industry, and singleness o*^ ^^
purpose of one who, to use the language of Mr. Davis, " has th^* ^^
rare merit, after the distinguished Gottingen Professor, of havin^5|-J?
by his genius laid the proper basis of tiiis science, and by hi^-^®
labora raised upon this foundation the two first permanent anS^^
beautiful superstructures, in the Crania Americana, and the Cranii^^ -*
^gjTptiaca."*^
Prior to his decease, Dr. M. had received about 100 crania,
addition to those mentioned in the third edition of his Catalogue
Since 1849, therefore, the collection has been augmented by th(
addition of 167 skulls. Very recently I have carefully inspected,
re-arranged, and labelled it, and prepared for publication a new an
corrected edition of the Catalogue. At present the collection em
braces 1035 crania, representing more than 150 different nation?.
^ Unpublished Introduction to *' Descriptions and Delineations of SkuIlB in the IforUmiaB'
Collection."
« See Proceedings of the Academy. Vol. VI. pp. 821, 824.
^v Crania Britannica, decade L, p. 1.
OF THE RACES OF MEN.
219
tribes, and races. It occupies sixteen cases on the first gallery, on
the sonth side of the lower room of the Museum. For convenience
of study and examination, I have grouped it according to Race,
Family, Tribe, &c., strictly adhering, however, to the classification
of Dr. Morton.
The crania are distributed as follows :^
L CAUOAJiAir Qboup.
1. 8ean£naman Race,
HonregUn 1
Sweduh Peaauts 7
Finland Swedes 2
Sadeimanland Swedes. 8
Ortrogoth 1
Tnrannie Swede 1
Cimbrie Swedea...^.... 8
^nnfl.... ^ 8
21
2. Jhmith or Tehudk Race,
Tnia Finns.
8. Suevie Saee,
Gennans....
Datchman..
Prossians...
Bargnndian
».. .•• ...... ...... a..... ...... •....•
4. AnifUhSaxon,
SaglislL....
6. Anfflo-Ameriean.
S. CtltkRaee,
Irish .......X
Cdtie (?) beads from Catacombs of Paris,
Gelt (?) from the field of Waterloo
7. Setav&fde Baee.
SdaTonians
>.. .a....... ..•.....« ......
8. PdaagieSMce.
Ancient Phoenician
Ancient Roman
weea*. .«•.....« ....•■..« ....t
Armenians . ,
10
11
1
4
1
17
4
8
8
4
1
18
2
1
1
1
4
6
2
Affghan 1
GrsBCO-Egjpdans 28
89
9. Semitic Race
Ajrabs •.... • .....m 6
Hebrews 8
Abyssinian . ... ^ ^ 1
10. Berber Race, (f)
Chianoh6.<
14
1
11. Nilotic Bace.
Ancient Theban Egyptians 84
" Memphite *• 17
" Abydos " 2
« Alexandrian <* 8
Egyptians from Giieh 18
Kens or Ancient Nubians. 4
Ombite Egyptians 8
Maabdeh Egyptians 4
Miscellaneous • 6
Fellahs 19
107
12. Indoetanic Bacc
Ayras iti...... ...... .................. ...... ... o
Thuggs. 2
BengalesOi........ M 82
Uncer^in 8
48
18. Indo-Chinae Bace,
Bnimese • •••••••— m»— 2
IL MOHOOLIAM GeOUP.
1. Chinete Bace.
Chinese 11
Japanese 1
12
^ It is proper to obserre, that the aboTO table is not an attempt at scientific classification,
bat simply an arrangement adopted for conTonience of study and examination.
* Dr. Morton need the term Pdaegie too comprehensiTely. The Ciroassianfl, Armeniana
■ad Psraiaiis ahoold not be placed in this group.
220
THE CRANIAL OH AB A0TEBI8TICS
•••••• •••••• •••••■••• •••
2. Hypithoirmn JUu.
Borat Mongol
Kanisohatkan
Kalnnick.
Laplanders.-.
Hybrid Laplander . .
Eskimo..
6
14
in. Malay Geoup.
1. Malay an Eace,
Malays 24
I)yaks ^ ....- ... .-...« 2
26
2. PofynuHM Raoi,
Kanakas 7
Kew Zealanders 4
Marquesas 1
12
IV. Amerioah Gboup.
1. Barbarous Rao,
a. North Amerieatu,
Ariokarees.. - .• - ...... 8
Assmaooius..*..* ••• •••••. ...... ...... . .. ...... o
Ohenoaks 8
Oregonians 6
Cherokees 6
Chetimaches 2
Chippeways 2
Cotonays S
Creeks 4
Dacotas 2
Hnrons 4
Iroquois. 8
Illinois 2
KUkatat ^ - - 1
Lenapes 10
Mandans 7
Menominees 7
Miamis 12
Minetaris -.....»•».....-—».•...- 4
Mohawks 8
Naas 2
Narragansets 10
Natchez 2
Naticks 6
Nisqually 1
Osages 2
Otoes 4
Ottawas 4
Ottigamies 4
Pawnees 2
A Ottawa vomies**. ■•■•••• •• *••■•••» ••••m —**» %
oenunoleB.. .«•••••••• .••■....• .......m ......m. l«
pnawuacB— ■»»»— —»■■■»..»■. »».... ....•■«•» •
Shoshones •• ••••« ••••» .-• «• 4
Upsarookas •••••.—• ••••. • .• --m 2
Winnebagos «. ^ - 2
Yamassees...... .-. - 8
CalifomianSaM***«.. •••••• MaaM^M —.•••#•* — 2
MisoellaneoQS •.. ... ••• •••••• ••••.■ • ^
Maya.... 1
Fragments from Ynoatan. ....~ ..*••• ^
«. SauihA
Aranoanians
From Mounds .....<
Charibs.
Patagonians......
Brasilian. .•...
•••••••.a ••••.....
^
2. ToUmm Sam,
a. Perypian Fami^,
Aricans «
Paohacamao - I
Pisco
Santa. >
Lima ...— ..
.••« ..»••...«
Callao
Miscellaneous
Elongated skulls from Titioaca, &c.
h. Meziean Family,
Ancient Mexicans - - 24^
Modem Mexicans «... -. 9^
^jipans. ... ••.•••••• ■•••••.
I ...... ...... ••.......
2 -
T. Nbobo Obouf.
1. American bmm^
8. ffo9aM,
4. Afforian Bam.
AustraUant. mm<
Oceanic Negroef.
16
•...•• ...... .■
'M. .•.••• ......... ••.•.. .....a
«.«. 11
2
119
OF THB RACES OP KEN.
22l
TL MmB Baom.
Egyptians ^ 12
4
qf^'^A-^**'^'^** 1 I t 11 — 1
80
Vn. LVMATXOS ASD IdIOTS» 18
Yin. Illustbatiys or Qbowth, 7
Phrenological Skulls, 2
Nation uneertam, 11
Total,
1086
II.
*'Cnuuiim, qvippe quod omninm oorpoiis partiiuii nobiHaaiimui iaehaditi
indolem ac proprietatem cflBteromm organomm repnesentare exiRtimatnr ;
nam qiiid<iiiid proprii Tarhe illins partes pre se femnt, hio parro spatio coa-
jniKitnm, «t KmaaentiB, que ex^gui et deleri mmqoam possont, ezpreasum
reparitvr. Bind admnbrationeiii ezhibet ffnaginin, qnam spectator peritu
ex ajngntift partibiu Tivide sibi ante ocnlos fingere potest"— Husok.
Ik the huinaa brain we find those characteristics which partico-
larly distinguish man from the bmte creation. The differenees
between the various races of men are fundamental differences in
intellectual capacity, as well as in physical conformation. The
brain is the organ or physical seat of the mmd, and variations
in its development are, as is well known, the constant accompani-
ments of mental inequalities. Hence, in the variations in size, tex-
ture, ftc, of the encephalon, and the proportions of its different
parts, we are necessarily led to seek in great measure for the causes
which so widely and constantly dispart the numerous families, which,
in the aggregate, constitute mankind. In accordance with its great
importance and dignity, the brain has been carefully deposited in an
irregular bony case, — the calvaria — to which are attached certain
bony appendages for the lodgment of the organs of the senses, by
which the brain, and through it the mind — the mental attribute
of the living principle — is brought into relation with external
nature. Now as the configuration of the brain is, in general,
expressed by that of its osseous covering, and as the development
of the £BkciaI skeleton affords an excellent indication of the size of
the organs which it accommodates, it follows that in the size of the
head and fieu^e, and their mutual relations, we find the best indi-
cations of those mental and animal differences which, under all
dicomstaaees and from ante-historic times, have manifested them-
selves as the dividing line between the Baces of Men. Moreover,
if the constnicfion of each and every part of the fabric is in harmony
222 THE GBANIAL GH A R AGTERISTIGS
with, and to a certain extent represented in that of all other parts,**- —
as the laws of the philosophico-transcendental anatomy seem fimOj
to have established, — it will be evident that the cranium is t^M^^
index, so to speak, of the entire economy ; for the relation betwe^^^
the cranium on the one hand, and the &ce, thorax, and abdomli^ ^
organs, respectively, on the other, or, in other words, between i^^®
cerebral or intellectual lobes of the brain, and the sensoiy ganglS^^
and nerves, is the relation of mental powers to animal propenati^^^s,
and exactly upon this relation depends the nature and character cn^^
the individual man, and the family group to which he natural" V
belongs. Examples of this fact are everywhere to be found, alike
the transitionary, as in the extreme specimens of the human sent
Thus it is a general and well-marked truth, that in those inferic— ^^^
Ba^es — the so-called prognathous — characterized by a narrow skul^B-'^
receding forehead, and enormous anterior development of the ma^^^'
illffi, the mental is in entire abeyance to the animal ; so that theE: -^^^
sensuality is only equalled by their stupidity, as one might readily ^^7
infer from the ample accommodations for the organs of the senses '^^
The pyramidal type is another inferior form, singularly analogous
the prognathous in certain respects, but differing from it in o1
hereafter to be mentioned. Eaces possessing this form of craniui
manifest corresponding peculiarities in intellectual power.
Undoubtedly, then, the human cranium recommends itself to our^-
eamcst attention as the "best epitome of man," — the individual itz^ ^
the concrete ; or, as Zeune has beautifully expressed it, " der Bliith^^ -^^
des ganzen organischen Leibes und Lebens ;" and notwithstanding^* S
the adaptation between it and the rest of the skeleton — an adapta— *^^
tion declaring itself in relations of size, function, nutritive, an<^^^
developmental processes, &c. — we may study the cranium by andK^ ^
for itself, with reasonable hopes of success.
As yet, the labors of the cranioscopist have given to anthropoloj
comparatively few fundamental and well established facts. Of
the most important, probably, as well as the best substantiated, ii
that of the permanency and non-transmutability of cranial form and
characteristics. " There is, on the whole," says Lawrence, " an unde-
niable, nay, a very remarkable constancy of character in the crania
of different nations, contributing very essentially to national pecu-
liarities of form, and corresponding exactly to the features which
■
^ « Tout Hve organist forme an ensemble, nn syst^me nniqne et 0I08, dont les partiet m
correspondent miituellment, et conooarent & la mdme action definitive par una rCaetioB
r^ciproque. Aucnne de ces parties ne peat changer sans qne lea satrea ne ebangent asMl,
ot par consequent chncune d'elles prise separ^ment indiqne et donna toataa \m avtiaa."
OuviBB. Ditcourt iur ht Revolution* du Olohe; riiigU par U Dr. Hoe/er. Parian 1860^ p, 61
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 223
haracterize such nations."" Kor does this fact stand alone. It is
ssociated with another which should never be lost sight of in all
•nr speculations upon the unity or diversity, geographical origin and
listribution, affiliation and antiquity of the races of men. I allude
0 that insensible gradation which appears to be the law of cranial
orms, no less than of all the objects in nature. From the isolation
nd exclusive consideration of these facts, have resulted not a few
ironeous assertions, which have tended to embarrass the science.
[liuSy it has been considered, in general, a matter of but littie diffi-
ulty to discriminate between the crania of diflferent races. But
hose who are accustomed to this kind of examination, know that
his statement is true only for the standard or typical forms of very
liverse races, and that as soon as certain divergent forms of two
allied races or families are compared, the difficulties become very
apparent. On the other hand, it has been affirmed, that in any
>ne nation it is easy to point out entirely dissimilar types of con-
iguration. Thus the distinguished anatomist, Prof. M. J. Weber,
nisled apparentiy by the restricted and artificial classification of
Blumenbach, arrives at the general conclusion that ^Hhere is no
)roper mark of a definite race-form of the cranium so firmly
ittached that it may not be found in some other race."® The
issumption of the universality of certain ethnical forms, though
x)untenanced by more than one writer, does not rest upon sufficient
evidence to warrant its acceptance. Another prevalent but equally
gratuitous notion is, that the more ancient the heads, the more they
tend to approximate one primitive form or type. What this primi-
dve model is like, has not, as far as I can learn, been indicated.
Again, a confusion highly detrimental to the philosophical status
sind scientific progress of Ethnology, has resulted firom the unjustifiable
ftssumption, that resemblances in cranial form and characteristics
Qccessarily betoken, in a greater or less degree, congenital affilia-
tions. It by no means follows, as some appear to have thought, that
because widely and persistently discrepant forms are unrelated ab
nigifUj — closely coincident forms are as exact indications of such
primary relation. To say that the Polar man, — the Eskimo of
Ajnerica and the Samoyede of Asia, — should in all natural classifi-
cation be associated, or at least placed in juxtaposition with certain
dark races of the tropics, in consequence of well-marked cranial
similiarities, is a fact as singular as it is true ; but to conclude from
these similarities alone, that they are affiliated and have one common
■ LaetoTM, &«., p. 225.
B CrmniA Britanniea, p. 4. — Die Lehre tod den Ur- und Racen-Formen der Schiidef und
BwkcB dat Mensehcn, & 6, 1S80.
11
224 THE CBANIAL GHARAGTEBISTIG8
origin, is at once illogical and unwarrantable. Besemblances ^^
physical conformation and in .intellectual capacity, manners, ^'^^
customs, growing out of, and dependent in great measure upon bcV-^^
conformation, are indications rather of a similarity of position ^
the great natural scale of the human family, than of identity ^
origin. To establish identity, proof of another kind is requiw^^
That positive identity of cranial form, structure and gentilitial
racters is the best evidence of identity of origin, or, at all events,
very close relationship, there can be no doubt. 'But identity must nsc- ^
be inferred from striking iimiiaritt/. The confusion of terms has 1^^^
to much error. Similarity in the features above alluded to, indicate-***
merely an allied natural position, and nothing more. This distil^—®"
tion is as important in cranioscopy as that made by the comparati^^^
anatomist between the analogies and homologies of the skeleton.
Somebody has said that " when history is silent, language is er ^"
dence." The cranioscopist knows that oftentimes, when both histor*^
and language are silent, cranial forms become evidence. For tfa^ ®
cranial similarities and differences above mentioned maybe estimate^^
with mathematical accuracy and precision, by weight, measurement
&c. Hence, while the language of an ante-historic people may
lost, the discovery of their skulls will afford us the means of deter*'-'
mining their rank or position in the human scale, &c. From consi -^
derations of this nature, we are led to recognise the existence of ^^
craniological school in Etknology, a craniological principle of classi — '
iication and research, and a craniological test of affinity or diversity^
According to Prichard, Ethnology is, equally with Geology, a brancli^-
of Paleontology. "Geology," says he, "is the archaeology of thc^
globe, — Ethnology that of its human inhabitants."** Latham, com^ — -
menting upon this sentence, very appropriately observes, that "wheifc^
Ethnology loses its palseontological character, it loses half its scientific^
elements.'*** From this we learn the importance of osteology, cspe-^
cially the cranial department, since it constitutes one of the surest,
and often the only guide in identifying ancient populations. Dr.
Latham, the well-known philologist, lays great stress upon the ethno-
logical value of language, which he speaks of as "yielding in defi-
nitude to no characteristic whatever." .... "Whatever maybe
said against certain over-statements as to constancy, it is an undoubted
fact, that identity of language is primd facie evidence of identity of
origin.*'** Among the apophthegms appended to his work on the
Varieties of Man, the same opinion occurs. — " In the way of physical
tt Anniversary Address, delirered before the Ethnologioal Sooietj of Londoii, In 1847.
M Man and bis Migrationa, Amer. Edit New Tork, 1S52, p. 41.
M Ibid, p. 85.
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 225
ebaractcristicSy common conditions develop common points of con-
ft»nnation. Hence, as elements of classification, physical characters
are of less value than the philological moral ones.'*** There are
reasons for dissenting from the opinion of this eminent philologist
When we contemplate the mutability and destructibility of languages,
as abundantly exemplified in the obliteration of the Etruscan dialect
by the Homan-Latin; the Celtiberian and Turdetan by the Latin and
Spanisb ; the Syriac by Arabic ; Celtic by the Latin and French ;
the Celtic of Britain by the Saxon and English ; the Pelhevi and Zend
by tbe Persian, and the Mauritanian by Arabic;®^ when we reflect
hovr the Epirotes and Siculi changed their language, without con-
quest or colonization, into Greek, and how the ancient Pelasgi, all
the primitive inhabitants of the Peloponnessus, and many of those
of Arcadia and Attica, abandoned their own language and adopted
that of the Hellenes ;* when we behold the Negroes of St Domingo
epeaking the French tongue, the Bashkirs, of Finnish origin, speak-
ing Turidsh;* and when, finally, as one instance of another and
significant class of fitcts, we call to mind how the Carelians, in con-
eeqnence of certain linguistic analogies, have been classed with the
'Finns, though descended from an entirely different race, who, at an
early period, overran the region about Lake Ladoga,® — we are
«« disposed to believe with Humboldt" — I am using the words of
>forton — "that we shall never be able to trace the aflSliation of
nations by a mere comparison of languages ; for this, after all, is but
ooe of many clews by which that great problem is to be solved."*^
Surely anatomy and physiology — those handmaids of the zoologist
are more powerful, and, in the very nature of things, better adapted
to settle the question of the unity of man, to determine whether the
hiunan family is composed of several species, or of but one species
^^omprising miany varieties. Surely the human skeleton is more en-
^^xring and less mutable than the oldest language. Listances are
^o-t wanting, as we have seen above, of a nation forgetting its own
language in its admiration for the more perfect speech of another
People, But, as far as I am aware, not a solitary instance can be
^^<3uced of a nation, genealogically purej entirely changing its physical
^^aracters for those of another. Let us conclude then, with Bodi-
^*^on, that Physiology is superior to Philology as an instrument of
f tlxnological research. — " To throw light upon the question of origins,
^^ is necessary to appeal to a science more precise, and founded on
** YarWtl«0 of M«n, p. 562. vi Hunilton Smith, op. oit, p. ITS.
^ Nielmlir, Hist of Rome, 1, 87.
^ Hehranea, Anmulre des Mines de Rossie, 1840, p. 84.
^ HMrtaan, TrmnsMtionB of the Rojal Society of Stockholm, for 1847.
^ Crttki Amerieana, p. 18.
15
i
226 THE CRANIAL CHABACTERISTICS
the nature of the object which we examine. This science b the I>i|r. I/jP
siology of races, or, in other words, a knowledge of their moral ^^^ | !|
physical characters. Through Physiology has been established the
existence of antediluvian beings, their genera, their species, an^
their varieties ; by it also we shall discover the origin of races (^^
men, even the most mysterious. Through it we shall one day t-^*^
able to classify populations as surely as we now class animals an — -
plants : history, philology, annals, inscriptions, the monuments o**"^
arts and of religion, will be auxiliaries in these researches. Herein -^^
we consider its indications as motives of certitude, and its deci^on
as a criterion."®
Antliropology has been involved in not a little confiision by certiui
injudicious departures from the well-tried zoological methods em
ployed by naturalists generally. But little difficulty seems to
experitjnced in the practical determination of species in the
and vegetable worlds ; but as soon as the rules and specific distin<
tions here employed have been applied to man, exceptions bar
been taken at once, and attempts made to invalidate their applr_
cability, by excluding man entirely from the pale of the animi
kingdom, as if, in the latter, development, formation and deformati<
were controlled by laws diflfercnt from these processes in the forme~
Barban^ois regards man as " un type tout k part dans 1& crtotioi
comme le representant d'un rJ^gne particulier — le regne moraV*
the celebrated Marcel do Serres says, " Thomme ne constitue dans
nature ni une especc, ni un genre, ni un ordre, il est k lui scul
r^gne, le r^gne humain.**^ Aristotle, the father of philosophic,
natural history, Ray, Brisson, Pennant, Vic d'Azyr, Daubento*
Tiedemann, and others equally distinguished, have all unwisely
tempted this disruption of nature. The futility of the argumeiL
emi)loyed may be learned by reference to Swainson's Nat. Hist. ai
ClusHificution of Quadrupeds." But those who recognize the ai
mality of man, and place him accordingly at the head of the Mj
malia, are not exactly agreed as to the extent of isolation whi<
should be claimed for him in this position, or, in other words, difii
ence of opinion exists as to the extent and scientific meaning of t!
i^ap which separates him from the highest brute. Linnaeus groai>
Man, the Simise and Bats under the general division, Primate^
Illiger,''^ Cuvier,^ Lawrence,® and others, assign him a distinct ord^
•• Etudes 8ur TAlgdrie, Algcr, p. 18.
** Voyapje au Pole Sud. Anthropologic, de Dumontier, par Blanchard. Paris, 1864, j> ^ j^
«Pp 8-10
<^ lie ob»crvo<), " Nullum charactercm hactenus eruere potni, ande Homo % SimUl
iioscatur." — Fauna Suocica. Preface, p. ii.
* Prodomus Sy^teuiatis Mammalium. ^ R^gne Animal. ** Op.
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 227
'Vas Aji rikos considers Man the sole representative of a distinct and
separate mammalian class, to whicli he applies the term Psychical
or Spiritualj in contradistinction to the Instinctive mammals.® As
might be naturally expected from the above remarks, still less agree-
ment ifi manifested in relation to the classification of the difierent
races or tribes of men. This want of accordance arises from the
diificultj of determining what characters are fundamental and tj'pical,
and what are not.
NovTy it should never be forgotten that an ethnical, like any other
natural type, is an ideal creation, not a positive entity. It is analo-
goos to the mean or average of a series of numbers. These numbers
may all be but slightly different frt>m each other, and yet none of
them be exactly identical with the mean. In examining a number
of objects presenting many peculiarities, the mind instinctively
figures to itself an object possessing all these peculiarities. This
object, this ideal image, gradually assumes the dignity and import^
anoe of a standard to which all other similar objects are referred, as
greater or less approximations to the type, the approximation being
dependent upon the degree of predominance of the peculiarities in
question. If^ on comparing any body with this imaginaiy standard
- — ** this form which exists everywhere, and is nowhere to be found"
— the points of resemblance are in number equal to or even less
than the points of difference, then it is said to diverge frx)m the type.
It is a divergent form. Now, a type as it is manifested in nature is,
for all practical purposes, fixed and immutable; our mental con-
ception of it is necessarily a constantly varying one. The more
numeroQS the individuals of the group, and the more extensive our
examination, the more perfect will be our generalization, upon
'^^hieh, in &ct, the type is based. The examination of but a few
^Ki^viduals of a group is apt to lead to an erroneous idea of the type.
Sat a singular &ct here claims our attention. Along with this
^^oreasing perfection of the typical idea comes a diminished confi-
^^nce in its importance ; for the same observations which serve to
^^staiblish the type, also lead us to perceive that the distance which
^^parates one type fix)m another is a plenum, and is not marked by
S^ps, but by transitionaiy forms — not transitionary in the sense of
^'^riations firom certain persistent forms brought about by climatic
Conditional Ac., but transitionary forms ab arigine and self-existent,
t^^*^senting themselves unchanged as they were characterized by tbe
^■^■"^eat Fiivt Cause, and inherently capable of those known and
^^nited variations produced by intermarriage, &c. The element)
^ Am iBTwtifMioii «f the Theories of the Nat Histonr of Man, &o. New York, 1848,
'**'>'•
t::i ciAyiAL ceazactezistics
i - .rr-r*. rf-^ '^ 'ii zreft: liS-^Tirrr exr<r*<Cjeed in ixsKr.{!Q£f to
A^'dj v>: :r.r:nb-sr« c-f di'T HT^Ar Facilj. Tie &crep«iKT of
■.r:ir.>-r. :-« -riiciidr:*! n-x C'Siiv v> tt* r.-^rrber rf dxriains to be
;aa.Ck. --'-.t: ftL-tv Vf i* p«rd-nLir *»:%$ wLi-st »cKxId be i««!ud to
;^vi: <,r.-7 v^ ei4rr*:n^ the list of wmers wrr> have attmipted Ae
^i-i^vr-^atrlor. of Hirrj^c Eai;i«, ar.d : :Arrre b->w thev differ in die
.-i *r:/r>i;T of iL-cir priLary drrpArtzneLTs. to I* eoaTinccd rf d» pie-
rAJ(^.i^r«Tifr&is of the wLoIe attirir^pt. and tLe scanty scientxfic data qmi
which ari/ih v^iTv ard&'rial •iiriaions have been erected. It appeusto
r/i^ thiiit mnch of tLe diffioTiltr ari«iE:s fiom die scanfr infbrmadoD
which we j*o^e!^nR coELceming the nnmber of primaeval cranial tTpe&
the hnTfk\f^r of n^rrirallv divergent forms of each of these, and the
de^rree of 'iivergencv permined^ and lastly, the tests by whidi to
'll.'/rrirr:inate l^etwe^n f>nn« naturally aberrant, and those hybrid
re^'iit- of hloo^l-crowing. The stndy of divergent fbnns is of great
ifrifK^rtanee, since in their varied bat limited deviations from flie
tyiih — like all exceptions to general roles — they indicate the
*^j^:jiUsi\ii of the type while demonstrating a seriaL archetypal umtj
of the human family in keeping with the entire aniTnal worid. To
-f/^rak, therefore, of " developing the limits of a variety," is simply
t// tU:mon!»xnkle the connections, relations, and persistence of those
varieties. Tlie diversities of cranial form presented by any nation
or trihe •'horild therefore be regarded as the radii, so to speak, by
which tliut tribe is connected with the rest of the hnmanitarian
s^;rieH, whether living or extinct, or, in the course of future geolo-
/(ical changes, yet to appear.
It in well known that naturalists rely mainly upon form, color,
f>ro[K;rt.ionH — the externals, in short — ^to establish species. Tbe
illuHtrioijH Clvikr, taking higher ground, attempted to developcthe
luvvH of (;luHHifi cation by a resort to the comparative method in ana-
U>rriy. With the OHteological branch of this method, as an instro-
rnent of nmearch, ho undertook his grand scheme of the restoration
of tlie foHsil world and the determination of its relation to the living
zoology. His reliance upon internal structure in preference to
ext(!rnHl chanu^tors, was as much a matter of necessity as of choice,
Hinco of the puliifontological objects of his study, the bony skeleton
and the teeth alone remained from which to recompose the fbnns
of tlu) fuist animal world, and determine their species. In the cooise
of his investi^tions a remarkable fact became evident — that in
many goncm of animals, species externally well characterized, dif-
fcntd scarcely at all in their bony frame-work. Regarding these
or THE RACES OF MEN.
2^9
eligbt differenceB — by such a practiBed eye certainly not over-
looked— as trivial, and losing sight of the singular importeiice
-they derive from their historical permanency, he was led in the end
<>o deny to comparative osteology the value he first assigned it.
mius, notwithatanding his great scientific labors, he left it unde-
prided whether the fossil horae was specifically identical with the
giving or not.™ On this point naturalists still differ in opinion.
"ASThilst by the aid of comparative anatomy^ — for the cultivation
.<:«f which he enjoyed unusual advantages — he was enabled to startle
'Ahe world with the brilliant announcement that there had been
several zoological creations, of which man was one, we find him at
length hesitatingly denying to anatomical characters the power of
«ietermining species. But the question arises — a question already
-j>erceived and disposed of in the affirmative by some ethnologists —
-whether anatomical characters have not a higher signification than
"the mere determination of species; whether, in fact, they are not
^eoeric It would, indeed, appear, that while the external or peri-
pheral form and appendages detomiine species, the internal organism
establishes genera. But the genus must contain within itself and
foreshadow the essential characters of the species ; there must be an
adaptation between the peripheral conformation and central organic
^tnctm-e. As a very slight error committed in the first step of a
loog and complicated mathematical calculation magnifies itself at
^perjf subsequent step of the process, until a result is obtained very
different from the true one, so a comparatively minute peculiarity in
tbe osseous structure of an animal may repeat itself through the
mascles, fascia, and integumentary covering, expressing itself at last
as a characteristic, which, though it might be difficult to poipt out
ejcactly, is seen to be an individual or specific mark by which
the animal may be discriminated trora other individuals or from
allied species. And as the result of the supposed pmblem must
always be the same, so long as the incorjiorated error is not elimi-
nated, 80 the external pecniiurity of the animal must ever remain the
same, while the internal structure mark varies not. This constant
*ud historically immutable relation between structure and form is in
consonance with the law of the "correlation of forms," first sug-
gested, I believe, by Cuvier, and by him used in such a masterly
tnaaner in the elucidation of the laws of zoology.
" The importance to be attached to the zoological characters
•fibrded by the slighter modifications of structure," writes Martin,
* rises as we ascend in the scale of being. In the arrangement of
DUooan mr 1« KsTolationB da Globe, p. 76.
22}0 THE CRANIAL GHABAGTERISTIGS
mammalia and birds, for example, minutise which, among the Invctte-
brata, would be deemed of little note, become of decided value, ^^^
are no longer to be neglected. Even the modifications, how©"^^^
slight, of a common type, now become stamped with a value, the
ratio of which increases as we advance fix)m the lower to the higbCT
orders. Hence, with respect to mammalia, the highest dasB ot
Vertebrata, every structural phase claims attention ; and, when "'^^
advance to the highest of the highest class, viz., Man, and the Qua<J-
rumana, the naturalist lays a greater stress on minute grades aTi<^
modifications of form, than he does when among the cetacea or th^
marsupials; and hence, groups are separated upon characters thud
derived, because they involve marked differences in the aniin^*
economy, and because it is felt that a modification, in itself of t^^
great extent, leads to most important results. Carrying out tb^
principle of an increase in the value of differential characters as "^^
advance in tlie scale of being, it may be affirmed that, upon legiti'
mate zoological grounds, the organic conformation of man, modelle<i»
possibly, upon the same type as that of the chimpanzee or orang*»
but modified, with a view to fit him for the habits, manners, and,
indeed, a totality of active existence, indicative of a destiny bSI<^
pm-poses participated in neither by the chimpanzee nor any otb^^
animal, removes Man from the Quadrumana, not merely in a generic
point of view, but from the pale of tlie Primates, to an exclusi^^
situation. The zoological value of characters derived from stru^'
tui'al modifications is commensurate with the results which th^^'
involve ; let it then be shown that man, though a cheiropod (han^^
footed), possesses stnictural modifications leading to most importaf^'^
results, and our views are at once justified."'*
It will thus be seen that anatomical difterences are valuable to H^^
zoologist more from their permanency^ than from their magnitud^"
"A species," says Prof. Leidy, "is a mere convenient word wi'ti*
which naturalists empirically designate groups of organized bein^^
possessing characters of comparative constancy, as far as historic
experience has guided them in giving due weight to such coi^''
sta-ncy."'^ An organic form historically constant is, therefore, ^
simple and exact expression of a species. In this constancy of ^
form lies its typical importance as a standard or point of departu:^*^
^^ A Goueral Introdaction to the Natural History of Mammiferous Animals, with a par'
cnlar view of the Physical History of Man, &o. By W. C. S. Martin, F. L. S. Londc^
184K p. 2(>(;.
72 Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Vol. VIL p. 201. — See also a
from Prof. L. to Dr. Nott, of Mobile, published in the Appendix to Hoti's translation ^^
Gobineau's work on the Inequality of Races, &c., p. 480.
OP THE RACES OF»MEN. . 231
3tll our attempta at classification and developing the laws of forma-
!• The mere shape, volume, or configuration, is secondary,
rte polar, brown, and grizzly bears differ but little in their oste
gy ; the same is true of the horse, ass, and zebra, and of the lion,
jr, and panther. By ipost naturalists the horse and ass arc referred
distinct species, — by Prof. Owen to distinct genera. The latter
itleman specifically separates a fossil fix)m the recent horse, in
^sequence of a slight curvature in the teeth of the former. Accord-
: to Flourens, the dog and fox belong to different genera ; the dog
1 wolf to distinct species, as also the lion and tiger."^ Now the
nia of the horse and ass differ in their nasal bones only. The
E>il of the dog is disc-shaped ; that of the fox, elongated. Says
lox : " The nasal bones of the ass differ constantly from those of
5 horse ; so do those of the lion and tiger. The distinction extends
the whole physiognomical character of the crania in these four
Bcies, and in all others. But so it is in man, chiefly in these very
^lies, and in the physiognomy of the skeleton of the face. For it
not in the comparative length or size merely of the nasal or maxil-
*y bones that the cranium of the Bosjieman and the Australian
fkr from the other races of men, although these differences are no
>ubt as constant and real as are the anatomical differences of any
''0 species ; they differ in every respect, and especially do they dis-
ay physiognomical distinction, which the experienced eye detects
once. "When fossil man shall be discovered, he, also, will be
)ved to have belonged to a species distinct from any that now
3. By the generic law I am about to establish, his affiliation with
existing races may and will be proved, first by the fact of his
inction, but still more by those slight anatomical differences,
ich, though seemingly unimportant, are not really so. His rela-
I to the present or living world will be the same as that of the
ixict Bolid-ungular and camivora to the living — generically identi-
specifically distinct.*'^*
(etween the crania of the various races of men, the same slight,
constant, and therefore important, differences can be pointed out,
lome instances even more marked and better characterized than
Be which are considered by naturalists of high distinction, as suffi-
at to form a basis upon which to establish species. It is true that
human race possesses a bone the more or less in the cranium, than
t others ; but it is equally true that human crania differ, in some
tances quite remarkably, in the size and proportions of their con-
> Op. eit, p. 111.
* Introdnetion to Inqniriefl into the Philosophy of Zoology, bj Robt Knox, M.D., &o.,
Uadon Lanoet, Oct, 1S56.
232 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS •
stituent bones, and these differences are not accidental and fluctoa-
ting, but persistent. Thus, the massive, broad, and outward-flhelving
malar bones of the Polar man are unlike those of any other race.
So, the superior maxillse of the Coast Afncan is so unlike that of
any other people, as to have become a standard of compariaon for
inferiority — a standard expressed by the word prognathous. Differ-
ences in the nasal bones, in the size ot the frontal sinuses, in the
prominence of the occiput, in the angle at which the parietal bonefi
join each other, in the form and arrangement of the teeth, in the
relation of head to face, in the relative situations of the great occi-
pital foramen and the bony meatus, in the form of the skull, and the
configuration of its base ; and, as the result of all these, in the phyri-
oguomy of the facial bones, exist, as I shall presently endeavor to
show, and are perpetuated from one generation to another as con-
stant and unaltered features.
Cranial differentiae, however slight, derive additional importance
from their relation to the physiognomical character of the skull as
a whole, and daily observation shows this character to be more im-
portant than is generally considered. The labors of Porta, Camper,
Lebrun, Lavater, Bichat, Moreau de la Sarthe, and others, have given
us the scientific elements of a physiognomy or physiology of the fiewje,
as those of Blumenbach and Morton have established a physiology
of the cranium. Between the muscular and integumentary invesd-
titure of the face and head on the one hand, and the bony structure
of these parts on the other, there is a decided adaptation. Whether
the soft parts determine the form of the osseous firame-work, or the
latter that of the former, does not so much concern us, at present, as
the fact of adaptation. That this adaptation exists, there can scarcely
he a doubt. " Tout dans la nature,** beautifully and truthfully writes
De la Sarthe, " est rapport et harmonic ; chaque apparence externe
est le eigne d'une propriety : chaque point de la superficie d'un corps
annoncc Tetat de sa profondeur et de sa structure."'* In virtue of
this hai-mony, we find the physiognomy of the skull expressing the
true value of its osteologic peculiarities, even when these are so
slight as to appear in themselves trivial and insignificant. Soemmer-
ing, not perceiving the import of this relation, tells us that he could
find no well-marked differences between the German, Swiss, French,
Swedish and Russian skulls in his collection, leaving it to be inferred
that none such existed. "^^ At a later period, and from the same
"^ Neuvi^me Etude sur Lavater.
76 Lawrence informs us that bis friend, Mr. Geo. liewis, in a toor through France and
Qermany, observed tbat tbe lower and anterior part of the cranium is larger in the French,
the upper and anterior in the Germans ; and tbat the npper and posterior region is laigw
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 233
) -,j.g.<3, Cuvier, while conducting his palseoiitologieal reseai-cheB, more
!,£l^j^i:» once fell into an analogoua eiTor.
2^~i>3m the foregoing remarks, it will be seen that it is a matter of
^^-,3^«r;li importance to be able to disoriminato between typical or rac&-
I ^-^j-x*3a of crania, and thuee modifications of shape produced, to a
c.e;r*^"* extent, by age, sex, develoiDmeut, intermixture of races, arti-
g^^i.^1 deformations, &c. Unless these distinctions be observed, and
" d»»^ allowance made for them, it will be utterly impossible to detc]*-
jj^Vxi-c the number and character of the primitive types — an attempt
I alT-^5*ly almost hopelessly beyond our power, in consequence of the
^^^£B.^>e1eB8 migrations and affiliations which have beeu going on
) ^^xx^ongBi the races of men since the remotest antiquity. The modi-
fi^c.y».*ions of cranial form, from tbese various causes, are so many
' ^se<:xd&tcd elements, which must be individually isolated before we
c^r^ determine the true value of each. In proportion as this isolatioii
js <?cmplete, so will our results approximate the truth,
1st is very well known that the skulls of the lower animals undergo
oe vtain changes in conformation as they advance in age. In a limited
Ae^^^t this appears to be true of man also ; though the extent of
t;i^«^se changes, and the period at which they are most noticeable —
■w"l:» ether during intra-uteriue life, or subsequent to birth — are points
not. yet definitively settled. However, from the observations of
Soenimering, Camper, Blumcnbach, Loder and Ludwig, we learn
tt>a>t in veiy young children, even in infants at the moment of birth,
\Xxc race-lineaments are generally but positively expressed. Blumen-
bach, in bis Deeadea, figures the head of a Jewess, aged five yeara,
a Burat child, one and a half years, and a newly-born negro ; in
each of these the ethnic characters of the race to which it belongs
are distinctly seen. The Mortonian collection furnishes a number
of examples confirmatory of this interesting and remarkable fact.
Occasionally the tardy developnaent of certain parts may give rise
to apparent modifications, as indicated in tlie following passage from
Dr. Gosae's highly interesting essay upon the artificial deformations
of tlie skuU. "H n'est pas m§me rare, en Europe, de voir le &ont
parattre plus saillaut chcz uu grand nombre d'enfant*, en raison du
foible develop pement de la face. Toutefoia, jusqu'i I'age de dix & j
douze ans, il existe en genera! une prMominance de la region ocoipi- ,
tale qui parait se developpcr d'autant plus que I'intfilligence est pluB J
exercee. Ce n'est souveut que vers cette ^poque de la vie que l
in tfaa former than in the Utter. (Op. cit., p. 239.) — Connt Oobinean, in his work already
>Ilmlnl U>. gpealts of a certnia cnlnreemeDt on «ach side of the lower lip, vhich 19 fannd
»noaglhe English and Germane.
234 THE GBANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
propres du nez tendent h se relever davantage suivant les traitB des
individus ou des races.""
Some physiologists have supposed that permanent modificfttions
of cranial form are produced during severe and protracted aeeouehe-
menta. Gall, long ago, refuted this notion, and every aeeoucheurlm,
in fact, constant opportunities of satisfying himself of the untena-
bility of this doctrine. It has more than once happened to me,aBit
necessarily does to every physician engaged in the practice of ob-
stetrics, to witness a head, long compressed in a narrow pelvis, bom
with the nose greatly depressed, the forehead flattened, the parietal
bones overriding each other, and the whole skull completely wire-
drawn, so as to resemble some of the permanent deformations pic-
tured in the books ; and yet, in a few days, the inherent elasticity of
the bony case and its contained parts has sufficed to restore it to its
natural form. But the great objection to this opinion lies in the feet
of a conformity between the cranial and pelvic types of a particular
race. Dr. Vrolick, following up the suggestions of Camper and some
other observers, relative to certain peculiarities of the negro pelvis,
has demonstrated the existence of a race-form for the pelvis as for
the cranium. He has shown that the form of the head is adapted to
the pelvic passage which it is compelled to traverse in the parturient
act, and that the pelvis, like the skull, possesses its race-charactew
and sexual distinctions, sufficiently well marked, even at the infentile
epoch. As in the zoological series, we find the cranium of the mon-
key differing from that of the animals below it, and approximating
tlie human tjT)e, so we find the pelvis pursuing the same gradation,
from the Orang to the Bosjieman, from the Bosjieman to the Ethio-
pian, from the Ethiopian to the Malay, and so on to the high caste
White races, where it attains its perfection, and is the fiirthest removed
in form from that of the other mammiferse. I am aware that Wbbbb
has attempted to deny the value of these observations, by showing
that, although certain pelvic forms occur more frequently in some
races than in others, yet exceptions were found in the fisict of the
European conformation being occasionally encountered among other
and very different races. " This is not proving much," as De Gobi-
neau acutely observes, " inasmuch as M. Weber, in speaking of
these exceptions, appears never to have entertained the idea, that
their peculiar conformation could only be the result of a mixtore of
blood," ^
^ Essai snr les Deformations Artificielles da Cr&ne, Par L. A. Gosse, de Gender ^
Paris, 1855. Published originally as a contribution to the **Atmalet 4*Hygikiu PMifn* ^ ^
Medecine UgaU," 2e s^rio, 1855, tomes III. et TV.
« Op. cit, t. 1, p. 193.
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 235
In the study of cranial forms, sexual difierenees should not he
OTerlooked. "The female skull," says Davis, "except in races
equally distinguished by forms strikingly impressed, does not exhibit
t.lie gentilitial characters eminently/'*^ It is well known to the ob-
atetriclan, that the male skull, at birth, is, on the average, larger than
tJie female.
A complete history of the development of the human brain and
eranium, in the different races, would constitute one of the most
valuable contributions to anthropology. Such a history alone can
determine the true meaning of the various appearances which these
parts assume in their transition from the ovum to the fully-developed
typical character, and demonstrate their as yet mysterious relations
to the innumerable forms of life which are scattered over the surface
of the globe. To such a history must we look, also, for a solution
of the question, as to whether the soft and pulpy brain models around
itself its hard and resisting bony case, or, conversely, whether this
latter gives shape to the former.
Daring the first six weeks of embryonic life, the brain, clothed in
its diiFerent envelopes, exists without any bony investment, being
surrounded externally with an extremely thin, soft, and pliable carti-
la^nous membrane, in which ossification subsequently takes place.
About the eighth week, as shown by the investigations of Gall, the
ossific points appear in this membrane, sending out diverging radii
in every direction. As this delicate cartilaginous layer is moulded
nicely over the brain, the minute specks of calcareous matter, as they
are deposited, must to some extent acquire the same form as the brain.
Whether this be true or not, there is a manifest adaptation between
the brain and cranium, the result of a harmony in growth, inseparably
connected with the action of one developing principle in the human
economy. From this fact, alone, we nlight fairly infer that diftereuces
in the volume and configuration of a number of crania are general
indications of differences in the volume and configuration of their
contained brains. One single fact, among many others, proves this
admirable harmony. It is this : The process of ossification is at first
most rapid in the bones composing the vault ; but presently ceasing
here, it advances so rapidly in those of the base and inferior parts
^nerally, that at birth the base is solid and incompressible, thus
protecting from pressure the nervous centre of respiration, which is
at this time firmer and better developed than the softer and less
volnminous cerebral lobes.
According to the embryologic investigations of M. de Serres, of
all brains, that of the high-caste European is the most complex in
w Op. cit, p. 5.
236 THE CRANIAL GH A R AG TERI STIGS
its organization. In attaining this high development, it passes bqo-
cessively through the forms which belong permanently to fishes, rep-
tiles, birds, mammals, Negroes, Malays, Americans, and MongoUsna.
The bony structore undergoes similar alterations. " One of the earliest points wlten
ossification commences is the lower jaw. This bone is therefore sooner completed Una
any other of the head, and acquires a predominance which it never loses in the Negro.
C%ring the soft, pliant state of the bones of the skull, the oblong form which they nttonDj
assume approaches nearly the permanent shape of the American. At birth, the (UtteMd
face and broad, smooth forehead of the infant ; the position of the eyes, rather towirdi tbi
sides of the head, and the widened space between, represent the Mongolian form, wUdi,
in the Caucasian, is not obliterated but by degrees, as the child adTances to maturitj.**
Hamilton Smith, commenting upon these interesting researches, says: ''Should the eon-
ditions of cerebral progress be more complete at birth in the Cauoausian type, ind be
successively lower in the Mongolic and intermediate Malay and American, with the wooDy-
haired least developed of all, it would follow, according to the apparently general Uw of
progression in animated nature, that both — or at least the last-mentioned — would be in
the conditidhs which show a more ancient date of existence than the other, notwithstsadiBg
that both this and the Mongolic are so constituted that the spark of mental development
can be received by them through contact with the higher Caucasian innervation; tbvi
appearing, in classified zoology, to constitute perhaps three species, originating at diffeitDt
epochs, or simultaneously in separate regions ; while, by the faculty of ftision which the
last, or Caucasian, imparted to them, progression up to intellectual equality would manitet
essential unity, and render all alike responsible beings, according to the d^ree of thdr
existing capabilities — for this must be the ultimate condition for which Man is created."*
From his own researches. Prof. Aoassiz concludes that it is impos-
sible, in the foetal state, to detect the anatomical marks which are
characteristic of species. These specific marks he assures us become
manifest as tlie animal, in the course of its development, approaches
the adult state. In like manner, the evolution of the physical and
mental peculiarities of the different races of men appears to com-
mence at the moment of birth. Dr. Knox, in his recent communi-
cations in the *' London Lancet," already referred to, maintains almost
the same opinion. He considers the embryo of any species of any
natural family as the most perfect of forms, embracing within itself
during its phases of development, all the forms or species which that
natural family can assume or has assumed in past time. " In the
embryo and the young individual of any species of the natural
family of the Salmonidce, for example," says he, "you will find the
characteristics of the adult of all the species. The same, I believe,
holds in man ; so that, were all the existing species of any family to
bo accidentally destroyed, saving one, in the embryos and young of
that one will be found the elements of all the species ready to re-
appear to repeoi)le the waters and the earth, the forms they are to
assume being dependent on, therefore determined by, the existing
order of things. With another order will arise a new eeries of
species, also foreseen and provided for in the existing world."
» Nat. Hist, of the Human Species, pp. 176-7. See also Serres' Anatomit OoouMMia.
OF THE RAGES OF MEN. 237
If we careftilly consider the development of the oranium, it will
1>6 seen that this development goes on between, and is modified by
two systems of organs — externally the muscular, internally the
nervous. The brain exerts a double influence, mechanically or
passively by its weight, and actively by its growth. That the brain
completely fills its bony case, is sufliciently well known from the fact
of the impressions left upon the inner aspect of the cranium by the
cerebral convolutions and vessels. Very slight allowance need be
made for the thickness of the meninges. That the progressive
development of the brain is really capable of exerting some force
upon the cranial bones surrounding it, is shown in the records of
cases of hypertrophy of that organ, where, upon post-mortem exami-
nation, tie calvaria being removed, the spongy mass has protruded
fh>m the opening and could not be replaced. That the bones are
capable of yielding to a distending force acting firom within out-
wards, is shown in the cases of chronic hydrocephalus, where the
ventricles are found ftill of water, the brain-tissue flattened out, and
the bones greatly distorted. Such a force becomes perceptible in
proportion to the degree of softness and pliancy of Uie bones. A
check to its action will be found in the sutures and in the amount
of resistance ofibred by the durar-mater. 'Now it must be obvious
that as long as the sutures remain open, and the developmental
activity of the brain continues, the head must enlarge. If all the
sutures remain open, this development will be regular and in exact
proportion to the activity of growth manifested by the diflferent parts
of the encephalon. When a suture closes, further development in
that direction will in great measure terminate. Of this propositiou
Br. MoBTOir ^ves us the following example :
*' I liATe in mj poesenioii," mjn he, " the skull of a mulatto boy, who died at the age
of ei^teen jean. In this instance, the sagittal suture is entirely wanting; in conse-
qncnee, the lateral expansion of the cranium has ceased in infancy, or at whateyer period
the satnre became consolidated. Hence, also, the diameter between the parietal protube-
ranees is lese than 4.6 inches, instead of 6, which last is the Negro ayerage. The squamous
satnrea, howerer, are fully open, whence the skull has continued to expand in the upward
direction, until it has reached the ayerage yertical diameter of the Negro, or 6.6 inches.
Tlie coronal satnre is also wanting, excepting some traces at its lateral termini; and the
resoU of tlda last deficiency is seen in the yery inadequate deyelopment of the forehead,
which is low and narrow, but elongated below, through the agency of the yarious cranio-
facial sntnrea. The lambdoidal suture is perfect^ thus permitting posterior elongation;
and the growth in this direction, together with the Mi yertical diameter, has enabled the
brain to attain the bulk of — cubic inches, or about — less than the Negro ayerage. I belieye
diat the ibMBoe or partial deyelopment of the sutures may be a cause of idiocy by check-
ing tho growth of the brain, and thereby impairing or destroying its Amotions.*'*'
■ See a paper on the ffite of the Brain in the Various Races and Families of Man; with
Ethnologieal Remarks; by Ssarael George Morton, M. D. : published in '* Types of Man-
kind,'* by Nott and Oliddon, Philadelphia, 1864, p. 808, note. See also Proceedings of Phila.
Hat 8d. for Aognst, 1841.
238 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
From the Mortonian collection, other illnstrations of this &ct might
be drawn ; but neither space nor time permits their introduction h^re.
In the study of the sutures, considerations of a highly philoBophical
character are involved. Their history enables us to perceive why
the cranium was not formed of one piece, and why there should be
two frontal and two parietal bones, and only one occipitaL Such an
arrangement obviously allows the fullest development of the anterior
and middle lobes of the cerebrum, — ^the organs, according to Cabus,
of intelligence, reflection, and judgment." That the sutaree m
tutamina cerebri, that in the foetus they permit the cranial bonee to
overlap during parturition, and thus, by diminishing the size of the
head in certain of its diameters, and producing anaesthesia^ facilitate
labor, curtailing its difficulties and diminishing its dangers to both
mother and child, there can be no doubt Such provisions are of
high interest, as exhibiting the harmony of nature. But when we
call to mind that the skull is a vertebra in its highest known Btate
of development ; that the enclosed brain, as the organ of intellection,
is the distinguishing mark of man ; that the development of the
cranium goes on pari passu with that of the encephalon ; that the
various degrees of human intelligence are definitely related to certwn
permanent skull-forms ; and that the cranial sutures, in conjunction
with the ossific centres, are the guiding agents in the assumption of
these forms — it will be evident that a higher and far more compre-
hensive significance is attached to these bony interspaces. Again,
no extended investigation has been instituted, as far as I am aware,
to determine the period at which the diflerent cranial sutures are
cjosed in the various races of men. The importance of such an in-
quiry becomes apparent, when we ask ourselves the following ques-
tions : — 1. Does the cranium attain its fullest development in all the
races at the same, or at difierent periods of life ? and 2. To what
extent are race-forms of the cranium dependent upon the growth and
modifications of the sutures ?
<*The most obvioas oso of the satares," according to Dr. Morton, "is to subserre ih%
process of growth, which they do by osseons depositions at their margins. Hence, one of
these sutares is eqaivalent to the intermpted stmctnre that exists between the shaft and
epiphysis of a long bone in the growing state. The shaft grows in length chiefly by accre-
tions at its extremities ; and the epiphysis, like the cranial sntnre, disappears when the
perfect development is accomplished. Hence, we may infer that the sknll ceases to expand
whenever the sutures become consolidated with the proximate bones. In other words, the
growth of the brain, whether in yiviparons or in oviparous animals, is consentaneous with
that of the skull, and neither can bo developed without the presence of ftree satnrea."*
n <« Das besondere Organ des erkennenden, vergleichenden nnd nrtheileodea OeistadebeB."
<— Symbolik der mentehlichen Oesialt, von Dr. G. G. Caros, Leipiig^ 1868.
^ See article on Sise of the Brain, &c., quoted above, p. 808.
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 239
investigations of this natare, and from other considerations^
'. M. concluded that the growth of the brain was arrested at the
x^dult age, that the consolidation of the sutures was an indication of
'the full development of both cranium and brain, and that any in-
orease or decrease in the size or weight of the brain after the adult
period would not be likely to affect the internal capacity of the cra-
xiiam, which, therefore, indicates the maximum size of the eneeplialon
at the time of its greatest development. Combe, however, affirms
that when the brain contracts in old age, the tabula vitrea of the
cranioin also contracts, so as to keep itself applied to its contents,
the outer or fibrous table undergoing no change.®* It is, to some
extent^ true that in the very aged, even when the skull-bones become
consolidated into one piece, some changes may result from an undue
activity of the absorbents, or some defect in the nutritive operations.
Under such circumstances, the cranial bones may be thinned and
altered slightly in form. Davis gives an example of this change, in
the akull of an aged Chinese in his collection, in which the central
area of the parietal bones is thinned and depressed over an extent
equal to four square inches to about one-third of an inch deep in the
central part* Such changes, however, are too limited in their extent
to demand more than a passing notice.
The pressure of the brajn, exerted through its weight, is felt
mainly upon the base and inferior lateral parts.
Prof Enqbl, in a valuable monograph upon skull-forms,^ particu-
larly calls attention to the action of the muscles in determining these
forms. He considers the influence of the occipito-frontalis as almost
inappreciable, — so slight, indeed, that it may be neglected in our
inquiries. The action of the temporal and pterygoid muscles and of
the group attached to the occiput, though more evident, is still not
worthy of much consideration. To the action of the musculus
stemo-cleido-mastoideus, he assigns a greater value.
" This muscle," says he, ''tends to produce a downward displacement at the mastoid por-
tion of the temporal bone, which will be the more considerable, as the lower point of its attach-
ment— the sternum and claTicle — is able to offer much greater resistance than the upper.
In addition to this, the unusual length of the muscle produces, by its contraction, more
effeet» aad, hoiee, faTors a greater displacement of the bones to which it is attached. The
bone upon which it exerts its influence is also yery loose in early life, and cTen during the
first year of our existence, when extensiye motions of the muscle already take place, it is
not as firmly fixed as the other bones ; hence, it becomes probable that the influence of this
muscle upon the position of the bones of the skull will be a demonstrable one.
**It may, howerer, be admitted dpriorit that in ppite of all these fayorable circumstances,
** System of Phrenology, p. 88.
■ Or. Brit, p. A. See also Gall, ** Sur les Fonotions du Cenreau," HI, 58, 1826.
•Op.eit
240 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
the displaoement will not exceed a magnitude of one, or, at most, tbree nullimetna. Hfli
this alone, we will, it is true, not yet explain that yarietj in the fonn of the skull whieh not
only distinguishes one man from another, but has also been characterixed as the tjpe of
progeny and race. Notwithstanding its seeming insignificance, howeyer, tins nnueahr
action is a yery important agent, and plays the principal part in the formation of theikallf
although other circumstances of an auxiliary or restrictiTe nature must not be ne|^eet«d—
circumstances which may increase, diminish, or modify this displacement.
" The effect of this muscular action is considerably increased by superadded eonfitioBS.
The head rests upon the condyles of the occipital bone. Partly on account of mucaltf
action, and partly from the pressure of the brain, the basal bones of the skull are expoMd
to a downward displacement : the condyloid portions of the occiput, alone, are not This
impossibility to change their position parallel with the displacement of the other basal boDM,
is equiyalent to an upward pressure of the occipital condyles, and this must oonridenUj
increase the downward traction of the stemo-deido-mastoideus.
*' The occipital and temporal regions, then, are subjected to a downward traction, wUle
the condyles are pressed upward : moreoTer, the brain produces, upon all the basal bonei
except the condyles, a downward pressure corresponding to its height; at the partes condy-
loidea, this downward pressure is obviated by the resistance of the Tertebral column."
Notwithstanding the significance of the fiicts thus fer adduced, it
has been boldly and unhesitatingly maintained that civilization— by
which is meant the aggregate intellectual and moral influences of
society — exerts a positive influence over the form and size of the
cranium, modifj^ing not only its individual, but also its race-charac-
ters, to such an extent, indeed, as entirely to change the original
type of structure. This doctrine finds its chief advocates among the
writers of the phrenological school, though it is not wholly confined
to them. Among its most recent supporters we find the Baron J. W.
DE MuLLER, who, in a quarto pamphlet of 74 pages,®' devotes a sec-
tion to the consideration of the ^^ Action de V intelligence surles forma
de la tete:'*
'*Nou8 esp^rons prouver/' says he, "do mdme que les formes du cr&ne ont des rapp<fft8
intimes avec le degrd de civilisation auquel un pouple est parrenUi et que par cons^uent
elles non plus nc peuyent justificr une division en races des habitants de la terre, 4 moiM
de ctasser les hommes d'apr^s leur plus ou moins d*intelligenoe,et de justifier alnsi, au nom
de la suprdmatie de la raison, non-seulment tons les abus de re8claTage,mai8 encore tontet
les tyrannies individuelles."
The subject-matter embodied in the above quotation, though pro-
fessedly obscure, is beginning to assume a more certain character in
consequence of the facts brought to light during the controverBies
between the Unitarians and Diversitarians in Ethnology — fistcts which
intimately aftect the great question of permanency of cranial typee.
Confronted with the facts presently to be brought forward, it will be
seen that the doctrine of the mobility of cranial forms tinder the
^ Des Causes de la Coloration de la Peau et des differences dans les Formes du Crlaa,
au point de vue de Tunit^ du genre humain. Par le Baron J. W de Mailer. Stuti*
gart, 1853.
OF TU£ RACES OF MEN. 241
iflnence of education, &c., is by no means a settled fact, as many
F its advocates appear to think. " Speaking of the great races of
mankind/' very appropriately remarks Davis, " whether it be in the
se of the brain, or whether in its quality, or whether it be, as the
hrenologists maintain, in the development of its particular parts,
ich race is endowed with such special faculties of the mind, moral
ad intellectual, as to impart to it a distinct and definite position
rithin which its powers and capabilities range. We know of no
alid evidence that can be brought forward for thinking this definite
OBition can be varied in the mass. We may therefore take this
urther ground for questioning the assumed pliancy of .the form
f BkuU."
The indefatigable traveller and "Directeur du Jardin Eoyal de
joologie de Bruxelles," has condensed in a few pages, at once the
>e&t and most commonly used arguments to sustain the hypothesis
vhich constitutes the starting-point of the above-mentioned article.
t has appeared to me not inappropriate to devote a few words, in
his hasty sketch, to the examination of the tenability of tlie two
aost important examples adduced by Baron M., whose brochure I
ibject to critical inquiry, simply because it is one of the most con-
se exponents of a generally-spread, but, as it appears to me, erro-
K>iis, and therefore injurious view. And I am the more especially
^^d to this, since the question of the permanency or non-perma-
jncy of human types occupies the highest philosophical position in
e entire field of Ethnographic inquiry. Its relations are, indeed,
ndamental ; for, according as it is definitively settled in the affirma-
^e or negative, will Ethnography — especially the cranioscopical
■anch — assume the dignity and certainty of a science, or be de-
"aded to the vague position of an interesting but merely speculative
iquiry. " If the size of the brain,** says Mr. Combe, in allusion to
le labors of Morton, as published in Crania Americana^ " and the
poportions of its different parts, be the index to natural national
liaracter, the present work, which represents with great fidelity the
^Us of the American tribes, will be an authentic record in which
he philosopher may read the native aptitudes, dispositions, and
aental force of these families of mankind. If this doctrine be
unfounded, these skulls are mere facts in Natural Ilistorj', prcsent-
ng no particular information as to the mental qualities of the
people." If there be this permanency of cranial form in the great
ueading or typical -stocks — if, in other words, Nature alters not,
but ever truly and unchangeably represents that primitive Di\nno
tdea, of which she is but the objective embodiment and indi-
cation— then the labors of Blumenbach, Morton, Betzius, Nilsson,
16
242 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Davis, and other cranioscopists, have not been toilfully wrought out
in vain ; if, however, this permanency is but a dream, if typical
skull-forms vary in periods of time not greater than the lustoric,
then all is confusion and uncertainty, and the labors of the eraniolo-
gist hopeless for good, alike without objects and without results.
Now a moment's reflection will show that this question of pennar
nency underlies and in great measure substitutes itself for the fiercely-
vexed problem of the unity or diveraity of human oilgin.
<* S'il est d^montr^," says Qobineau, " que les races homaines sont, ohaoane, enfenn^M
dans une sorte d'individualit^ d'od rien ne lea peut faire sortir que le melange, alon la ^
trine des Unitaires se trouye bien press^e et ne pent se soustraire 4 reoonnattre qui, da
moment oil les types sont si complbtement h^r^ditaires, si constants, si permanenUy en u
mot, malgrd les climats et le temps, Thomanit^ n'est pas moins compl^tement et in^bnolt-
bleraeut partag^c que si les distinctions sp^oifiques prenaient leur source daos une diyenit^
primitive d'origine."® '
After citing the Baribra or Berberins of the Nile-valley, and the
Jews, in proof of the proposition under consideration, our author
proceeds to speak of the Turks in the following manner.
** Les Turcs d'Europo et de I'Asie mineure nous offrent une autre preuve que la fonM
caract^ristiquc du crane peut se modifier compl^tement dans le cours des sidles. Ce people
nous pr^sente le module d'un type elliptique pur et ne se distingue rien de la masM dci
nations ^urop^ennes. Par contre, il difTbre t^nt aveo les Turcs de TAsie centrale, ((M
beaucoup d'dcrivains le placcnt au nombre des nations caucasiques, tandis qu'ils rattacheot
les Turcs d'Asic ^ la race mongole. Or, I'histoire d^montre d'une mani^re irrefutable qv*
cesdeux peuples appartiennent au groupe de I'Asie septentrionale, ayeo lequel les Tares de
rOrient conscrvent les relations les plus intimes, non-seulement au point de Tue g^gn-
pbiquo, mais par la concordance de tons les usages de la vie. La transformation du cnne
a cu lieu non chcz Ics Turcs de I'Asio centrale, mais cbez ce«x de I'Europe. Ceux-ci out
perdu peu ^ peu le type pyramidal de leurs pbres et ils Tont ^chang^ contre la plus belle des
formes clliptiqucs. Or, tout en 6tant les repr^sentants par excellence de cette forme, ib
Kont au!4si les consanguins les plus proches de ce peuple hideux aux yeax loucheeuqni nfi&e
paitre scs chevaux dans les steppes de la Tartaric Nous deTons attribuer cette
modification du crane aux ameliorations sociales, & la civilisation qui tend toujoors i ^u*
librer toutcs les anomalies des formes faciales, ^ niveler toutes les protuberances du cr&De
pyramidal ou prognatiquc et gL les mener & la symdtrie du type de I'ellipse. Les Tores
orientaux sont rest^s ce qu'6taient les anciens Turcs; places sur le mdme degr6 inf(6rie«rdo
la civilisation, ils ont conserve le type des peuples nomades."
The mode of argument here employed appears to be this. In the
first place it is taken for granted that the Turks are of Asiatic origin;
secondly, in consequence of certain unimportant resemblances, they
arc assumed to be affiliated with the Laplanders and Ostiacs througli
what are erroneously supposed to be their Finnic or Tchudic branches;
and lastly, as relations of the Lapps, (?) it is inferred that they mus^
have originally presented all the Mongolic characters in an eminent
degree, and been remarkable for low statures, ugly features, 4c
« Op. cit., 1. 1, p. 212.
OF THE RAGES OF MEN. 243
These pTemises supposed to be establisUTed, a comparison is next
institated between the Turks of Europe and of Asia Minor, and a
conclusion drawn adverse to permanency of cranial types.
It is of vital importance to cranioscopy, that these arguments
should be carefully sifted, and examined in detail. It has been re-
cently shown that at so remote a period as the days of Abraham,
numerous GotMc tribes occupied those boundless steppes of High
Asia, which lie outstretched between the Sea of Aral and Katai, and
between Thibet and Siberia.^ From the Altai Mountains of this
region appear to have descended, at this distant epoch, the Orghuse
progenitors of the Turks. Now it is a note-worthy fact, that the
Oriental writers, tliough familiar with the European standards of
beauty, have filled their writings, even at a very eai-ly period, with
the highest eulogies upon the form and features of the tribes inhabi-
ting Turkestan. The descriptions they give of these tribes by no
means apply to the true Mongol appearance, to be met with on the
desert of Schamo. Haneberg describes Scharouz, the daughter of
the Khakan of the Turks, who lived in the early part of the sixth
century, as the most beautiful woman of her time.*^ Alexander von
Humboldt tells us that the monk Eubruquis, sent by StXouis on an
embassy to the Mongolian sovereign, spoke of the striking resem-
blance which the Eastern monarch bore to the deceased M. Jean de
Beaumont, in complexion, features, &c. " This physiognomical ob-
servation," says Humboldt, "merits some attention, when we call to
mind the fact, that the family of Tchinguiz were really of Turkish,
not of Mogul origin." Further on, he remarks, " The absence of
Mongolian features strikes us also in the portraits which we possess
of the Baburides, the conquerors of India." ®^
**Th9 Atrak Turks," writes Hamilton Smith, **more especiaUy the Osmanlis, differ from
the other Toorkees, bj their \ofij stature, European features, abundant beards, and fair
eomplexions, deriyed from their original extraction being Caucasian, of Tuchi race, or from
an earlj intermixture with it, and with the numerous captives they were for ages incor-
porating from Kashmere, Affghanistan, Persia, Syria, Natolia, Armenia, Greece,, and eastern
Europe. Both these conjectures may be true, because the Caucasian stock, wbereyer we
find it, contriyes to rise into power, from whateyer source it may be drawn, and therefore,
may in part have been pure before the nation left eastern Asia, while the subordinate
hordes remained more or less Hyperborean in character ; as, in truth, the normal Toorkees
about the lower Oxus still are. All have, howeyer, a peculiar form of the posterior portion
of the skull, which is less in depth than the European, and does not appear to be a result
of the tight swathing of the turban. Osmanli Turks are a handsome race, and their chil-
dren, in partieolar, are beautiful." »
■ Consult, among other works, Humboldt's Aiie Centrales yoL 11. ; Ritter's Erdkund*
Toi n. ; and Lassen's Zeittchrift fur die Kunde det Morgetdandet, yol. IL
* Zfiitekri/t fl^ die Kunde det MorgtnlandtM^ yol. I., p. 187.
■ Amt CmirtUe,, toL L, p. 248. See also Oobineau, Sur PlnigaUtS, ^e., Chap. XL
• Op. cit p. 827.
244 THE ORANIAL CUABAGTEBISTIC8
Now, the beautiful Osmanlis are the lineal descendants of the
warlike Seldjuks, who, in the ninth century, suddenly made thci^
appearance in Southern Asia, overthrew the empire of the Khalifis
and founded the states of Iran, Kerman, and Roum, or Iconium.
History informs us that these Seldjuks were, by no means, careful ^
about preserving the purity of their genealogy ; for it is not difficultar^^
to adduce instances of their chiefs intermarrying with Arabian au<^ J
Christian women. In short, when we consider that, as a body, the^^
were constantly engaged in extensive predatory excursions, durii^
which they enjoyed almost unlimited opportunities for capturi^:>«
slaves and amalgamating with tliem ; that in compliance with t&e
invitation of Osman, the son of Ortogrhul, great numbers of tbe
adventurous, tlie discontented, and the desperate, from all the sur-
rounding nations, fled to his standard, and gradually swelled the ranb ^
of the Osmanlis; that at a later period, the tliinning of their num- — -
bers in war was avowedly provided for by the capture of slaves; ^ \
that in the ranks of the Janissaries, a military order instituted in the ^:» je
early part of the fourteenth century by Orkhan, one-fifth of all the ^^e
European captives were enrolled ; that for two centuries and a half "^^
this body was entirely dependent for its renewal upon the Christians xoau
slaves captured in Poland, Germany, Italy, &c. ; that in the courseE*^^^
of four centuries, at least half a million of European males derived^ ^^
from the above-mentioned sources, and by piracy along the Mediter-^r^r.
ranean, had been incori)orated into the Turkish population; — whe»^ ^"^n
we consider all these, and many other facts of a like nature, we arr^-„^
forced to conclude with the erudite Qobineau, that tlie history of ^^ ^
amalgamated a nation furnishes no arguments, either for or again^^r--^^
the doctrine of permanency of type.
Further on, and confirmatory of the above remarks, the reat^^^^^
will find some allusion to tlie special character of the Turld^^^i,
cranium, and the marks which distinguish it from tlie Mongoli^^^
Finnic, and otlier forms of the skull.
The Magyars arc also produced as an example of the mutabi'"^*^^
of cranial form.
** Bien quMls no 1o cedent & aucan peapio ni en beauty phjsiqae ni en d6ve1opp^xi|^^
intcllectuel, ilfl dcscendont, d'aprbs lea indications) do rhintoire ot de la lingnistiqae «^.
])ar^o. de la grundc race qui occupo TAsio scptentrionale. Hh Hont da nidme sang q^Ti^/i^
SamoibdoA indolentF, Ioh Ostiaos fstupides ct d^bi1e8, les Lapon8 indomptabloa. U 7 a eo^*.
ron mille anp, leH codeM:endant8 de ce^ poupliidcH m<^priNSoRf lea Map^ara modemes, fvt^tt
chaxp^s par uno invaBion do TuroH hors do la Grando-IIongrie, pays ayoisinant l'Oiui(
quMIs habitaient & oetto ^potjue. A leur tonr lis expulsfercnt I08 races slayes des pUioei
fertilcH do la Hongrie actuelle. Par cetto mifi^ation, len Mapcyars ^cbangbrent un des phu
nidon c1iraat8 de Tancien continent, nno oontr^e sauvafi^c dans laquello I'Ostiao etleStnolHt
ne peuTont s'adonner i la chasse qao pendant quclques moin, centre un pays plus niri.
dional, d*une luzurianto fertility. lis furent entratnds & se d^pouiller pen 4 peu de Imn
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 245
loran groeei^ret et 4 se rapproeher de lean Toisins phis oiTilis^ Apr^ an millier d'an-
6m, U forme pyramidale de leor cr^e est deyenue ellipUqne. L'hypoth^se d'nn oroise-
lent g^n^rml de races n'est pas admissible quand il 8*a^t des Magyars si fiers, TiTant dans
isoleraent le plos s^T^re. La simple expatriation ne soffit pas non pins pour modifier la
mna da erftne. Le Lapon, issn dn mdme sang qne le Magyar, a comme lui anssi change
e demeore ; il yit roaintenant en Europe ; mais il y a oonserr^ le ^rpe pyramidal de son
rftne avec sa Tie de nomade sanyage."
This asserted transformation of the Samoiede or Northern Asiatic
ype into the Hungarian, in the short space of eight hundred, or, at
most, one thousand years, stands unparalleled in history. But we
may ask, if the Magyar has thus changed the form of his head, why
lave not his habits and mode of life changed accordingly ? Why,
ifter a residence of nearly one thousand years in Hungary, does he
still withhold his hand from agricultural pursuits, and, depending
For his support upon his herds, leave to the aboriginal Slovack popu-
lation the task of cultivating the soil ? Why does he jealously pre-
serve his own language, and, though professing the same religion,
refuse to intermingle with his Slavonian neighbors ? Can it be that
the language, manners, and customs of a people are more durable
than the hardest parts of their organism — the bony skeleton ? If
the reader will consult the able essay of Gerando, upon the origin
of the Hungarians,^ he will find a simple explanation of these appa-
rent difficulties. It is there shown by powerful philological argu-
ments, and upon the authority of Greek and Arabian historians and
Hungarian annalists, that the Magyars are a remnant of the warlike
Huns, who in the fourth century spread such terror through Europe.
Now^, the Huns were by no means a pure Mongolic race, but, on the
contrary, an exceedingly mixed people. In the veins of the so-called
White Hufiiy who formed a portion of Attila's heterogeneous horde,
Germanic blood flowed freely. " In the whole of the high region
west of the Caspian,** says Hamilton Smith, "to the Euxine and
eastern coast of the Mediterranean as far as the Hellespont, it is
difficult, if not impossible, to separate distinctly the Finnic from the
pure Germanic and Celtic nations.** •* Humboldt, in the Ane Centrales
alludes to the Ehirghiz-E^asakes as a mixed race, and tells us that, in
569, Zemarch, the ambassador of Justinian H., received from the
Turkish chief Dithouboul a present of a Ehirghiz concubine who
was partly white. De Gobineau considers the Hungarians to be
White Huns of Germanic origin, and attributes to a slight intermix-
ture with the Mongolian stock their somewhat angular and bony
facial conformation.^
* Eani Historique snr rOrigine des Hongroit. Par A. De G^randa PMns, 1844. Ste
also HamilUwi Bmith't Nat Hkt of Haman Species, pp. 828, 826.
« Op. aL, p. 826. » Op. oit, p. 228.
N.
246 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
The facts attesting the pertinacity with which the distinguishing
physical characters of the diflferent races of men maintain themselves
through long periods of time, and under very varying conditionB, are
as numerous as they are striking. The Arabian type of men, as
seen to-day upon the burning plains of Arabia, or in the fertile
regions of Malabar, Coromandel, and the islands of the Indian Ocean,
is identical with the representations upon the Egyptian monuments,
where, also, we find figures of tfie prognatlious Negro head, differing
not a whit from that type as it now exists. From their original home
in Palestine, the Jews have been scattered abroad through countries
differing most widely in climatic and geographical features,^ and, i
many instances, have departed from their primitive habits of life, yet^^ f
under every sky, and in every latitude, they can be singled out fron^rzi
amidst other human types. In the streets of San Francisco or Lon— —
don, on the arid wastes of Arabia, and beneath a cloudless Italian^
sky, the pure unmixed Jew presents us with the same fSetcial lineiu^
ments, and the same configuration of skull. ^' J'ai eu occasion,* *
writes GoBiNEAU, ^^ d'examiner un homme appartenant k cette der.
ni^re categoric (Polish Jews). La coupe de son visage traliissait
parfaitement son origine. Ses yeux surtout 6taient inoubliables.
Cet habitant du Nord, dont les ancStres directs vivaient, depuis
plusieurs generations, dans la neige, semblait avoir ^tk bruni, de la
veille, par les rayons du soleil Syrien." The Zingarri or Gypsies
eveiywhere preserve their peculiar oriental physiognomy, although,
according to Borrow, there is scarcely a part of the habitable world
where they are not to be found ; their tents being alike pitched on
the heaths of Brazil, and the ridges of the Himalayan hills ; and
their language heard at Moscow and Madrid, in the streets of London
and Stamboul. Wherever they are found, their manners and cus-
toms are virtually the same, though somewhat modified by circum-
stances ; the language they speak amongst themselves, and of which
they are particularly anxious to keep others in ignorance, is in all
countries one and the same, but has been subjected more or less to
modification; their countenances exhibit a decided family resem-
blance, but are darker or fairer, according to the temperature of the
climate, but invariably darker, at least in Europe, than the natives
of the countries in which they dwell, for example, England and
** We find them scattered along the entire African Coast^ fh>m Morocco to Egjpt^ and
appearing in other parts of this continent, nambering, according to Weimar, some 604,000
souls. In Mesopotamia and Assyria, Asiatic Turkey, Arabia, Hindostan, China, Tarkistan,
the Prorince of Iran ; in Russia, Poland, European Turkey, Germany, Pmaaa, Netherlmda,
France, Italy, Great Britain, and America, they are numbered by thousands.
^e
OP THE RACES OF MEN. 247
T^nssia, Germany and Spain.*' The physical characters of the present
^V«yrian nations identify them with those who anciently occupied
the same geographical area, and who are figured on the monuments
of PersepoliSy and the bas-reliefs of Khorsabad.
** Notwithstanding the mixtures of race during two centuries," says Dr. Pickkrino, '* no
one has remarked a tendency to a deTelopment of a new race in the United States. In
Arabia, where the mixtures are more complicated, and haTe been going on from time imme-
norial, the renult does not appear to haTe been different On the Egyptian monuments, I
was unable to detect any change in the races of the human family. Neither does written
history afford eridence of the extinction of one physical race of men, or of the development
of another preriously unknown."**
The population of Spain, like that of France, consists of several
races ethnically distinct from each other. From these different strata,
so to speak, of the Spanish people, have been derived the inhabitants
of Central and South America. Of these settlers in the New World,
Humboldt thus speaks :
^'Tlie Andalusians and Carrarians of Venezuela, the Mountaineers and Biscayans of
Mezieo, the Catalonians of Buenos Ayres, eyince considerable differences in their aptitude for
agriculture, for the mechanical arts, for commerce, and for all objects connected with intel-
lectual development. Each of these races has preserred in the New as in the Old World,
the shades that constitute its national physiognomy ; its asperity or mildness of character ;
its freedom from sordid feelings, or its excessiTe Iotc of gain ; its social hospitality, or its
taste for solitude. .... In the inhabitants of Caraccas, Santa F4, Quito, and Buenos
Ayres, we still recognise the features that belong to the race of the first settlers." ^
A remarkable instance of this permanence of physical character is
shown in the Maragatos or Moorish Goths, whom, Borrow informs
us, are perhaps the most singular caste to be found amongst the
chequered population of Spain.
"They haTe," says he, << their own peculiar customs and dress, and newer intermarry
with the Spaniards There can be little doubt that they are a remnant of those
Goths who sided with the Moors on their invasion of Spain It is erident that their
blood has at no time mingled with that of the wild children of the desert; for scarcely
amongst the hills of Norway would you find figures and faces more essentially Gothic than
those of the Maragatos. They are strong athletic men, but loutish and heary, and their
features, though for the most part well formed, are yacant and dcToid of expression. They
are dow and plain of speech, and those eloquent and ima^natiye sallies, so common in the
coBTsrsation of other Spaniards, seldom or never escape them; they haye, moreoyer, a
coarse, thick pronunciation, and when you hear them speak, you almost imagine that it is
sooM German or English peasant attempting to express himself in the language of the
Peninsula. "M* True to their Gothic character, they have managed to monopolixe almost
tiie entira sstsmerse of one-half of Spain. They thus accumulate great wealth, and are
modi better fbd than the parsimonious Spaniard. like men of a more northern clime, they
are fond of spirituous liquors and rich meats.
* The SBneall ; or, An Aocount of the Gypsies of Spain. By Geo. Borrow. New Tork,
1861, p. a
■ Baees of Men. U. 8. Exploring Expedition, yol. IX.,1848, p. 846.
• Personal Narratiye. » Bible in Spain, Chap. XXTH.
248 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
In another place, Borrow tells us that in the heart of Spain, hi
came across two villages — ^Villa Seca and Vargas — the respective
inhabitants of which entertained for each other a deeply-rooted ho6
tility — rarely speaking when they met, and never intermarrying
The people of Vargas — according to tradition, " Old Christians,"—
are light and fair; those of Villa Seca— of Moorish origin — are pai
ticularly dark complcxioned.^^^ Many examples similar to this cai
be pointed out, where a mountain ridge, a valley, or a narrow strean
forms the only dividing line between races who differ from each othe
in language, religion, customs, physical and mental qualities, &<
This is particularly seen, according to Hamilton Smith, in the Nee]
gherries, the Crimea, the Carpathians, the Pyrenees, the Alps, th
Atlas, and even in the group of Northern South America.^**
"The Vincentine district,*' Bays a writer in the Edinburgh JStview, ''is, as ererj ea
knows, and has been for ages, an integral part of the Venetian dominions, professing tb(
same religion, and goyemed by the same laws, as the other continental proTinoes of Veniee
yet the English character is not more different from the French, than that of the VinoeDtiB<
fVom the Paduan ; while the contrast between the Vincentine and hia other neighbor, thi
Veronese, is hardly less remarkable." "•
In a letter, dated United States Steamer John Hancock, Paget
Sound, July 1st, 1856, and recently received from my friend anc
former school-mate. Dr. T. J. Turner, U.S.N., I find the following
paragraph, which bears upon the subject under consideration : " Oi
each side of the Straits of Juan de Fuca live very diflerent tribes
and although the Straits are, on an average, about sixty miles wide
yet they are crossed and re-crossed again and again by canoes, an(
no admixtures of the varieties (races?) has taken place."
Among other instances of the persistence of human cranial forms
Dr. NoTT figures, in Types of Mankind, two heads — an ancien
Asiatic (probably a mountaineer of the Taurus chain), and a moden
Kurd — which strongly resemble each other, though separated per
haps by centuries of time. A still better example of this perma
nence of type, and one which involves several peculiar and nove
reflections as to the relation of the Scyth® to the modern Snomi oi
Finns, and through these latter to the Caucasian, or Indo-Germani<
forms in general, is found in the fact that the skull of a Tchude
•* taken from one of the verj' ancient burial-places which are founc
near the workings of old mines in the mountainous parts of Siberia,'
Mud figured by Blumenbach, is exactly represented in Morton's col
lection by several modern Finnic heads.
Mtt Op. cit, chap. XLIIL "« Op. cit, p. 174. * w |Jo. S4, p. 46fil
0? THE BACES OF MEN. 249
*'PlerMqae nationes peouliare quid in eapitiB fonna iibi Tindioare eon-
Stat" — ViBALius, De Corpor. Human, Fab.
** Of an the peouliarities in the form of the bony fabric, those of the droll
are the most striking and distinguishing. It is in the head that we find the
Tarieties most strongly characteristic of different races."
PBiCHAao, Researehetf L 276.
of the most difficult problems in the whole range of cranio-
^co'pyy is ft systematic and accurate classification of cranial forms.
The fewer the groups attempted to be made, the greater the diffi-
culty ; since the gradation from one group to another is so insensible,
aa already intimated, that it is exceedingly perplexing to draw sharp
and exact lines of demarcation between them. A moment's reflection
will show that a comprehensive group must necessarily embrace many
skixlls which, though possessing in common certain features by which
they are distinguished from those of other groups, will diffijr from
eaclx other, nevertheless, in as many minor but none the less pecu-
liar oharacters. The difficulty is increased by the utter impossibility
of pronouncing positively whether the varieties thus observed are
coeval in point of time, as the " original diversity" doctrine main-
tsdrua ; whether they are simply so many " developments" the one
froin. the other, as the advocates of the Lamarldan system aver ; or,
finally, whether, as the supporters of the "unity" dogma contend,
they are all simple modifications of one primary type or specific
form. Again, as each group or family of man consists of a number
of i-aces, and these, in turn, are made up of varieties and sub-varieties,
in some instances almost innumerable, it will be evident that a true
cJa.seification can only result from the careful study of a collection of
crania so vast as to contain not only many individual representations
of -these races, varieties, &c., but also specimens illustrative of both
tiici naturally divergent and hybrid forms. And here another obstacle
pr^ieents itself. As a tj^pe is the ideal embodiment of a series of allied
«cts, and as the perfection of this type depends upon the number
'the objects upon which it is based, the very necessity of a large
''^xnber renders it no easy matter to determine what is typical and
is not; or, in other words, what are the respective values of the
erent characters presented by a skull.
i has not yet been determined how fer the physical identity of the
-^ *^ ^3ividuals composing a nation is a proof of purity of race and the
*^<^Tnogeneity. of the nation. Neither is the law demonstrated, in
ience to which individual dissimilarities are produced by intei
250 THE CBANIAL CHARACTERISTICS ^
mixtures of allied races. The first effect of such intermixture ib to
disorder the homogeneity of type by the introduction of divergci^^
forms. K the influx of the foreign element is suddenly arrested^
these abnormal or accidental forms are absorbed into the primal^
type. If the introduction is continued over a long period, the homO^
geneous aspect of the nation is destroyed, and the physical character^
of the primary stock, together with those of the disturbing elements
disappear, as the fusion proceeds to give rise to a hybrid race blend^^
ing the characters of both, and assuming a homogeneousness of itE^
own, which, if the fusion were perfect, would very likely lead to the
supposition of its being a pure form, especially if the history of these
changes was not made known. A cranioscopist having the skulls of
such a people in his cabinet, together with specimens of those of the
primary stocks from which it sprung, could easily assign it a place
in classification, between the other two, but would be puzzled not a
little to determine whether it was a primary or secondary form, a
pure race or not. A resort to history would here be necessary, just
as it is with the naturalist. As the latter, by studying the anatomi-
cal peculiarities of an animal in conjunction with its history, esta-
blishes its primordial character and durability, so the ethnographer,
ascertaining the osteologic differentiss of the races of men, and con-
trasting them with the records of remote, historic times, is enabled
to point out the durability of certain types through all the vicissi-
tudes of time and place. In this way, alone, can he discriminate|||
primary typical forms from secondary or hybrid — a pure race fix)m
a mixed breed.
The thoroughness of the fusion, and the time required to effect it,
will depend very much upon the degree of difference between the
parent stocks, and upon the relative numbers which are brought
into contact. The more closely allied the groups, the more likely
are they to fuse completely; the more widely separated, the less
likelihood is there of a perfect intermixture.
** The amalgamation of races, there are strong reasons for belieTing, depends chiefly on
their original proximity — their likeness from the beginning. Where races are remote, their
hybrid products are weak, infertile, short-liyed, prone to disease, and perishable. Wbe?e
they are primitively nearer in resemblance, there is still an inherent law operating and
controlling their intermixture* by which the predominant blood OTeroomes that which is in
minor proportion, and causes the offspring ultimately to revert to that side firom which it
was chiefly dcriTed. As it is only where the resemblance of races is moet intimate that
moral antagonisms can be largely overcome, so it is in these cases alone that we may expect
to meet with the physical attraction productive of perfect amalgamation ; natnre, probatlj,
still, at times, evincing her unsubdued resistance by the occurrence of families bearing tht
impress of one or the other of their original progenitors. "i<^
iM Crania Britannica, p. 8.
OF THE RACES OP MEN. 251
The aboriginal tribes of Australia are among the lowest specimens
of humanity — the forthest removed from the European. Now, ac-
cording to Strzelecld, the women of these tribes are incapacitated
from reproducing with males of their own race, after they have once
been impregnated by a European.*** Dr. Thompson, however, ex-
presses his doubt of this statement^ and denies its truth with regard
to the New Zealand women.**
** n est remarquable que, qaoiqn'iin gr&nd nombre d'Europ^ens habitent maintenaDt dans
les mftmes oontr^es que les Andam^nes, on ne mentionne pas encore Texistence d'hybrides
r^snltaiit de leor union. Cette oirconstance est peut-dtre due k ce que la difference entre
dttnz extrfoiiti^ de la s^rie humaine rend plus difficile la procreation des bybrides."!^
Here, then, are the elements of a theory, or rather the indications
of an unknown physiological law, whose importance is self-evident,
and whose elucidation connects itself with an allied series of pheno-
mena. I allude to the instances in which the progeny of the female
by a second husband resemble the first husband in physical appear-
«ice, temperament, constitutional disease, &c.
From the above remarks, it will be readily inferred that every
additional foreign element introduced into a nation will only serve
^o render a thorough ftision more and more difficult Indeed, an
^^nost incalculable time would be required to bring the blending
^^ks into equilibrium, and thus cause to disappear the innumerable
"ybrid forms or pseudo-types. As long as the blood of one citizen
^f «uch a nation differed in the degree of its mixture from that of
f Mother, diverse and probably long-forgotten forms would crop out
^ the most unaccountable manner, as indications of the past, and
^^^stacles to the assumption of that perfectly homogeneous character
'^liich belongs to the pure stocks alone. To be assured of the truth
^^ these propositions, we have but to examine with care the popula-
~^n of any large commercial city, as London, Constantinople, Cadiz,
^^w York, &c.
I^ now, it be true, as Count de Qobineau maintains, in his philo-
sophical inquiry into the Cause of National Degeneracy, that a nation
^Xvea and flourishes only so long as the progressive and leading eth-
nical element or principle, upon which it is based, is preserved in a
^gOTOUS state, and that the exhaustion of this principle is invariably
Vcompanied with political death, then should the American states-
inan tarn aside from the vapid and mischievous party-questions of
the day — qnestiona whose very littleness should permit them to pass
I* Phjiiai] Description of New Soath Wales and Van Diemen's Land, London, 1846.
>■ British sad Foreign Medioo-Chirnrgica] Beriew for April, 1855.
■* Des Baees Hnmaines, on Elto^nts d*£thnographie. Par J. J. IVOmafins D*Halloj.
Firis, 1846^ p. 186.
252 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
unheeded — and earnestly compare the historical phases of onr youth-
ful Republic with those of the fallen Greek and Roman empires, and
the abeady enfeebled English Commonwealth, that he may learn
those unalterable laws of political reproduction, evolution, and decay,
and thus, forewarned, provide intelligently for the amelioration of
that disease whose seeds were planted when the Declaration of hide-
pendence was proclaimed, and whose deadly influences threaten,
sooner or later, like the Lianes of a tropical forest^ to suffocate the
national tree over which they are silently spreading.
Though war and slavery, those powerful agents in amalgamation,
have been going on, without interruption, from the earliest recorded
history of our race down to the present moment, yet certain primary
types have maintained themselves, amidst eveiy conflict, and under
the most destructive influences, as vestiges or wrecks of the remotest
times, and in virtue of a certain inherent and mutual antipathy, as
old as the oldest varieties of our race. The instability of human
hybrids is as remarkable as the permanency of the pure stocks. The
area of the hybrid forms is in all cases limited, and their existence
devoid of a self-sustaining power. Where the mixed races are sub-
jected to a modifled climatic influence, they for a while appear to
maintain themselves, and even extend their locality beyond their
primary centres of creation ; but, sooner or later, they disappear,
either tiirough extermination, or absorption by the purer races, or in
consequence of a mysterious degradation of vital energy. Neverthe-
less, long after their obliteration, they leave their impress upon the
conquering and exterminating races, in the shape of modifications
of the skull, stature, habits, intellectual conditions, &c. In this in-
stability, this inherent tendency to decay, we discover the great check
to the assumption by the hybrid types of that homogeneity which, in
all probability, once characterized the primeval groups of man.
" As it is with individual life, so families, tribes, and nations, most likely eren raecs,
pass away. In debatable regions, their tenure is only provisional, until the typical form
appears, when they are extinguished, or found to abandon all open territorieSy not positively
assigned them by nature, to make room for those to whom they are genial. This effect ii
itself a criterion of an abnormal origin ; for a parent stock, a typical form of the preMot
genus or species, perhaps with the sole exception of the now extinct Flatheads, is, we bt-
lieve, indestructible and ineffaceable. No change of food or oiroamstances Cftn swcqp *wtj
the tropical, woolly-haired man ; no event, short of a general cataclyeiSy can transftf hit
centre of existence to another ; nor can any known cause dislodge the beardless type from
the primeval high North-Eastem region of Asia and its icy shores. The white or bearded
form, particularly that section which has little or no admixture, and is therefore quite f^r,
can only live, not thrive, in the two extremes of temperature. It exists in them solely at
a master race, and must be maintained therein by foreign inffneBoes ; and tha intenmediatt
regions, as we have seen, were in part yielded to the M ongoUo on cm M% and bui tMipe-
OF THK RACKS OF MEN. 253
nrily o!>tained, by extennination firom the wooUy-haired, on the other." ^ Hybrid fomui
MDDot be regarded aa charaoteristio of a new race ; amidst all the eonfusion of blood, ** we
)ook in Tain for a new race. Nature asserts her dominion on all hands in a deterioration
•ad degradation, the fisktal and depopulating consequences of which it is appalling to con-
ttmplate.'*^*
To the cranioscopist, the most interesting point, perhaps, in this
whole inquiry, is the determination of the particular influence exerted
by each parent stock upon the formation of the hybrid cranium.
So much obscurity surrounds this question, however, and the facts
concerning it are so scanty and conflicting, that I am compelled to
forego its discussion in this place, and refer the reader to the writings
of Walkbr {Intermarriage ; or^ Beauty ^ Healthy and Intellect) ; Combk
{The Conetitution of Man)) Blaine {OxUlines of the Veterinary Art)\
Edwabds {pe% Caractires J^hysiologiques dee Races Sumaines); Haryet
{Monthly Journal of Medical Science^ Aug. 1854) ; Bi^RARD {Cours de
Phytiologie) ; and particularly, Lucas {Traiti Philosophique et Physio-
logique de VHiriditi Naturelle).
Ab already intimated, the attempted classifications of the human
fistmily are as numerous as they are various. Those based upon the
form of the skull are perhaps the most reliable, since the skull is
intimately connected with the intellectual organs, and resists, in a
remarkable manner, the altering influences of climate. Among
others, the most simple, though in some respects objectionable, is that
of Prof. Ektzius, who, in an essay upon the cranial forms of Northern
Europe,'"* divides all heads into Long {Dolichocephalce) and Short
{Brachycephalm). Each of these he again subdivides into Straight-
Jaws {Orthognathoe) and Prominent>Jaws {Prognathai). The races
comprised in each of these divisions are seen in the accompanying
scheme.
Y^^^ hftftda / Straight jaws 1 Celtic and Germanic tribes.
^ \ Prominent jaws j Negroes, Australians, Oceanians, Caribs, Greenlanders, &o.
g-. heada / Straight jaws > Laplanders, Finns, Sclayes, Turks, Persians, &c.
\Proininentjaw8/ Tartars, Mongolians, Malays, Inoas, Papuas, &o.
Prof. Zettkb, after animadverting upon what he calls the " one-sided
polarity" of this classification, adopts three main forms or types of
skull for the Eastern, and three corresponding types for the Western
hemisphere, thus dividing mankind into six races, as is shown in the
subjoined table : "^
■* Hamilton Smith, op. cit, p. 176.
■• DaTis, Gran. Brit, p. 7.
t* Ueber die Sch&delformen der Nordbewohner. — Mailer's Arohiyes, 1S45, p. 84.
>n th>er8eh2delbildung, pp. 19, 20.
254 THE CRAKIAL CH AR ACTEBISTIG8
I
North,
New World. Old World.
L High Skull.
4. Apalftchian, I 1. Caneaaian,
or Natchez Race. I or Iran Baoei
XL Broad Skull.
6. Gnianian, I 2. Mongolian,
or Carib Race. I or Tnran Race.
r
IIL Long Skull.
6. Pemyian, I 8. Ethiopian,
or Inca Race. | or Sndan Race.
South,
A serious objection to this division exists in the fact that the so-
called high skulls, in many important features, differ as much fiom
each other, as they do from the hroad and long skulls, and tlus is
equally predicable of each of these last two varieties, as compared
with the first. Moreover, the requirements of science discounte-
nance all attempts at the indiscriminate arrangement of artificially
deformed with natural skulls. Prichard divides all skulls into
1. The symmetrical or oval form, which is that of the European and
Western Asiatic nations ; 2. The narrow and elongated or progna-
thous skull, of which the most strongly marked specimen is perhaps
the cranium of the Negro of the Gold Coast; 8. The broad and
square-faced or pyramidal skull, which is that particularly of the
Turanian nation.^"
Want of space, alone, prevents reference to other systems. How-
ever, regarding nature as an harmonious and indivisible whole, and
believing with the venerable Humboldt, that it is impossible to
recognize any typical sharpness of definition between the races;'"
and with the eminent German physiologist, Johannes Muller, that
it is incontestably more desirable to contrast the races by their conr
stant and extreme fonns ; "* and finally, inclining to the opinion so
ably argued by Gerard,"* and entertained by Knox,"® and others,
11* Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. London, 1836. YoL L p. 281.
^^ Cosmos : A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Uniyerse. By Alexander Yob
Hinnboldt. Translated from the German by E. C. 0tt4. New York, 1860. VoL L p. 86SL
1'* Handbuch der Physiologie dos Menschen. Bd. II., s. 776.
uft Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire Naturelle. Dirig^ par M. Ghas. d'Orblgnj. All
Esp^ce, par Gerard ; t. 6^me.
^< '*In time there is probably no sncb thing as species; no absolutely new creatioBi
ever took place ; but as viewed by the limited mind of man, the question takes aao^ff
aspect. As regards his individnal existence, time is a short span; a few oentoriw, era
tew thousand years, more or less ; this is all he can grasp. Now, for that period at lesft,
organic forms seem not to have changed. So far back as history goes, tha apeeiea of ani-
OF THE RACES OF HEN. 255
tiat species occupy no absolutely permanent place in nature's method,
nd tiiat all specific distinctions are, therefore, fallacious — I have
leemed it more judicious, in the present state of our science, to
avoid any similar attempt at a classification, preferring to lay before
the general reader a panoramic view of a few of the almost innu-
merable cranial forms which the traveller meets with in making a
tour of the surface of the earth. But, in order to avoid miscon-
ceptions, a few preliminary remarks will be necessary before pro-
ceeding with our proposed survey. If, to facilitate our progress, we
divide the earth's surface into several regions or realms, the limits
of each being determined by the geographical distribution of its
peculiar organic forms, and represent each by a cranial form selected
from among its most numerous and apparently indigenous inhabi-
tants, we will obtain a series of typical or standard figures, similar to
those constituting the second column of the extensive "Ethnogi'aphic
Tableau" accompanying this work. With one exception, the crania
figured in the tableau are contained in the Mortonian collection.
Taken by means of the camera lucida, in the hands of the accom-
plished Mrs. Gliddon, I can vouch for the general accuracy of the
drawings, and their truthfulness to nature. The exception alluded
to is a drawing of Schiller's skull (C), borrowed from the cranioscopic
atlas of Cams. Forced by the arrangement of the Tableau to repre-
sent the entire European area by two crania instead of many, I
have selected the above figure because it embraces both Gothic
and Sclavonic characters, and may be taken therefore as a standard
for Central and Eastern Europe in general ; while the more elongated
Circassian skull (D) may be regarded as a not inappropriate repre-
sentative of Southern and South-eastern Europe. Now it is quite
evident that all attempts at representing the skull-forms of the
numerous races of men by a few figures (as in the Tableau), must
necessarily be imperfect, and consequently open to criticism. I wish
the reader, therefore, distinctly to understand that the skulls figured
in the Tableau are merely so many examples, each of a cranial type,
more or less numerously represented, and prevailing over a greater
or less extent of the particular geographical area to which it belongs.
Each figure represents not the whole realm in which it is placed,
but one only of the characteristic forms of that realm. The Negro
head (E), for example, is not the standard of the entire African con-
tinent, but a peculiar form found there, and nowhere else. To
represent the whole of this continent, many heads would be required.
■wis, M we oftll them, hare not changed ; the races of men haye been absolntelj the •^'^%
Tbej were distinet then for that period as at present." — Raca of Meiij p. 84.
256 THE CRANIAL 0 H A R ACTERI STIOS
This is true of all the other reahns. With each of the nine figat«*
(except that from Carus) the, fecial angle and internal capacity hB!^^
been given. The reader will observe, and perhaps with surpri^*
that the Eskimo and Kalmuck heads have the largest intero^*^
capacity, larger even than the European skulls; while the K^^'
muck possesses also the highest fSe^ial angle. Let him not l>^
misled, however, by this accidental fact. For these measnremei
in this instance express individual peculiarities, rather than
characters. Moreover, the heads in question have been selected
entirely with reference to their external osteological character^*
The facial angles given by Morton in his Catalogue should not
be relied upon too implicitly, since they have been taken by meao^
of an instrument which, in different, but equally careful handBy
yields different results for the same head. To measure the faci^
angle with unerring mathematical precision, an accurate photo-
graphic outline of the head in a lateral view should be first al>-
tained ; upon this figure the facial and horizontal lines of Campei"
should next be drawn, and the angle then measured with a finely
graduated protractor. To avoid any further allusion to the crani^
capacity of the different races of men, I here subjoin the two fal-
lowing tables, taken from my manuscript copy of tke fourth editiai^
of Morton's Catalogue. Table L has been enlarged from that giveo
on page viii. of the third edition, by the interpolation of forty measure-
ments, with the effect of increasing the mean cranial capacity of the
Teutonic Family, the Mongolian and American Groups by 1.5, 5,
and 1.3 cubic inches respectively; and slightly diminishing thar*
of the Negro Group. Table IL has been constructed from th.e
measurements recorded in different parts of the Catalogue.
(The letters "L C." mean internal capacity.)
OF THE RACES OF HEN.
257
'. —- Showing the Sise of the Brain m cubic inches, as obtained from the internal mea-
furement 0/668 Crania of various Races and Families of Man,
AGES AND FAMILIES.
IvciKNT Caucasian Group.
Pelasgic Family,
Qneco-Egyptlans ,
Nilotic Family,
Egyptians
Mongolian Gboup.
Family „
orean Family
Malay Group.
n Family
nan Family
Amirtoan Group.
ToUecan Family,
ins
ns.
Barbarous Tribee,
ee
n€,kc
Negro Group.
in-bom Negroes
African Family
oi Family
Alforian Family
liAns
B Negroes ^
i?
NO. 0? LARGEST
SKULLS. I. 0.
ODKRN Caucasian Group.
Teutonic Family.
«}
LmAriminfl
iins
[rish
Tehudie Family,
Celtic Family,
••••■••V. »•.•■.■••••••••• •••••• •••*■•
Pelasgic Family.
ans
ians
Semitic Family.
Nilotic Family,
Indostanic Family,
see a
}
11
16
6
7
9
6
10
8
18
8
25
18
56
10
8
20
5
152
25
164
12
64
8
8
o
108.25
114
105
97
112.5
97
94
98
96
91
90
SMALLEST
I. 0.
97
96
98
102
97
90.5
101
92
104
86
99
88
88
77
65
70
91
82
81.5
78
75
84
66
79
67
MEAN.
78
68
70
78.75
68
82
58
67
69
78
65
68
68
76
98
95
96
90
94.8
87
84
89
79
86
78
1
MBAN.
98.5
87
80
85
89
86
84.8
}
81.7
75.3
81.7
84
80.8
83.7
75.3
75
76.5
87
85
1^80.8
1
82.26
THE CBANIAL C H AB ACTEBISTICS
TABLE II.
AmstCAN OxAXiA,
Babbabois Tbibea.
AV ofSkulU
nea,uTcd.
Mtan
I.e.
ToLnoAH RjLOi.
No. B/Bhaii
mtatuni.
JTm
LC.
AW(* .ineriMn..
PiTUtiatt Familf.
Aricluireea
8 ...
76
Clienoulia
Orejton Tribes
Cliwokeea
Chcllmaohes
Cliippowajfl
4 ...
5 ...
1 ...
2 ...
2 ...
79
82
88.7
70.5
91
74
TU
BduoelUnwNUL
Cotormy
S ...
86
Creeks
4 ...
88.7
no
MtxteanFamOif.
HurODS
Iroquoia
81.5
90
79.5
RftH
4 ...
Olumbft _
. — 8
KL6
Olomie.
Menominees
Mismia
84
80
K<
6 ...
Pamas
...... 3
79.i
Mobnwko
84
81
10 ...
a
810
OangB
OWdb
2 ...
S ...
82.5
65.6
Ottnwns
4
81.7
Oltigamies
74.5
I'Biiobaoot
eo
PotlawntomiBB
Suuks
90.7
IS
84
Shawnees
Sbosiiones
80.7
Upaarookaa
2
04
or America, ci'iliied uid UTag«, *«
89
Hnd Ibat the ayerogo bus of the bnin
) ikiii!t!t»ee9
Cilifornifina
1
87
as mrasarcd in Ibe wbole Mriei of 341
'■■ ^
Bkollt), ia but BD.8 cubio mahM.
Jlound, CaTpg, V .....
27
84.8
Unasrtam, &c. )
Catlral Amirkan
1
ei
Sotilh Avttricana.
IJmLlians
3
73.6
Ch.rib
OF THE RAGES OF MEN.
259
Upon those outstretched desert wastes which skirt the Icy Sea —
the frozen tundrtu of Siberia, and the barren lands of America —
amidst the snowy islands and everiasting icebergs of the Polar Ocean
itself, the human femily presents us with a cranial form or type, to
which the learned Prichard has veiy happily applied the term pt/ra-
midaL Amongst all the Hyperboreans, whose life is one continued
struggle with a stem and rugged nature, the central and far northern
Elsldmos present us with the most strongly marked specimens of this
type. I have been induced, therefore, to select, as the standard or
:ypical representative of Arctic Man, a well-characterized Eskimo
nnnium, procured by that zealous and intrepid navigator, Dr. E. K.
Kakb, during his hrst voyage to the North, and by him kindly placed,
ilong with tiiree other specimens, in the collection of our Academy,
rhrough the kindness of Dr. 1. 1. Hayes and Dr. J. K. Kane, I have
\>een enabled to mature my studies of the pyramidal form over seven
Eskimo skulls in all, a detailed account of which I hope shortly to
l>e able to present to the ethnological public through another channel.
rhe following brief rimmi of the characteristics of an Eskimo cra-
[lium will serve as a commentary upon the accompanying figures,
Mrhich represent the front and lateral views of the head above men-
tioned (No. 1558 of the Mortonian collection). The male Eskimo
Fig. 11.
Kg. 10.
Lateral Tiew of Cranium.
Front view of same.
Eskimo.
( From Dr. Kane* 8 First Arctic Voyage. )
jkuU is large, long, narrow, pyramidal ; greatest breadth near the
')a8e ; sagittal suture prominent and keel-like, in consequence of the
mgular junction of the parietal and two halves of the fix)ntal bones;
proportion between length of head and height of face as 7 to 5 :
proportion between cranial and facial halves of the occipito-mental
diameter as 4^ to 5; attachment for the temporal muscle large,
zygomatic fossse deep and capacious ; mastoid processes thick and
2G0
THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
— A-
promincnt; glenoid cavity capacious, and adapted to condideni'r,^--^!
lateral motion of the condyles ; forehead flat and receding ; occip-^ ^^^
full and salient ; face broad and lozenge-shaped, the greatest bread ft
being just below the orbits; malar bones broad, high, and proi^^^^;
nent, the external surface looking antero-laterally ; orbits large a,^^
straight ; zygomatic arches massive and widely separated ; length of
the face one inch less than the breadth ; nasal bones flat, narrow. Had
united at an obtuse angle, sometimes lying in the same plane as the
naso-maxillary processes ; superior maxilla massive and prognathoas,
its anterior surface flat and smooth ; superior alveolar margin oval;
inferior margin of anterior nares flat, smooth, inclining forwards and -^
downwards ; inferior maxilla large, long, and triangular ; semi-lunar
notch quite shallow ; angles of the jaw flared out, and chin promi-
nent ; teetli large, and worn in such a manner as to present, m the
upper jaw, an inclination from without inwards, upwards, and late-
rally, and in the lower jaw, just the reverse ; antero-posterior diameter
of cuspids greater tlian the transverse ; configuration of the basis
cranii triangular, with the base of the triangle forward between the ^^^g^mj.^
zygomte, tlie truncated apex looking posteriorly ; breadth of haseo^
about one-half tlie length ; shape of foramen magnum an irregulair,^^^
oval ; anterior margin of foramen magnum on a line with the pos^^^^;^ -^
rior edge of the external mcati.*"
The female cranium difforH from the male in being smaller, lighter -*r^^
and presenting a smoother surface and more delicate structure. Tbrg^^'-pi '
malar bones are less massive, the face not quite so broad, and ilj\^^^
anterior surface of the superior maxilla concave rather than flat.
With very slight and insigr^
ficant variations, this type p^ .
vails along the whole Americsii^^^
coast north of the 60th parallMT laj
and from the Atlantic Occ^^-^^^
to Bhering's Straits, rang^B/}o>
through 140° of longitude,.,^ oi,
over a tract of some 3500 mi~^e^
Nor does it altogether Si. -top
here, as is shown in the acccr>n\-
panying figure of a Tchuk
skull — one of three, brough
Mr. E. M. Kern from the Isl
Arakamtchetchem, or Kay^
at Glassnappe Harbor, Lat
Fig. 12.
TciicKTCin.
(y. Pacifir Exphr. Kxp., U. S. Corvette " Vin-
eennes" under Capt. Rodgers^ U. S. iV., 185(5.)
ic,
o
1^7 From my unpublished <* Descriptions and Delineations of Skulls in the MortonlaE^
lection."
:oh
d
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 201
ty N., Long. 172° 69' W. of Greenwich — and by him kindly loaned
to me for examination and study. The above island forms part of
the western bank of Bhering's Straits. " The name of the village,*'
wiites Mr. £erk, " to which the burial-place belonged, whence the
skulls were procured, is Tergnynne In stature, the (Tchuktchi)
men are of good height, well built and active. The women are
^nerally small, well made, and have exceedingly pretty hands and
feet Their mouths are generally large ; the upper lip is full and
projecting, and the eyes long and narrow."^^
Leaving the Koriaks, and travelling southward, we next encounter
the Kamschatkans, a once numerous, though now scanty and mise-
rable race, occupying chiefly the southern portion of the peninsula
virhich bears their name. It has been observed that this people,
though presenting most of the physical characters common to the
Polar tribes, are not strictly identical with the latter, as is shown in
their moral and intellectual character. Stoller was led by their
physical traits to class them among the Mongolians, while Prichard
speaks of them as " a distinct race, divided into four tribes, who
!»carcely understand each other." *^ Dr. Morton appears to consider
them as a hybrid people. " It must be admitted," says he, " that the
Kmthem Kamskatkans, in common with the southern tribes of Tun-
isians and Ostiaks, have so long mixed with the proximate Mongol-
lartar hordes, that it is, in some measure, arbitrary to class them
Jefinitively \\Tith either family, for their characters are obviously de-
rived from both." ^* An attentive study of the cast of a Eamtskatkan
cranium (So. 725 of the Mortonian collection), and comparison with
Plate LXM. of Blumenbach's Decades^ leave little doubt in my mind
[)f a sensible departure from the pyramidal type which predominates
to the north. The cast in question was presented to Dr. Morton by
Dr. O. S. Fowler. It is long and flat, and presents quite a diflferent
proportion between the bi-temporal, longitudinal, and vertical dia-
oieters from what we find in the heads of the true Hyperboreans. The
low, flat, and smooth forehead is devoid of the keel-like formation
perceptible in the Eskimo. The carinated ridge makes its appear-
ince along the middle and posterior part of the inter-parietal suture.
rhe widest transverse diameter is near the superior edge of the tem-
poral bone ; from this point the diameter contracts both above and
oelow. Ab in the Eskimo, the occiput is frill and prominent, as is
ilflo the posterior surface of the parietal bones, which surface, in the
Elakimo, however, is flat The forehead inclines upwards and back-
us Letter to Mr. Geo. R. Gliddon, dated Wasbiogton, Oct 16tli, 1856.
»» Nat, Hist, of Man, 3d Edition, p. 223.
^* Cnnia Americana, p. 52.
26ii TUE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
wurds to a prominence in the middle of the inter-parietal snlui
from which point it is rounded off posteriorly. The face forms
broad oval ; the orbits are large, deep, and have iheir transverse ax<
at right angles with the median line of the face. The malar bone!
though large, are neither so prominent nor high as in the EskinK
They are laterally compressed, more rounded, and less flared out t- it
their inferior margin than in the Polar man. The anterior nares ai=re
flat and smooth, and the alveolar arch somewhat more promincL . it
than in the typical Eskimo, as is shown by comparing them by
norma verticalis. Upon examining the basis cranii, we observe,
once, the globular fulness of the occipital region, and an alterati<
in the general configuration of the base, as compared with that
our Arctic standard. The greatest breadth is not confined to tl:
zygomatic region, for lines drawn from the most prominent point
the zygomse to the most prominent point of the mastoid process,
either side, are parallel to each other. Did space permit, other dis
tinctions could readily be pointed out.
From this description, coupled with the foregoing statements,
will be seen that the Kamtskatkans are either a distinct people, occi
pying the gap or transitionary ground between the Polar tribes an«
the Mongols ; or, they are the hybrid results of an intermixture o:
these two great groups ; or, finally, and to this opinion I incline, the^t
constitute the greatest divergency of which the true Arctic type i^
capable. The cast above described being that of a female, and thc^
only one, moreover, to which I can obtain access, I am unable tc^
arrive at any more definite conclusion.
Of the skulls of the Yukagiri, an obscure and very little knowip.
race, dwelling to the westward of the Koriaks, Morton's collection^
unfortunately, contains not a single specimen; nor can I find draw-
ings of them in any of the many works which I have consulted.
According to Prichard, as a pure race they are now all extinct^ having
been exterminated in their w^ars with the Tchuktchi and Koriaks."'
Extending along the cheerless banks of the Lena, fix)m the borders
of the Frozen Ocean as far south as Alden, and occupying the conntiT
between the Kolyma and Yennisei, we find the Yakuts, or ^Msolated
Turks," as Latham styles them, a people who, although Btcrrounded
by Hyperboreans, contrast remarkably with the latter in language,
civilization, and physical conformation. These people constitute an
interesting study for the cranioscopist. They are described as a pas-
toral race, of industrious and accumulative habits, and manifesting
a higher degree of civilization than their ichthyophagous Tungosian
and Yukagyrian neighbors. In consonance with this higher condi-
i« Op. cit., p. 228.
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 26')
ion, the skull, as shown in Tab. XV. of the Decades, differs decidedly
rom the prevailing pyramidal form of this region. The reader wili
it once observe, upon referring to that table, the nearly square con-
:our of the head, approximating the Mongolian type, presently to be
■epresented, the large and widely separated orbits, the full and pro-
ninent glabella, the ossa nasi narrow and curving to a point above,
ind the parietal bones projecting laterally. The descriptions given
3y GmeUn and Erman of the Yakuts are, to some extent, confirma-
x)rv of the characters above indicated.
The present remarkable locality of the Yakuts is undoubtedly not
their original home. Their language is Turkish — intelligible in
Constantinople — and their traditions, unlike those of their Arctic
Qeighbors, point to the South. They afford a singular example of " a
vreak section of the human race pressed into an inhospitable climate
by a stronger one." ^ Difficulties of classification have been raised
upon certain slight physical resemblances between the Yakuts and
the surrounding tribes. These resemblances may be regarded as the
indirect results of the great Mongolic expansion, which, while it
crowded the main body of the Turkish population to the South,
allowed a small portion to escape to the North-East, in the inhospi-
table region of the Lena, where, intermarriage, to some extent, soon
followed. We may readily suppose that, in consequence of the
numerical predominance of the aboriginal inhabitants of these re-
gions over the new comers, the intermixture resulted in the latter
assuming, to a certain extent, some of the physical characters of the
former. But the language of the Yakuts, being more perfect than
that of the Indigent, has maintained its supremacy.
Upon the mountainous tract, comprised between the Yennesei
River and the Okhotsk Sea in one direction, and the Arctic Ocean
and Alden Mountains in the other, we encounter an interesting
people, represented by the Tongus in the North and the Lamutes in
the East. They possess a peculiar language, and, anterior to the
sixteenth century, appear to have been a powerful race. In his
physical description of the Tungusians, Pallas says that their faces
are flatter and broader than the Mongolian, and more allied to the
Samoiedes, who lie to the west of them.'^ In his Table XVI., Blu-
MENBACH represents the cranium of a Northern or Reindeer Tungus.
Though the characteristic breadth of face below the eyes is preserved,
and with it^ thereby, the lozenge-shaped face, yet the general form
of the head has undergone some modification. Blumenbach very
briefly describes this head in the following terms :
1^ Latham, Varieties of Man, p. 95.
** Voyages en diyeraes ProTinoes, T. 6. *
264 THE CRANIAL Cfe A B ACTB EI 8 T I C S
" The face Sat, and Tery broad betircBn the ijgomatia orehea ; the forabead itynmi,
nnd tbe dhskI openings ample: Ibe oocipnt remarkabl; prominent, ao that tb* diiluM
between the eitecnal onoipital protaberanoe aod the snperior inoiiors li eqnal to liie
inches."
The Samoiedes present as with a conformation of the craninm
approximating more closely to the Eskimo than anj of the tribes
just mentioned. They are conterminous with tbe Tongas of North-
Eastern Asia, on the one hand, and the great Tchudic or Ugrina
tribes of European Russia, on the other. Pallas says of them, "ils
ont le visage plilt, rond, et large." .... "11b ont de largea Ifewes
rfetrousees, le nez largo et ouvert, peu de barbe, et lea eheveux noin
et nides." Tooke ascribes to them " a large head, flat nose and fece,
with tlie lower part of the face projecting outwards ; they have la^
mouths aud cars, little black eyes, but wide eyelids, small lips, and
little feet."'^' "Of all the tribes of Siberia," says Lathau, "the
Samoiedes are nearest to the Eskimo or Qreenlanders in their phy-
sical appearance."'^
Blumen'bacu tells us that a Samoiede cranium in his collection,
bears a striking resemblance to the skulls
of native Greenlanders, two of which are
figured in the Decades. The resemblance
is shown in the broad, flat &ce, depressed
or flattened nose, and general ahape or
conformation of tho skull. The nasal
bones arc long and narrow. This head iB
represented in Fig. 13, reduced from Tab.
LIV. of Blumenbach's series.
Of all the Northern or Arctic races of
men, thus hastily passed in review, the
Eskimo alone appear to exhibit the pyra-
eadu Tab LIV ) midal type of cranium in its greatest in-
tensity. Viewed in conjunction with the
following statements, this apparently isolated and accidental foct
acquires a remarkable significance. — On the shores of Greenland and
tlie banks of Hudson's Straits, along the Polar coast^line of America,
and over the frozen tundras of Arctic Asia, on the desolate banks of
the Lena and Indigirka, and among the deserted Isles of New Siberia
— visited only at long intervals by the daring traders in fossil ivory
— everywhere, in fact, throughout the Polar Arch, are found the
same primitive graves and rude circles of stones, the same stone axes
and fragments of whalebone rafters — the ancient and mysterioos
■" RiiHEiia, III., p. 12, quoted in Crania AmnioaDa, p. 61.
i» Varieties of Mfin, p. 267.
OP THE RACES OF MEN. 265
Testiges of a people presenting, in general, the same physical charac-
ters, speaking dialects radically the same, and diftering but little in
manners and customs — a people once numerous, but now gradually
hastening on to extinction. Arctic navigators speak of the diminish-
ing numbers of the Eskimo, and Siberian hunters tell of the disap-
pearance of entire tribes, such as the Omoki, " whose hearths were
once more numerous on the banks of the Lena than the stars of an
Arctic night.*' The earlier whalers who dared the northern waters
of Baffin*8 Bay, often allude to the groat numbers of the natives
seen on the land in this region, and from the recent intrepid seekers
of the ill-fated Sir John Franklin, we learn that the traces of these
people increase in numbers with the latitude. Thus, according to
OsBOBN, the northern shores of Barrow's Strait and Lancaster Sound
bear numerous marks of human location, whereas, upon the southern
side, they are comparatively scarce. He tells us, also, that from the
estuary of the Coppermine to the Great Fish River, the Eskimo
traces are less numerous than on the . north shore of Barrow's
Strait."^ Again, the traditions of the Eskimo point to the north
as their original home. Erasmus York spoke of his mother as
having dwelt in the north ; while the inhabitants of Boothia told
Ross that their fathers fished in northern waters, and described to
him, with considerable accuracy, the shores of North Somerset.
When Sacheuse told the natives of Prince Regent's Bay, that he
came from a distant region to the south, they answered " That can-
not be ; there is nothing but ice there." ^^ So, the natives of North
Baffin's Bay were ignorant of the existence of numerous individuals
of their own race, living to the south of Melville's Bay. According
to Egede and Crantz, the southern Eskimo of Greenland consider
themselves of northern origin. Their traditions speak of remote
regions to the north, and of beacons and landmarks set up as guides
upon the fix)zen hills of that dreary laud. In connection with these
facts, consider for a moment the unfavorable physical conditions to
which the Eskimo is exposed. Guyot thus forcibly alludes to these
conditions :
" In the Frozen Regions," says he, ** man contends with a niggardly and serere nature ;
it is a desperate struggle for life and death. With difficulty, by force of toil, he succeeds
in proriding a miserable support, which saves him from dying of hunger and hardship,
daring the tedious winters of that climate." And again, **The man of the Polar Regions
t* the beggar, OTerwhelmed with suffering, who, too happy if he but gun his daily bread,
bus no leisure to think of anything more exalted."^*
^ Arctic Journal ; or, Eighteen Months in the Polar Regions. By Lieut S. Osbom.
^ Rnes's First Voyage to Baffin's Bay, p. 84.
» Earth and Man. By Arnold Guyot, Boston, 1860, p. 270.
266 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
In this melancholy picture, nature is seen waning with henelt.
A people forced to protect themselves against the severity of an ex-
cessive climate by the consumption of a highly carbonaceous and
stimulant diet, which, sooner or later, begets plethora and its attend-
ant hemorrhagic .tendencies, can scarcely be regarded as a normal
people, harmoniously adapted to the circumstances by which they
are surrounded. Yet such is the condition of hyperborean man.
But here a singular question presents itself. Have the Arctic tribes
of men always been subjected to the inhospitable climate which,
at the present day, characterizes the North ? Was there, in other
words, a time when they enjoyed a climate as mild as that which
surrounds their cranial analogues — the Hottentots — who roam the
plains of Kafirland in temperate Southern Africa ? To the recent
speculations of climatologists, concerning the distribution of tempe-
rature about the pole, and the probable existence of an open Polar
Sea ; to the observations of the physical geographer relative to the
gradual and progressive upheaval of the Arctic coast, and the cli-
matic changes which necessarily accompanied such alterations in the
relation of land and water ; and, finally, to the facts and theories
adduced by the geologist to account for the presence, in very high
latitudes, of fossil remains, both animal and vegetable — ^whose living
representatives thrive in tropical climates only, — ^must we look for a
solution of the above curious question, which I introduce here merely
as one of a connected series of facts and arguments which seem to
indicate that the Eskimo are an exceedingly ancient people, whose
dawn was probably ushered in by a temperate climate, but whose
dissolution now approaches, amidst eternal ice and snow ; that the
cariy migrations of these people have been from the north south-
wards, from the islands of the Polar Sea to the continent and not
from the mainland to the islands; and that the present geographical
area of the Eskimo may be regarded as a primary centre of human
distribution for the entire Polar Zone.
To this subject I hope to return, in a more detailed manner, her^
after.
We are now in Europe, upon the terra damnata, so graphically
described by Linnaeus, where the Laplander offers himself for our
inspection, as the only European who in any way represents the
Arctic tj'pe of cranium.
The exact position of the Lapps in classification, is still an open
question. Prof. Agassiz classifies them with the Eskimos and
Samoicdes.
<< Within the limit?.** says ho, <<of this (Arctic) fauna we meet a peoufiir race of men,
known in America under the name of Eskimaux, and under the names of Lapkaderi)
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 2G7
Samoiedes,' and TohukUhes in the north of Asia. This race, bo well known since the
rojage of Captain Cook, and the Arctic expeditions of England and Russia, differs alike
"rom the Indians of North America, fh)m the l^hites of Europe, and the Mongols of Asia,
;o whom they are adjacent. The uniformity of their characters along the whole range
>f the Arctic aeas forms one of the most striking resemblances which these people exhibit
» the^'i^i^uia with which they are so closely connected." i*
Prichard, relying upon philological evidence — a very unsafe
^ide when taken alone — nriaintains that the Lapps are Finns
who have acquired Mongolian features from a long residence in
N'orthem Europe.
"On connd^re souTent les Lapons," obsenres D'Hallot, <<comme appartenant k la
(amille finnoise, k cause des rapports que Ton a obserrds entre leur langne et celle des
Elnnois ; mais les caract^es naturels de oes deux races sont si difiT^rents, qu'il me semble
indispensable de les s^parer. D'un autre cdt^, tons les linguistes ne sont pas d'accord sur
Tanalogie de ces langues, et il est probable que les ressemblances se r^duisent Ik I'intro-
loetion, dans le langage des Lapons, d'un certain nombre de mots finnois; effet qui a
Brdinairement liea quand un peuple sauTage se trouye en relation avec un peuple plus
aYanc«."i»
Latham arranges them, along with Finns, Magyars, Tungus, &c.,
under the head of Turanian Mongolidse.*^^ Dr. Morton objects to
this association of Lapps and Finns, and very appropriately inquires
"how it happens that the people of Iceland, who are of the unmixed
Teutonic race, have for six hundred years inhabited their polar
region, as fiar north, indeed, as Lapland itself, without approxi-
mating in the smallest degree to the Mongolian type, or losing an
iota of their primitive Caucasian features ?" ^ Indeed, the fact that
the Lapps, at a remote period, lived in Sweden, and even as far
south as Denmark,^® in close juxtaposition with the Finns, is suffi-
cient to account for any resemblances in physical characters, which
may be detected between the two. According to Mr. Brooks, the
Laplanders and Finns "have scarcely a single trait in common.
The general physiognomy of the one is totally unlike that of the
other ; and no one who has ever seen the two, could mistake a Fin-
lander for a Laplander."^ He proceeds to state that they differ in
mental and moral characters; in the diseases to which they are
1* Sketch of the Natural ProTinces of the Animal World, and their relation to the dif-
ferent Tjpes of Han, in T^pet of Mankind^ p. Ixi.
>» Des Races Homaines, &o., p. Ill, note. 1*1 Op. cit., p. 101.
tts On the Origin of the Human Species, Typa of Mankind^ p. 822.
iM «« Us (lea Lapons) forment une petite peuplade Sparse dans la Laponie, mats U paratt
qn'ils ont M beaoooup plus d^velopp^ car on trouye dans la Qnhde et dans le Banemark
des oasements d'hommes qui se rapprochent plus des Lapons que des ScandinaTes."
jyRALLOTt cp, eiL, p. 111.
iM A Winter in Lapland and Sweden. By Arthur de Capell Brooks, M. A., &o. Lob*
don, 1827, pp. 686-7.
268 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
suBject, and, according to Prof. Retzius, even the intestinal para-
sitic worms of the two are unlike.*^ Hamilton Smith remarks tiiat
the " Finnic race repudiates in national pride all consangoinity with
the Laplander/'^ Dr. Morton considers the Lapps as unquestion-
ably Mongolian. Luke Burke, the able editor of the London Eihwh
logical Journal^ appears to adopt another view :
*'The Eskimaux, the Lapp, and the Samolde, are three entirely distinot beingg. Thej
represent each other . Thej consequently offer a host of resemblances ; bat resemblsDeeB
and affinity are often entirely distinct matters in zoology, though they are constant]; eon-
founded, even in cases of the utmost importance The Lapp is entirely Eoropetn,
possessing a quite distinct constitution from the Eskimauz and the Samolde, and being
Tery much higher than either in the human scale, though still by far the lowest portion of
the European family. The Samoide is in all respects a Mongolidsd. Indeed, he hii tite
leading traits of the family even in excess.*' ^^
A critical examination of three Laplander crania, and two castB,
contained in the collection of Dr. Morton, and a comparison of these
with a Kalmuck head and a number of Finnic skulls, convince me
that the Laplander cranium should be regarded as a sub-typical
form, occupying the transitionary place between the pyramidal
type of the true Hyperboreans on the one hand, and the globular-
headed and square-faced Mongol on the other. Just as upon the
shores of Eastern Asia, we behold the Arctic form passing through
the Kamtschatkan and the Southern Tungusian into the Central
Asiatic type, so in the western part of the great Asio-European
continent, we behold a similar transition through the Lapponic into
the Tchudic and Scandinavian types — the most northern of the
European.
It is strictly true that the skulls of the Eskimo, Laplander, and
IS* The following curious paragraph, relating to entozoal ethnology, I find in Prof. Owis't
admirable Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Invertebrate AnimaU
(2d edition, p. 67) : '* The Tcenia Solium is that which is most likely to fall nnder the notice
of the British medical practitioner. It is the common species of tapeworm deTeloped in the
intestines of the natives of Groat Britain ; and it is almost equally peculiar to the Dutch
and Germans. The Swiss and Russians are as exclusively infested by the Bothrioe^kabu
latus. In the city of Dantzig it has been remarked, that only the Tcenia Solium occurs;
while at Eonigsborg, which borders upon Russia, the Bothrioeephalus latus preyaib. The
inhabitants of the French provinces a(^oining Switzerland are occasionally infested with
both kinds of tipcworm. The natives of North Abyssinia are very subject to the TffMM
A^olium, as arc also the Hottentots of South Africa. Such facts as to the preralent species
of tapeworm in different parts of the world, if duly collected by medical traTcners, would
form a body of evidence, not only of elminthological, but of ethnological interest In the
Bothrioeephalus latus of some parts of Central Europe and of Switxeriand we may pereeift
an indication of the course of those North-Eastem hordes which oontribnted to the wb*
version of the Roman Empire ; and the Tania Solium affords perhaps analogous evidence
of the stream of population from the sources of the Nile southward to the Gape."
136 Op. cit., p. 321.
i»7 Charleston Medical Journal and Review, July 1866; pp. 446-7.
OF THE RACES OF MEN.
269
Samoiede are not identical, in the fullest sense of the word. Neither
are the localities of these people. The various portions of the so-called
Arctic realm, of Agassiz, do not accord precisely in geographical and
climatic conditions. Arctic America and Asia more closely resemble
each other than they do Arctic Europe. The same thing is true, of the
skulls, and of the organism generally, of their human inhabitants. A
Jeeply indented sea-border ; direct and positive relations to the Gulf
Stream which divides upon the Norwegian coast into two great cur-
rents, bathes and tempers the whole north-western shore, and supplies
in immense body of warm, humid air, which serves to ameliorate the
jtherwise extremely harsh and rugged climate ; a range of lofty moun-
lains running parallel with the western coast, and acting as great con-
lensers of atmospheric vapor ; — such are the physical peculiarities
tvhich give to Lapland-Europe an organic physiognomy somewhat
iiflerent fipom other sections of the Arctic realm. In this region the
tree-limit obtains its highest northern position in lat. 70°-71° ST., and
if we trace this line eastward, on a physical chart, we will find that,
ander the influence of a continental climate, it recedes towards the.
Equator, until in Kamtschatka it reaches the ocean in 68° N". latitude.
So that while in a considerable portion of Lapland we find a wooded
region, in Asia it will be observed that a large part of the country of
the Samoiedes and Tungus, and the whole of that of the Koriaks,
Yuka^rs and Tchuktchi, lie to the north of the wooded zone. Upon
the American continent, which is colder under the same parallels
than the Asiatic — in consequence of the presence of a greater quan-
tity of land in these high latitudes — the Eskimo live entirely in a
treeless region. The distribution of the bread-plants in Northern
America, Europe, and Asia, reveals to us similar irregularities. We
need not be surprised, therefore, if, in harmony with these varying
physical and organic conditions, we should
find the Lapland cranium differing more
from those of the Eskimo and Samoiede
than these two do from each other.
The skull here figured is reduced from
Tab. XLIIL of the Decades. Blumen-
BACH describes it as " large in proportion
to the stature of the body ; the form and
appearance altogether such as prevail in
the Mongolian variety ; the calvaria almost
globose; the zygomatic bones projecting
outwards ; the malar fossa, plane ; the fore-
head broad; the chin slightly prominent
Fig. 14.
^^m— ^
Laplandbb.
270 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
and acuminated ; the palatine arch level; the fiBSure in the floor of
the orbit very large."
Turning our backs upon the Frozen Ocean, and tracing to their
sources the three great rivers — the Obi, Tennisei, and Lena— which
drain the slopes of Northern Asia, we gradually exchange the region
of tundras and barren plains, for elevated steppes or table-lands, tiie
region of the reindeer and dog for that of the horse and sheep, the
region whose history is an utter blank for one which has witnessed
such extensive commotions and displacements of the great nomadic
races, who, probably, in unrecorded times, dwelt upon the central
plateaux of Asia, before these had lost their insular character. Tra-
velling thus southward, we further remark that a globular conforma-
tion of the human skull replaces the long, narrow, pyramidal type of
the Iforth.
In our attempt to exhibit a general view of the cranial forms or
types of Central Asia, I deem it best to direct attention to the region
of country which gives origin to the Yennisei, about Lake Baikal,
and in the Greater Altai chain, south of the Uriangchai or Southern
Samoiedes. For we here encounter, in the Kalkas and Mongolians
proper of the desert of Shamo, a tj'pe of head which is distinct from
that of the Hyperboreans, and to which the other great nomadic races
are related, in a greater or less degree. I have selected, as the most
fitting representative of this Asiatic type or form, the cranium of a
Kalmuck (No. 1553 of the Mortonian Collection), sent to the Aca-
demy by Mr. Cramer, of St. Petersburg, shortly after the decease of
Dr. Morton. This skull is chosen as a standard for reference, on
account of the " extent to which the Mongolian physiognomy is the
type and sample of one of the most remarkable divisions of the
human race."^^ Moreover, the Mongols possess the physical cha-
ractei*s of their race in the most eminent degree,^^ they are the most
decidedly nomadic, and their history, under the guidance of Tchengiz-
Khan and his immediate successors, constitutes a highly-important
chapter in the history of the world ; and, finally, because they occupy
the centre of a well-characterized and peculiar floral and faunal re-
gion, extending from Japan on the east to the Caspian on the west.
In the accompanying figure, the reader will observe that the cra-
nium is nearly globular, while the forehead is broad, flat, and less
receding than in the Eskimo and Kamtskatkan. Without being
>» Latham, Varieties of Man, p. 68.
*^ " It is easy,** says Pnllas, *< to distiDgnish, by the traits of physiognomy, the prineipAl
Asiatic nations, who rarely contract marriage except among their own people. There is
none in which tiiis distinction is so characterized as among the Mongols." See Plrichaid't
Nat. Uist^ of Man, p. 215.
F THE RACES OF ME^
Fig. 15.
ridged or keel-like, the medium line
vC the crsDium forma a regular arch,
the most prominent point of which
is at Uie junction of the coronal and
ea^ttal sutures. Behind and above
the meatae, the head snells out into
a^obe or sphere, instead of tapering
away postero-laterally towards the
taedian Hue, ae in tlic Eskimo cra^
uia. This appearance is altio well
eeen in tlie head figured by Blumkn-
pAcu.*" He sajB of it, " habitus to-
-tius cranii quasi inflatus et tiuuidua."
'JTie eye at once detects the striking difference between the facial
^ngle of this cranium and that of the Eskimo above figured. In the
;JAtter, the facial bones resemble a kuge wedge lying in front of the
Jr»ead proper. This appearance, it ia true, is somewhat dependent
.g::»poii the ohtuseness of the angle of the lower jaw, but mainly, as
.««iU be seen, upon the prominent chin and prognathous jaw. In the
^^iiilmack, the facial bones form a sort of oblong figure, and are by
-^0 means so prominent. The face is broad, flat, and square; the
eOperciliaiy ridges are massive and prominent; the orbits are large,
^□d directed somewhat outwards; the osaa nasi are broad and rather
£it.t^ forming an obtuse angle with each other ; the malar bones are
Iflrge, strong, protuberant, and roughly marked.
•Xbe impropriety of classifying the Eskimo, Samoiedes, &c., along
■witl the Mongols — an eiTor which pervades many of the books —
ig <?learly manifested, I think, by the above figure and description.
If -we apply the term Mongolian to the Eskimo, then we must seek
goxce other epithet for the Kalmuck. The heads of the two races
coDtraat strongly. The one is long and narrow, the fiiee very broad,
fl^t, Hnd lozenge -shaped, and decidedly prognathous ; the other ia
glotolar, swelling out posteriorly, while the face is broad, flat, and
sr^nare. On the other hand, PnicHABn has very properly observed,
that *' the Mongolian race decidedly "belongs to a variety of the human
species, which is distinguished from Europeans by the shape of the
AXoETOs'8 collection contains, also, a cast of the skull of a Bnrat
^J^oiigol,'" in which the above characters are readily distinguished.
**■ trnbW XIV. or the Daada. ■" N«t. Hist, of Man, p. 214.
'** litt Boviftts, dwelling aboiit Lsko Baikal, manifeBt more sptitnde for ciTiliialion than
•itli^K. (]jg KalmtiokB or the Mongols proper. TcLihatcbcff iarormi ua that the Biusian
" *''*'^viim«Dt employs, in frontier eerrice, seTora] rsgimeota of theau people, Tbo haT« been
272 THE CRANIAL GH A B AGTERISTIG S
These characters agree perfectly with those represented m Tab.
XXIX. of the Decades^ and in Fischer's O^teoUgieal DimrUxtm}'^
The descriptions, given by travellers, of the Mongolic physioguomy,
correspond very well with the foregoing observations upon the
cranium.
*' The Mongols and Booriats have so great a resemblanoe to them" (the Kilmiieks), nji
Pallas, '* both in their physiognomy, and in their manners and moral economy, thtt wbat-
eyer is related of one of these nations will apply as well to the others. .... The chino-
teristic traits in all the countenances of the Kalmucks, are eyes, of which the great i&^
placed obliquely and downwards towards the nose, is but little open and fleshy; eyebrovf
black, scanty, and forming a low arch \- a particular oonformatiGn of the nose, which '^
generally short, and flattened towards the forehead; the bones of the cheek high; the held
and face very round. They have also the transparent cornea of the eye Teiy brown; Up"
thick and fleshy ; the chin short ; the teeth Teiy white : they preserre them fine and sooP^
until old age. They have all enormous ears, rather detached from the head."^
Between the Caspian Sea on the west^ and the Great Altai Mona^
tains on the east, and between the parallel of Tobolsk on the nortit^y
and the head-waters of the Oxus on the south, lies a country, whos^
physical aspects are not more interesting to the geologist and th^
physical geographer, than are its human inhabitants to the ethno--^
grapher. In this region we are called upon to study an extensive
steppe, intersected with lofty mountains, among which are the feeding'
springs of many large rivers. Over this steppe, and among these
mountains, have wandered, from the remotest times, a distinct and
peculiar tj'pe of people, who have played a most important part in
the history of the world — a people who had established, centuries
ago, a vast empire in the heart of Asia, having China for its eastern,
and the Caspian Sea for its western border, and who, when pressed
towards the south-west by their nomadic neighbors, the Mongols,
in their turn fell, with devastating fiiry, upon Europe, and long held
its eastern portions in subjection. I allude to the Turkish family,
whose history would be replete with interest, even if it offered us but
the single fact, that the Turks, like the Goths of Europe and the
Barbarian Tribes of North America — races occupying, in their re-
spective countries, about the same parallels of latitude — ^were selected
at a former period, to break in upon the high, but at that time lethar-
gic, civilization of a more southern clime. "In the Yakut country
we find the most intense cold known in Asia ; in Pamer the greatest
elevation above the sea-level ; in the south of Egypt, an inter-tropical
deti:ree of heat. Yet in all these countries we find the Turk." ***
well organized and disciplined after the European system. See his Voyagt dam VAUbX
orimtalf, p. IIK).
iM Disscrtntio Osteologica de Mode quo Ossa se yicinia aocommodant Partibiis. Ladg.
lUit 1713, 4to., tib. 1.
iM Quoted from Prichard, op. cit., p. 215. >m Latham, op. dt, p. 77.
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 273
It is while studying the physical characters of this interesting
people, that the cranioscopist, in view of the little attention which
|>i8 favorite science has received, and the scanty materials, therefore,
X^y which he is guided, is forced to exclaim, in the language of St.
^^^gustine, "Mirantur homines altitudines montium, ingentes fluctus
^^^^ris, altissimos lapsus fluminum et oceani ambitum et gyros siderum
^t» relinquunt se ipsos, nee mirantur."
Much discrepancy of opinion exists with regard to the origin,
I^43mogeneity, and characteristic physical conformation of the Turkish
family. In consequence of the application of the term Tartar, their
o^-fg^in has been assigned to the tribes of Lake Bouyir, in East Mon-
g-olis^ Remusat, Klaporth, and Ritter regard them as descendants
o:f" the Hiong-lfu, who, prior to ^e Christian Era, threatened to
ov^^rrun and subjugate China with their mighty hordes. Prichard
is inclined to consider this opinion unquestionable."^ D'Omalius
I>'_IiJalloy classifies them along with the Finns and Magyars, as de-
so^xndants or representatives of the ancient Scythse.^" Latham makes
a remark which evinces a concurrence of opinion — " A large, perhaps
£t «^^^ large portion of the Scythse must have been Turk ; and if so,
xt. x^ amongst the Turks that we must look for some of the wildest
fiercest of ancient conquerors.'* On a preceding page he ob-
" Practically, I consider that the Mongoliform physiognomy
is -tJie rule with the Turk, rather than the exception, and that the
T"i:»:»'k of Turkey exhibits the exceptional character of his family." ^*^
IBbluch of this diflerence of opinion appears to result from the nota-
"bl^ fact that, in traversing the Turkish area, we encounter difterent
-ty'-j>e8 of countenance and of physical conformation generally. In
tlv^ absence of an adequate collection of crania representing the
n-CLinerous tribes composing this family — which collection would be
o€ the greatest utility in deciding this mooted point — we arc forced
to adopt, by way of explanation, one or other of the three following
suppositions : — Either the typical Mongolian of Eastern Asia passes,
by certain natural transitionary forms, — displayed by the tribes of
Turkish Asia — into the European type ; or, the Turk once possessed
a peculiar form, standing midway between that of the European and
Mongol, the intervening sub-types or forms having resulted fi'om a
double amalgamation on the part of the Turk ; or, lastly, we must
^cognise in the Mongolian form a primitive type^ which, by amal-
ffairiation with the European, has begotten the Turk. The second
^f tiiese propositions appears to me the most tenable. However, as
^^- lAIorton*8 collection contains no skulls of the Turkish tribes, I
^st Hist, of Man, p. 209. **' Des Races Humaines, p. 83.
Varieties of Man, pp. 78-9.
18
274
THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Fig. 16.
have not the nedessary data to amve at a positive conclusion as to
the existence of a primary and peculiar cranial type among the
Turks. Nevertheless, if the reader will
carefully inspect the accompanying figure
of a Turkish cranium in the Blumenba-
chian collection, and compare it with our
Kalmuck standard, I deem it highly pro-
bable that he will with me recognize for
the Turkish region a sub-typical form,
which, though closely related to the Mon-
golic, differs from it mainly in possessing
a more oval face, and a more decidedly
globular skull. Blumenbach thus de-
Turk. scribcs the head in his possession:
<*The cranium is nearly globular; tho foramen magnum is placed almost at the posterior
end of the basis cranii, so that there seems to be no occiput ; the forehead broad ; th«
glabella prominent ; the malar fosi^se gently depressed, and the proportions of the ftee,
n]>nn the whole, symmetrical and elegant. The external occipital protuberance is but fitUe
developed ; the occipital condyles Tcry large and convex; the alveolar edge of the superior
maxilla very short, so that just beneath the nose it scarcely equals in height the breadth
of tho little finger."
Judging from the accounts of travellers, it would seem that among
the most Eastern of tho Turkish races, such as the Kirghis of Bal-
kash and the irrodainia])le nomadcs of the dreary plains of Turkistan,
tlu^ Monirolio ])liysi()irnomy more especially predominates. This, it
will be rocollcctod, is the region in which the Mongols proper and
the Turks moot and overlap. The skull of a Kirghis, figured by
Blumexdacii (Tab. XI LI.) furnishes a good exemplification of the
i-rauial form of this roii:i()n. In a Don Cossack (Tab. IV.) the Mon-
u^olian tondonov is ociuallv manifest. The Yakuts of the Lena, before
dosrribod, and Uio Xojai Tartars (judging from a figure in IIamiltox
Smith's work), also bolong to this type.^'^ South of the Kirghis arc
the Tzbooks, who, aooording to Lieut. A\^ood, resemble the former,
but aro bett<*r pro[)ortio]uvl. The reader will obtain some general
idoa ot'tlio points of rosoniblance and difference between the Uzbecks
and tin ir Ka>roru oon(iiicrors, by referring to the portrait of Sjah
Mirrza, an Tzbock Tartar, in the "Ethnographic Tableau*' illus-
tratini>: Mr. (U.iddon's Chapter VI.
Tlirouiili llio skulls of the Osmanli Turks and the Tartars of the
Xasan — ospooially the latter — the Turkish head proper graduates
"» 0]). cit., plate 9, fig. 2.
OF THE BACES OF XEN.
275
Kg. 17.
to the European form. Both these tiihea are among the most
iciently civilized of the race. The
gU European forms so often seea
Qong the Osmanlis are no longer pro-
ematic. A knowledge of the hete-
'geneons additJons accepted by their
ilf^ukian ancestors, and already re-
rred to in sufficient detail, has served
5t a little to dissipate the mystery
tached to this suliject. Of the genear
'^cal impurity of the Turks I thiuk
lere can be but little doubt. Their
idiscriminate amalgamations are thus
riefly hinted at by D'Hallot :
"II pnralt," Myg he, "d'aprtf lee portreil^ d'anciens penples
uu lea htstorieaE ehinai!, qae cm penples araient originsii
4 que loQTS yeui ^tnient il'un gris Terdiitre ; mni? ces cnrBClftres se Bont perdus,
taitDt OD remirqiie qne \ea Turcs qui habitant uu iiord-<«t da Cnncrue, participent pins on
iBouil des caracttres dca Mongols, et que ceui ^tablis eu sad-aaest pr^sentent les formes
3« U mce blanche d'une manitro trfo-prononc^e, mais aTeC dee cheTeoi et des yeni noin ;
Sreoiutuieoa qni e'eipliquent par le milange ftnc les Mongols poor leS premierl, et pir
^ui iTco les Penes et lea Aram^Ena pour les sGcnnda, d'eniant plua que lea TnroB, qui
out giiiiralement poljgamcs, ont beoucoup do goill pour les femmeB fitrangferes." '*'
Quite recently, Major Alexander Cunninqham, of the Bengal
jigineers, has given ua an excellent account of the physical charac-
j-« of the Bhotiyaha, an interesting race occupying a considerable
>rtion of Thibet and the Himdlayan range of mountains.
• • He face of the BoW," enys he, "ii
^e maDlh, and niirrow rorchead. The
. -witb vida nof^trils, and with Hltlc or
I upper eyelids usually have a peculi
broad, flat, and cqaare, vith high cheek-bones,
noso 19 broad and flat, and generally mucli tamed
10 bi'idge. The eyes are Bmall and narrrow, sod
T and angular form that is especially ogly. Tha
eyos, arc seen occasionally.
)wiiward3 by tlic (cnsion of thp skin oxer the large cheek-bones;
ej-elids are therpforo not in one slrniglit line, parallel to the mouth, as is the case with
ropcans, but their lines meet in a highly obtuse nnglo pointing downnards. This gires
mppearance of obliquity to Che eyes themselves that is Tcry disngrcesblo. The oars are
minent, Tery hirge, and very tbicli ; they have also particularly iong lobes, and are
^ether about one-lialf larger than those uf Europeans. The mouth is Urge, with foil
eOTnevbat prominent lips. The liair i^ black, coar^^c, and thick, and nsu.illy straight
<;i-l!p. Bashy heads of hair are eometimes seen, but I believe that llie friiily appear^
» S.fl not due even in part to any natural tendency to curl, but solely to the tangled and
^'^ it^lomcrated matting of the hair consequent upon its ntiver having been combed or
I&«:<lfrom first to seeond childhood." "'
CTp. eit, pp. 89, 90.
X-sdik, Physical, Statistical, nnd Ilistorical, witli Nolici
»*-.n,1854, p. 296.
j of the Sarrounding Countries,
276 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
A Penjur of Lbassa is thus described by Hodgson :
'' Face moderately large, sab-OToid, widest between angles of jaws, less betvcen
cheek-bones, which are prominent, but not yeiy. Forehead rather low, and narrowing some*
what upwards ; narrowed also transversely, and much less wide than the back of the nesd.
Frontal sinus large, and brows heavy. Hair of eye-brows and lashes sufficient; fonnernot
arched, but obliquely descendant towards the base of nose. Eyes of good site and shipe,
but the inner angle decidedly dipt, or inclined downwards, though the outer is not cuned
up. Iris a fine, deep, clear, chestnut-brown. Eyes wide apart, but well and distinctly
separated by the basal ridge of nose, not well opened, cavity being filled with flesh. Koee
(sufficiently long, and well raised, even at base, straight, thick, and fleshy towards the end,
with large wide nares, nearly round. Zygomos large and salient, but moderately so. Angla
of the jaws prominent, more so than zygomsd, and face widest below the ean. Moath
moderate, well-formed, with well-made, closed lips, hiding the fine, regular, and no vsj
prominent teeth. Upper lip long. Chin rather smaU, round, well formed, not retmng.
Vertical line of the face very good, not at all bulging at the mouth, nor retiring below, snd
not much above, but more so there towards the roots of the hair. Jaws large. Ears mode-
rate, well made, and not starting from the head. Head well formed and round, bat longer
ii parte pott than d. parte ante^ or in the frontal region; whioh is somewhat contracted cross-
wise, and somewhat narrowed pyramidally upwards Mongolian cast of features
decided, but not extremely so ; and expression intelligent and amiable." ^^
Klaporth has shown that a general resemblance prevails between
the languages of the Turk, Mongolian, and Tungusian. The fore-
going remarks upon the cranial characters of these people, are, to
some extent, confirmatory of the slight affinity here supposed to be
indicated. The Turk and Mongol, however, appear to me to be
more related to each other than to the Tungusian, whose cranial
conformation must rather be regarded as transitionary from the
pyramidal type. Indeed, the Tungusian tribes seem to connect the
Chinese with the frozen North ; for, in a modified degree, the same
differences which separate the true Hyperborean from the typical
Mongol, also separate the Chinese from the latter. In other words,
the Chinese nation, in the form of their heads, resembles the groat
luuit family more than the Mongolian. This opinion is based upon
the critical examination of eleven Chinese skulls, obtained from
various sources, and now comprised in the Mortonian collection.
If we compare together the lateral or profile view of the Eskimo
(Fig. 10) with that of a Chinese (No. 94 in Morton's collection — the
head of " one of seventeen pirates who attacked and took the French
ship 'Le Navigateur,' in the China Sea**), it will be seen that they
both present the same long, narrow form, appearing as if laterally
compressed. In both the temporal ridge mounts up towards the
vertex, and in both a large surface is presented for the attachment
of the temporal muscle. In both the forehead is tecedent, and the
occiput prominent. But, while in the Eskimo (and tliis is a charac-
W2 Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, Yol. xvii., part 2, p. 222. See also Priohaiti't
Nat. Hist, of Man, edited bj Edwin Nobbis, toL I. p. 219.
OF THE RACES OF MEN.
277
CUINBSB (No. 94).
eristic feature) the greater portion ^^2- ^^'
f the malar surface looks ante-
orlj, thus giving the dispropor-
onate sub-orbital breadth to the
ce ; in the Chinese, on the con-
aiy, I find that the greater por-
on of this surface looks laterally,
le zygomatic arches not being
tparated so widely. Hence, the
reatest transverse diameter of
le base of the Chinese cranium
oes not fall in the anterior re-
;ion between the zygomse, as we
lave seen to be the case in the
Bsldmo cranium. It should be observed, moreover, that the jaw is
more rounded and less massive in the latter than in the former. In
the Chinese, the chin is more acuminated ; but it is a curious fact
that in both we have the same prognathous character of the upper
jaw. When we compare the two facially, we become aware that
they differ, not only in breadth of face, but also in that particular
element which helps to give to the face of the Eskimo its diamond
or lozenge shape. In this latter, the forehead is flat, narrow, and
triangular ; in the Chinese, a broader, less flat, and square forehead
changes the character of the face, as is shown in all the specimens
which I have examined, especially in Nos. 426 and 427 of Morton's
collection. Other features equally interesting I might point out, but
my space does not permit, and, moreover, I hope to be able to return
to this inquiry in a future publication. On page 45 of the Crania
Americana, I find the following description, from the pen of Dr.
Morton :
** The Chinese slnill, so far as I can judge from the specimens that have come under my
isppection, is oblong-OTal in its general form ; the os frontis is narrow in proportion to the
width of the face, and the yertex is prominent: the occiput is moderately flattened; >" the
fiiee projects more than in the Caucasian, giving an angle of about seyenty-five degrees ;
the teeth are nearly vertical, in which respect they differ essentially from those of the
Malay ; and the orbits are of moderate dimensions and rounded."
Blakchard thus alludes to the Chinese cranium :
" Dans lee crilnes de Chinois,^ la face vue par devant est allong^e ; elle n*a plus ces
o6tte paranoics que nous avons signal^ dans les races oc^aniques, elle s'amincit graduelle>
ment vers le baa. Le coronal est large ; mesur^ dans sa plus grande ^tendue, la largeur
^myant 4 pen pr^ ik la biuteur, prise de Vorigine dcs os nasaux k sa joriction aveo les
1* This feature I cannot detect in any of the above-mentioned eleven riiulln.
iM PL 48 of I>umoutier*8 Atlas.
278 TUE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
pnri^tnax ;<\ir la ligno ni^diane. Observe par devant, on Toit clairement, que sana ftffcct
la forinu vraiment pynimidalo propre aux Polyn^siens et un peu aux Malayo*PoIyn£>ieiu, ^
se retr^cit graducllomout yers le sominet. Vu de profile le front se montre en gto^nl a&9^^^
rejct^ en arribre. Le maxillaire supdriour est asMZ ^troit et assez allong6; le mazUl» ^
inf^ricur est ^galcmcut ^troit, comparativement au ddvoloppement de la portion sup^riefl--^^^
de la tetc. Les os raaxillaires sent assez pro4mincnt8 comme on pent s*en rendre com;
ais^mcnt en consid^rant une tete de Chinois par le profit. La region occipitale s'^tend p
en arribre. Ccs caract^rcs se Toient nettement dans les tetes representees par M. Dnmo
tier, et nous les avons retrouves dans plusieurs s^jets qui existent dans la collection aathr ' ^
pologique du Museum d'histoiro naturelle de Paris.
"Si nous comparons ces tdtes de Chinois aveo cellcs des habitants des PhilippinM,^^^
lea (liflrercnces sont bien palpablos, et pourtant il y a une grande analogie dans la fo:
g6nerale, dans Ic contour coronal observe par devant La face, chez les Chinois, est bea'
coup plus allongce ; le front, vu de profit, est moins oblique, oe qui donne necessaireme:
plus d'ainpleur a la partio antcro-supdrieuro de la tetc; les os maxillaires sont ausN kw
bicincnt inoins avances : dc lil un angle fncial un peu plus ouvert. Enfin, dans tous
cas, la p:irtio posteHcure do la tSte est un peu moins allongee.
** Do cein fait;} il results que la tete des Chinois, tr^s-analogue sous bien des rapports
oolle dos Malaiii. en difT^re d'une f>i9on notable et se rapproche d*autant du type europe«!
Mais lorsq'on vient ik luettrc en presence Ics cranes de Chinois et d'Europdens, c*est ai
difference bleu nutremont iniportantc qui se manifeste devant des yeux exerce;* k ce gen
d*dtudc. Un naturalistc dc la IloUnnde, M. Yander Hgbvkx, a d^k indique plusiei
differences dans les proportions du crane.'^ Chez le Chinois, la face est plus longne qo
chez rKuropdcn,^* Tangle facial est bien moins ouvert, le coronal deprime, sanf une lign
oourbe prcsquo reguliero do la base au sonimet, tandis que dans la t&te de I'Europeen, I
front est prcsquc droit et furmc prc!<quc un cou<)c au sommet, pour allor rejoindre le
parietaux ; tout cela, sans doutc, avec des nuances bien prononcees, mais ce qui n'en
pas moins encore tr6s-marqud, quand on compare des tetes d'hommes de races
differ en tcs.
" En mcttant en presence des tetes de Chinois et d'hommes de race semitique. il y a n
peu plus de nipport, plus de rapport surtout dans la longueur de la face. Chez les Juifi
les Arabcs, etc., cependant, si le frontal est plus rcjote on arrifere que chez Ics Europeen*
quand on le considfere par dcvant, on voit qu'il reste large au sommet, au lieu de se retrtSci
comme chez les Chinois. Dans les t^tcs dc Ckinois, les os nasaux sont moins saillants, ie
OS maxillaires sont pUi^ proeiiiinents, la partie posterieure de la t^te est moins oblongne.
*'Knfin Ics Chinois, d'aprbs tous les caract^res anthropologiques que nous pooTo;
observer, se montrent (Ian.*" le genre humain comme un type bien caracteri.^e et comme u
typo infcrieur aux races eurof»dennes et i^eniitiques, ainsi que cela rdsulte d'un angle faci
moins ouvert, d'une ampleur moins grande dc la portion antdro-superieure de la t«te,
d'unc saillie plus L'on^i-lenible:^ des os maxillaire**. Or comme il n*est pas duuteux q
Tampleur de la partie antero-sujidrieure de la tetc ne soit un indice de superiorite, et
developpement dc* os maxillaires un indice d'infdnorite, ranthropologiste doit classw
race chiiioisc comme iiiferieure aux races de VEuropc et de rOrient. L*etude de Thistoi
des n^purs, d<>s rdsultats intollcctuels de ces peuples conduit absolumeot k la
classilioatioM."*^ •
The Japauoso are gonorally considered as belonging to the samt
ty[)e as the Chiiu'se. Tlie eollection contains but one Japanese
skull, pivsentt'd hy Dv. A. M. Lyxcii, ir. S.Jf. The appearance <^f
»» IM. 4i» of l)unu.uti«M-'s .Vtlas.
w« Annates d<'s Science-* naturelles, 2* sdrie.
w Dumoutier's Atlas, pt. 23, bis. ^ Op. cit, pp. 228-34.
OF TUE RACES OF MEN. * 279
luB craniam does not exactly ^^s- 1^-
omport with the above state-
lent. Knowing nothing of ita
istory, and having no other for
omparison, I Bimply annex a
epresentation of it without fur-
her comment"*
Theae observations, in the ag-
gregate, conflict with the opinion
>f Prichard, — an opinion 8us-
ained by many othera — that "tlio
[!Jhinese, and the Koreans, and the
Tspanoee belong to the same tj-pe of the hnman species as the
nations of High Asia." He explains away the evident diftereuces
l^ a certain softening and mitigation of the Mongolian traits.
Latham also calls the Chinese a "Mongol softened down." Such
e^rcsaiona arc unfortunate; they lead to misconeeptiona which
cAen seriously retard tlie progress of science, particularly ita dif-
fiiaion among the niasses.'"
The Indo-Chinese nations, including the Mantchurian Tungus, or
ho6e south of the Aldon, should be regarded as a distinct hut closely
Uied type, a type bearing certain resemblances to the pyramidal
win on the one hand, and the globular on the other, but positively
sparated from these two by certain slight but apparently constant
ifferences.
The Koreans, judging from the description of Siebold, exhibit the
ftiue type.
•• Ii'enscmble da lenn traita perte, en g£ii£ral,le ctrkcl^ro de la r(ic« ?>[ongole; 1» largenr
1 1* mdeaM de Ik figure, In profminence de9 pommettes, lo il^TetoppemcDt dcs mftclioircfi,
••• *' Le» JnponnU." Hays D'Hallot, " ont en giniral les carsetirM raongoliques nioini
iroDODC^es que leg ChinoU, co que Ton altribus A un milunge ntec d'natrea pcuple. pont-
tre dea KourilifnB, qui surnienl habits le pays avant tax." Op. til., p. 124.
»» Cpon p. aflS of lus yal. Hill. 0/ .Van, PEiiciiAnii gives a profile view of a Cliineee
iimiliam, which, he payg, "appenra to differ but little from tbe Europeon." Not if any
MM, at all fbiniliar irilh European ^kun-furmn, will take the trouble to intipect the Sgiire in
■pMStion, be will nt once perceive how emmeous is (he nboTC Btiitemenl. Every careful
craciographer must object to such Iooho reuiarliB. Again, upon lUo third and fourth plntot
•f bis work, he compares logetber the crania of a Congo negro, a Chetiniaeho Iiiilian of
lonisinna, and a Chinese of Canton, and from the mnnifenl resemblances between tbem, lie
-nnilure* (0 as-^eii Ihal the chamcterii'tlcH "t these wiiiely-^epn ruled rnec» cannot bo relied
■flpOD aa specific. In the Mnrloninn onllectinn. so numerously represented in American and
Aftiean skulls, nnd containing twelve Cliinese crnnin. alho. I cannot find a parallel in^lanee
«f this similarity. I am forceil to cimcludc, Ihereforc, either (hat llr. P. was niiHiaken as
to the iwurcea of these slctllI^'. or timt we xhould regard their similaiitj as nne of Ihuse
(UapCional or aberrant examples, which occasionally arue to puiile the crnnioscopiit In
Iha present unsettled state of the science.
THE CRANIAL GU A R AGT£ Ki » . ,
>rme dcras^e do la raoine na^ale et lea ailes ^largies da net, la gimndeor dt U b<n^
aissour dcs levrcH, ]'npparonte obliquity des yeux, la oheTelnre roide, aboiidiiiti, dW
r brunritro ou tiraut Kur Ic roux, TepaiHseur des Booroils, la raret^ de la barbe, et cb&b
toint coulcur do fromcnt, rouge jaunutrot Ics font reconnaltrc, an premier abord, potis
8 naturcls du iiord ct do T Anio. Ce t3rpo so rctrouTO choz la plnpart des Corneas que itot^
^ons viiR, ct ils convionnent cux memos que c*ost celui qui distingue le mieuz leur Dttioa^"
He prococdrt to express his conviction of the co-existence of t^*^
distinct types in this region.
Of the tril)erf of the Trans-Gangetic or Indo-Chinese Peninsuli
the Mortonian coHection contains hut one representative^a CochiiiK ^i-
Chinese from Turon 15ay (No. 1527) — which appears to me artiliciall^ By
deformed. I am therefore iinahle, at present, to arrive at any detcr.^ -r.
niination of their cranial type. Finlayson desciihes these tiihes i*^ j|^
the foUowing manner:
**Tlio face is remarkably broad and flat; the ohcck-boncs prominent, large, Bpreadin^ ^^
and gently rounded; the glabelhim is flat, and unuHually largo; the eyes are, in gem
small; the aperture of the eyelidH, moderately linear in the Indo-Chinese nations and
Malays, i8 acutely ho in the Cliineso, bending upwards at its outer end ; the lower jaw
long, and remarkably full under the zygoma, so as to give to the countenance a sq
appearance ; the nose is rather Hmall than flat, the alie not being distended in any nncomm^
degree; in a ^reut number of Malays, it is largest townnls its point; the mouth is lai
and tho U]>m thick ; tho beard is remarkably scanty, consisting only of a few straggl
hairs ; the forehead, though broa<I in a lateral direction, is in general narrow, and the ha ^g
scalp comes down very low. The hoad is peculiar; the antero-posterior diameter be ^
uncommonly ^<hort, the general form is rather cylindrical ; the occipital foramen is o
placed so far back that from tho crown to the nape of the neck is nearly a straight li
The top of the hea<l is often very flat. -Tho hair is thick, coarse, and lank ; its coIo
always black." ^'^^
Dr. Hi'sriinNnEiuiER IJiiih doserihes tlie Siamese:
*'Tlie forehead i^ nan'ow at tho superior part, the face between the cheek-bones br
and the chin is upiiii narrow, so that the whole contour is rather lozenge-shaped thtn c^^^^p^gj
The eyey aro reiiiurkable for the upper Tul being extended below the under ono at the co :a ^j^y
next to the nose; but it is not elongated like that organ in the (^hineso or Tartar raia-*^^
The eyes are <lark (tr black, and the white is dirty, or of a yellowish tint. The nostril** ^i,^
broad, but the nose is not flattened, like that of the African. The mouth is not well foi-si.ai <*(L
the lips projecting; slightly; and it is always <lisfigured, according to our notions of l)es^i^ tr
by the universal and «lisgusting habit of chewing areca-nut. The hair is jet black, reiiiCi^^Qt
and coarse, almost bristly, and is worn in a tuft on the top of the head, about four ixio f jes
in diameter, the rest being shaved or clip[)ed very close. A few scattering hairs, vr/a mch
scarcely merit the name of beard, grow upon the chin and upper lip, and these they c
toniarily pluck <Mit.
" The occipitil portion of the head is nearly vertical, and, compared with the ante;
and sincipital divisions, very small ; ami I remarked, what I have not seen in any o
than in sotne ancient Peruvian skulls from Pachacannic, that tho lateral halves of the h
arc not synnnetrical. In the region of flrnuiess the skull is very prominent; this is remi
ably true of the talapoins." *"
'••1 Knil»a««sy to Siam and Hue, p. 2iJ0.
^'■•- A Voyage llountl the World : including an Embassy to Muscat and Siam. By W. 8. W
' -M.r, M. L). Vhilada., 18:J8, p '2'M).
t a.
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 281
Neal {Reridence in the Kingdom ofSiam) assures us that the Siamese
differ in their physical characters from all tlie surrounding nations.
According to Morton, among the inhabitants of Cochin-China, or
Annam, "the general form of the face is round, so that the two
diameters are nearly equal. The forehead is short and broad, but
the occipital portion of the head is more elongated tlian in the
people of Siam. Tlie chin is large and broad ; the board griBly and
thin, the hair copious, coarse, and black ; the nose small, but well-
formed, and the lips moderately thick."
Blanchard alludes to the inhabitants of Malacca, and the forms
of their crania, in the following terms :
" Ijft population de Malacca, du reste, comme cclle des lies de la 8onde, n'est pna homo-
g^e ; il 7 en a une partie qui pr^sente une ciyillsation analogue & colle des Malais ; il y en
ft Hue aotre, form^e de tribus incultes, qui habite les foists de I'int^rieur du pays. Lea
^tes des naturels de Malacca representees dans TaUas de M. Dumoutier ne sauraient 6tre
7- ^pprochees indifferemmont de toutes celles que nous ayons d^crites des habitants de la
^alaisie.
** Vues par deTant, ce sent des faces courtes comme chez tons les peuples des races
'^^l&ises. Mais ici il n'j a pas cette ampleur du coronal et des paridtaux que nous avons
^Svift]^ chez le natiu^l d'Amboine, represents dans notre atlas, ni chez le Bughis de
^***^jou, ni chez les naturels des Philippines.
** Chez nos individus de Malacca, Ton observe aussi un plus grand developpement des os
^^xiSaires, et Ton retrouve ainsi cette forme k cdtes parallMes que nous avons vu si frS-
^^^^ttment dans les types pr^cedemment dScrits.
** \L Dumoutier a place les tetes de naturels de Malacca sur la m^me planchc que le
"^^^H^l d'Amnoubang de Tfle de Timor; nous ne croyons pas quMl faille venir chercher id
^'^ s^essemblance bien grande. Dans la tSte du Timorien, le front est plus bas et plus large
^'^ le haut, la partie posterieure de la tSte est plus allongee, les maxillaires sont pluB
*^*»ices, etc.
** Ces hommes de Malacca resscmblent, au contraire. d*une mani^re frappante, au Bughis
^ l*£tat de Sidenring dont il a ete question plus haut
** Oest la mdme fape, courte, avec le coronal etroit, pen eiere, rejete en arri^re, deprime
^"^«s8Ufl des arcades sourcili^res ; seulcment chez le Bughis il y a une tendance un peu
*^ ^^^ marquee i la forme p3rramidale. Les apophyses zygomatiques sont de mSme extr^
^^xient aaiUantes; le maxillaire superieur est large et court, sans Tdtro autant que chex
. ^^turel de Celebes, et le maxillaire inferieur est aussi fort large. Enfin chez les una et
^^ ^litres la region posterieure n'cst que peu etcnduo en arnbre.
* *" £n resume, il n'est pas douteux que le Bughis reprSsente dans Tatlas de M. Dumoutier
^ ^^^ indiridus de Malacca appartiennent & la mSme race. Le fait que nous constatons ici
^^«Dt une grande preuve i Tappui de Topinion tr^s-repandue parmi les ethnographes que
^^ughis sent les descendants dMndividus originaires du continent. Ce qui jette toiyoura
ua grand embarras, c'est la diversite des types observes sur la plupart des points de
abiae et dans les divers endroits du continent indien."^**
iTip above descriptions evidently lead to the recognition of several
cties or sub-types of cranial form in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula,
e of which are more or less related to the predominating type of
»« Op. cit., pp. 220-2.
. 282
THE CKANIAL CUAHACTErT
Central Asia, while othere apjiroximato the Mtlsiyiin, and throiigli
[ theac tlie Polynesian fonns, Indo-China may tJierefore he regarded
I as the tranBitionary or dehatahie ground between Aahi and Poljiiesin.
I Coacorning the BkulUfonna of the mysterious aboriginal triWof
■fllis region, who here and there "crop out" above the prevailing
^pe (the perplexing roprcaeutativeB of an earlier and perhaps jirimi-
, tive humauitarian epoch), I have nothing to aay, being without 11*.*
secossaty material. Among these relics of a former time may t*^
enumerated the savage Garo, or hill-tribes of South-west Asaat^^s^
with their Negro charaetcristica ; tlie savage blacks of the Aadai^^^-
Inan Isles ; and certain wild tiibes dwelling to the north of Ava, ai^;^|>
, differing from the dominant population in language, religion, airrr:-,j
'■ physical characters. These, in common with the Bheels and Govac^^j
tribes of Guzerat, tlie Pnharrees of Central, the Cobatars of Sonthe^^^^
and the Jauts of "Western India, all seem to be the romnautso^^^
once powerful and widely-spread people.
Very few, if any, people are more varied in their physical chai— ^^
. ters than the great Indostanic Family. Conquest and amalgamaL=5(|.
liave disguised and altered its primitive types in a remarkable deg^-p^
, Only here and there, in the mountainous regions, do we catch a gliir* ns^
of these types. A portion of the aborigines appear to have been ofa
dark or quite blaek complexion.
I <■ In gcnonl, the face is ovnl, tha nose strAigbt or Blightl; uquilino, the mouth email, tb««
■ Iceth Torticfti and well-fomimi, miil the chin rounded and genonlly dimplrf. The tja m — "*
Uwk, bright, and GxpresHivs, the ejclaihea long, and tlio bran thin and nrohcd. Thtlm^^^^
Is long, blitck, and gloss;, and the bourd Torj thin. Tlie bead ef the Iliinloo U «null i^^^
propottioD to tba body, olangnted and narrow espeoiaHf aorois th« forehead, which ia luip^^ '
iiiod«r»t«l}' ele»ated." '•*
The collection contains in all forty-three crania of the Indostanic *
Race. Among these skulls, at least two types can be distinguished.
Ist. The fair-skinned Ayras, a conquering race, speaking a Sanscrit
dialect, and occupying Ayra-Vaiia, which extends from the Vindya
to the Himalaya Mountains, and fram the Bay of Bengal to tlie
Indian Ocean, and comprises the Mahrattas, and other once powerfiil
tribes, who have bo boldly and obstinately resisted the English arms.
These tribes are of Persian origin, They migrated to India, accord-
ing to M. Guigriiant, as early as 3101 B. c. 2d. The Bongalee,
represented by thirty-five skulls. Dr. Morton considers these small-
etatured, feeble-minded, and timid people a^ an aboriginal race upon
whom a foreign language has been imposed.
Of the eight Ayra skulls in the collection, six are of the Brahmin
HiMDir (1330).
OF THE RACES OF UEN.
caste, and two are Tliuggs. Fig. f'?- 20.
SO — the ekull of Suraboo-SiDg,
lianged at Calcutta for murder —
very well represents this peculiar
4j"pe. In the Anthropologie of
I£mile Blaschabd, the reader will
£nd au interesting coniparisoii
drawn between the Hindoo, Malay,
And Micronesiaa forma of the crar-
** nium.
I have already, in snbstance, ex-
pressed the opinion that the cra-
nium of the Lapp, in point of con-
formation, must be regarded as
constituting the connecting link between the types predominating
in the Boreal Zone, and those encountered among the European or
Indo-Germanic races. I have also ventured the opinion that, through
the Osmanlis and the Khazan Tartars, the Mongolic form, character-
izing the Asiatic realm, glided, by an easy transition, into the Euro-
pean. But Asia graduates into Europe still more naturally, perhaps,
throngh the races constituting the widely-spread Finnic or Tehudic
SanWj, which, at an epoch antedating the earliest records, occupied
the country extending fi-om Norway to the Yennisei, north of the
55th, degree of latitude in Asia, and the 60th in Europe. I have now
to state that, through the AfFghan skull, the Indostanic blends with
tlie Semitic form. Thus, then, it appears that, in pursuing our cra-
Kiial investigations, it is immaterial what route we take in passing
^'xoin the Asiatic into the so-called European or Caucasian area.
"W' hether we jouniey from Hindustan through Affghaiiistaii, seeking
*£he table-lands of Iran ; or, setting out from the heart of Monj^olia,
"traverse the Turkish region, and so enter Asia Minor; or, penetrate
^&oin the North-East into Scandinavia, through the intervening Lapps
fmd Finns, we meet with the same result — a type which ia, in general,
^la unlike that of the great region just surveyed, as are the animal
atud vegetable forma of these two countries.
The home of the so-called European, Caucasian, or White race,
comprehends Europe, Africa north of the Saharan Desert, and South-
"U' estem Asia. This extensive region may, for convenience of study,
"be divided into four provinces, of which the first, extending from
Finnmark southward into the heart of Europe, is occupied by the
Teutonic, Gothic, or Scythic family ; the second comprises AVcstem
and Southern Europe, and is iidiabited hy the Celtic family; the
third, located in Eastern Europe, contains the great Shlavic group;
284 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
while the fourth, or Africo- Asiatic, extends along the southern shore
of the Mediterranean into Asia, as far east as Affghanistan, and is
occupied by the expansive Semitic family. A closer and more criti-
cal examination of these four divisions compels us to recognise for
each a number of minor areas or limited districts, which, while they
bear to each other a general family likeness, are also characterized
by floral and faunal peculiarities, in harmony with certain cranial
distinctions about to be noticed.
When to the increasing number of naturally sub-typical forms are,
added the innumerable hybrid varieties resulting from the extensive
migrations and endless intermixtures which, from remote times, have
been going on in this region, it becomes evident that any attempt at
a successful generalization of these forms must necessarily be a^
tended with much difficulty. To grasp the idea of a European type
is one thing; to select from a number of skulls one which shall
embody the essentials of this idea, so as to serve for a standard, is
quite another.
In the consideration of European types, I commence with the
Finns.
Attempts have been made to associate the XJgrian family, in point
of origin, witii the nomadic races of Central Asia. But historically,
no proof can be adduced that they ever dwelt as a body upon the
plateaux of this latter region. They are not true nomades ; and, as
far as I can learn, difter in physical characters from their neighbors.
The only support to the opinion is a certain affinity of language.
Anciently the XJgrian area extended from the Baltic into Trans-
Uralian Siberia. The western extremity penetrated Europe, and
was inhabited by the True Finns, whose relation to the Lapps I have
already brietly alluded to. The eastern extremity mainly comprised
the Ugrians or Jugorians. Between the two dwelt the Tchud*
proper. Latuam is disposed to bring the Samoiedes, YenniseianSi
and Yukahiri into this area, thus carrying the Ugrians nearly iO
Bhering's Strait, and almost in contact with the Eskimo.'® Ana^
tomical chanicters not to be slighted, not to be explained awaj-, are^
however, against the attempt.
Through the kindness of Prof Retzius, of Stockholm, the Mop^
tonian collection has been lately increased by the addition of nin^
specimens of the true Finnic stock. Of these heads, I find the largest^
internal capacity is 112*5, the smallest 81-5, and the mean, 95*3 cubic^
inches. From an examination of these skulls, the following brier
description is derived : The regularly developed head has a square or^
1^ Tho Native Races of the Russian Empire. By R. G. Latham, M. D., kc, being toL IL
of the Ethnogrnpbical Library, conducted by £. Norris, Esq. London, 1854, pp. U2, 13;.
OF THE RACES OF MEN.
285
^OBttewliat aagakrly round appear-
^nce. The antaro-poBterior dia-
■*^eter beiog comparatively short,
i-t falls within the braehy-cephalic
^las8 of RetziuB. The forehead ie
^*^ad, though leBS expansive than
»n tho true Oermanic race. This
**^otal breadth, the lateral expan-
- 0100 of the parietalia, and the flat-
PGB8 of the 08 occipitis, give to the
coronal region, when viewed per-
pendicularly, a sqnare, or rather
*,.,,, .,•" ^ ' ™, FiBK (1537).
ehgMy oblong appearance. The ' '
fice is longer and less broad than in the Mongolian head, while the
fowerjaw is larger, and the chin more prominent. Hence, the lower
port of the face is advanced, somewhat in the manner of the Scla-
voniBin face. The whole head is rather massive and rude in struc-
tare, the bony prominences being strongly characterized, and lie
saturea well defined. The general configuration of the bead is
£cux>pean, bearing certain resemblances, however, to the Mongolian
oa the one hand, and the Sclavonian on the other.
I liave already alluded to the great diversity of opinion relative
to "tlie affiliations of the Finns, and the position to which they should
be asaigned in ethnic classification. Malte-Brdn distinguishes them
6*0X11 both the Sclavonians and Germans, but associatoB them with
ttie Xapps,'* PiNKERTON coincides in this view, but is inclined
to consider the Lapps a peculiar variety.'^ Bordach classes the
Finna with the Sclaves and Lapps.'^ Bory de St. Vikcent eon-
Bideirs the Lapps, Samoiedea, and Tehuktchi as Hyperboreans, and
riecognizea in the Finns a variety of the Sclavonic race.™ Hdecf
*"*^S^*rde the Pinne as a distinct people, differing from both the Euro-
P^^Ji and Mongolian families.'™ "The Fin organization," writei
*--"-A-Tham, "has generally been recognized as Mongol — though Men-
Sol of the modified kind.'"^' The original identity of the Finnf
*** <i Lapps has been argued from certain linguiatie afiinities between
^**^ two races. Pbiciiabd considers the evidence of their consan-
^^ ByBtem of UDiTerxal Qeogrnpbjr. Edbbnrgh, 1827. Vol. VI, p. 76.
^^Mod*! Geogrsph/. PhiUdetphin. 1804, Vol. I. pp. 883, 404. Walceenaib, Ihe
— ^ncb translalor and editor of this vork, ilrswa u etrong line of distinclion betwoen the
^-«u kiid I^pps. OfographU Moitmt. Paris, 1804, t. S^me, p. 2fi8, note.
■^^ Der Uenscb, cited by Hoeok.
^** L'Homme, Eesai Zoologique but le Genre Homaiiie. Sa edit., t. 1.
*-"» De Cntniis EbIocodi. p. 11.
*■■" Native fiacei of the Russian Empire, p. 72.
286 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
guinity to be sufficiently well demonstrated,^'^ and cites Lbbmius,
GuNNERUS, PoRTUAN, Ihre, Rask, and others as advocates of this
opinion. Opposed to tliis identity, however, are the well-marked
physical differences observed by nearly all the travellers who have
visited these people. Linn^us, long ago, pointed out, in the con-
cise terms of the naturalist, the most prominent of these diflferences.
" Fennones corpore toroso, capillis flavis prolixis, oculorum iridibiw
fuscis. Lappones corpore parvo, capillis nigris, brevibus, rectis;
oculorum iridibus nigrescentibus." Very ingenious theories have
been advanced to reconcile this assumed consanguinity with the
anatomical diftbrentiaj above indicated. Thus Von Buch ascribes
this difference to the fact, that of the two people, the Finns alone
use hot baths and warm clothing. Long separation and exposure to
different physical influences have also been deemed sufficient to
account for the discrepancy.
In consideration of the animated controversy which has beei^
carried on by the learned concerning the relationship of the Lapp
and the Finlander, it may bo well to introduce here the carefully
drawn description of an Esthonian skull, originally published iu-
Latin by Dr. A. Hueck, of Dorpat.^^ There are reasons for con^
sidering the Finnic type to be preserved in its greatest purity among
the Esthonians. These people appear to be the indigence of Esthonia;
at least, "no earlier population seems to have preceded them.""*
"In the Esthonian race," says Dr. H., *«the skull, though angular, is not very robust
A square form is most frequently observed, and even when it passes into an oval shape,
. which id often the case, it presents a well-defined appearance of angularity. A pyramidal
or wedge-like figure {forma cuneata) is more rarely encountered, and it has never happened
to me to observe a round Ebthonian skull.
"At first sight, the calvaria, when compared with the facial skeleton, appears large;
and, if viewed from above or behind, square: for not only are the parietal bosses very
prominent, but the occiput, in the region of the superior linea semicircularis, is strongly
arched both posteriorly and towards the sides. The sinciput is a little less broad than the
occiput ; the forehead is plane, less gibbous than usual and low. The frontal breadth if
only apparent, because the more projecting external orbitar process, with the equally
prominent mal.ir bones below, is continuous with the smoother posterior part of the senu-
circular line of the os frontis. The temporal fossa is cnpacious, though not very deep, and
is terminfitcd anteriorly by the firm posterior margin of the frontal process of the maUr
bone, and externally by a sulficiently strong zygomatic arch, under which juts out in the
posterior side the articular tubercle or crest, by which the zygomatic arch is continued
above the external opening of the ear. Moreover, the condyloid processes of the occipital
bono appear to me larger and more prominent than in the other skulls. On the %ther hand,
"- Re^aoarches, iii., 297.
^"3 Do Craniis Estonum commentatio anthropologica qua viro illustrissirao Joanni Therf-
doro IJusgh, doctoris dignitatem impetratam gratulatur Ordo. Med. Univers. Dorpotcnsis*
inter]>rete l>r. Alexander Ilueck, Dorpati Livonorum, 1838, 4to., pp. 7-10.
"* See Latham's Native Races of the Russian Empire, p. 76.
OP THE RACES OF MEN. 287
tJie mastoid process, in all the (Esthonian) skulls which I haye oxamined, is small and less
rough ; the Russian crania, on the contrary, excel in long and thick mastoid processes.
^ot more deyeloped is the external occipital protuberance ; nor in general are the impres-
^onu of the muscles verj conspicuous on the occipital bone.
** Upon comparing the base of the skull, I have found no differences of greater moment.
}f oweTer, the internal occipital protuberance appears to me greater than u.sual ; the crucial
lines are strongly characterized, and the transverse furrows deeper. While the ossa pctrosa
project considerably into the cranial cayity, the os occipitale, where it forms the inferior
occipital fossa, is less conyex ; hence, from this conformation, the space occupied by the
cerebellum is manifestly narrowed. Nothing else is observable, except that the dcprcifsions
in the anterior part of the cranium present a more angular form, and, finally, the jugular
foTamina appear to me larger than in the skulls of other races of men.
"The facial part, compared with the calvaria, is small, broad, and low. The breadth
(of the face) is produced, not so much by the development of the malar bones, as in skulls
of the Mongolian variety, but rather by a greater prominence of the malar process of the
ffiiperior maxilla. On this account, the intcr-malar, compared with the frontal, diameter,
sppctra much greater than in Europeans in general. Hence, the external orbital margins
are flared out more, the distance between these margins is greater than the breadth of fore-
head, and the orbits themselves are wider. Therefore, the malar process of the maxillary
bone, being thus rendered more prominent, the antrum Ilighmorianum becomes necessarily
more capacious. For a similar reason, the sphenoidal sinuses, also, are deeper than in
German heads. And even the cells of the ethmoid are greater, and the paper-like lamina,
which is ordinarily vertical, is rather arched in the Esthonians, and projects towards the
erbit, blending gradually with the orbital surface of the body of the superior maxilla. The
frontal sinuses are very large, which, in the external aspect, is indicated by a prominent
P^bella and projecting superciliary arches
** The malar process of the upper maxilla is stronger than usual ; on the other hand, the
frontal and alveolar processes of the same bone are shorter; hence, the whole face, from
^* DRSo-frontal suture to the alveolar margin, is shortened in length. This broad and lon-
Ptn<lin^]]y contracted form of the face especially affects the form of the orbits, and gives
*^ the skull of the Esthonians its most characteristic type. For, in comparison with their
'^^'Ith, the orbits are low, and transversely oblong or almost square in shape. This ap-
f^^^J'ance depends upon the above-mentioned proportions of the superior maxilla, and is
^* >iiore noticeable, because the supra-orbital margin descends lower under a very convex
^'^Perciliary arch, and is less curved in shape, while, opposite to it, the infra-orbital margin
•** makes a very prominent edge.*^* .... Antero-postcriorly, the orbit is somewhat
^Per than in other skulls, and, on account of the contracted entrance (humiiem introitum)
*Ppeaw to be deeper than it really is.
** The root of the nose, above which the glabella projects considerably, is compressed and
^^« Hnd the nasal bones, but little arched, terminate in a pyriform aperture. The frontal
P'^cess of the upper maxillary bone being shorter, and the alveolar process lower, and, at
'^ same time, the body of the upper maxillary bone less broad than usual, the space sur-
^**<ied by the teeth is necessarily narrower. The incisor teeth of the upper jaw are
**->Oi perpendicular, but incline obliquely forwards, so that thc»ir alveolar edpc, not formed
"^ other crania, at the angle of the foramen incisivum, merges gradually into the hard
P^-ato. The peculiar evolution of the organs inservient to mastication, gives rise to differ-
'^^ even in the skull. For the whole surface of the temporal fossa is more exactly de-
~"^-— — .^ m .
The priiminence of the malar bones, the narrowness of the orbits, and the squarcneM
^(^cir margins, was also observed about Dorpat, by Isknflamm {A natomische Unttrauekr
**^''»- Krltingen^ 1822, pp. 254-G). C. Skidlitz ap[>ears to have been the first to describe
^ ^onn of the orbits accurately ; he has attempted to show that this form gave rise to two
^tion^, common in this region — trichiasis and entropium. (Vitterlalio Inauguraiii ^
'"^^V'uii OaUorum MorbU inter Ealhonos obviU Dorpali Livonorum, 1821.)
288 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
fined, not only by the semicircular line of the os frontis, but also by a very proimnent err*
above the external meatus, into the posterior part of which the zygomatic proeeflMS m
continued. Moreover, in nearly all the Esthonian skulls, the external pterygoid proeenei
are very broad ; often the spinous process of the sphenoidal bone is, at the same time, w
prolonged, that it coalesces with the posterior margin of the former process. . . . . Thii
conformation indicates a greater evolution of the external pterygoid muscle than in otben
less broad. This muscle being efficient, the lateral motion of the lower^aw is increased, ii
consequence of the smallness of the condyles as compared with the large glenoid ctntj;
hence, the crowns of the teeth, already worn down in the young, are proofs of the posM^
si on of the most powerful organs for masticating vegetable food. It only remaiiutobe
observed that, in the lower jaw, the ascending ramus is lower than in skulls of the Cticir
sian variety, the angle more obtuse, and the posterior part of the body of the jaw less broidi
and the anterior part higher, and the chin itself rounded, and rarely angular."
Such, according to Dr. Hueck, are the characters of the Esthoniaii
skull — characters which, he further assures us, are more pronouncei
in proportion as these people are less mixed with others. He ate^
expresses a belief in the possibility of tracing the Finns to tb^^^
primitive sources, by a careful study of the heads found in ancieO
sepulchres of this region.
From the foregoing descriptions the reader will readily percei^
the differences between the Finnic and Mongolic types of skoJ
The Mongolian face is broad and high, the cheek-bones very robu^
the malar fossa shallow, the nasal bones small and flat, teeth street
and straightly placed, bounding a large space ; the orbits are deep am
less square. Oblique palpebral openings correspond to the formatic^
of the facial bones, for the internal orbital process of the fix)ntal bon.
descends more deeply than in the Caucasian variety, and the Esthd
nians especially, wlience the lachrymal bone and the entrance to th*
canal are lower down. The internal canthus being adjacent to this
is placed lower; hence the obliquity of the palpebral opening, sc
peculiar to the Mongolian. We thus find nothing common to the
Mongolian type and to the shape of the Esthonian skull except t
certain squareness of figure which is not constant.
It will thus be seen that the cranial type of the Laplander belong?
to a lower order than that of the Finn, and that the former race fall*
properly within the limits of the Arctic form, while the latter leani
decidedly towards the Indo-Germanic type, finding its relation to th(
latter through the Sclavonian rather than the true Scandina\4ar
typos. But inferiority of form is to some extent a natural indi
cation of priority of existence. We are thus led from cranial investi
gations alone to recognize the Lapps as the autochthones of North-
western Europe, who at a very remote period have been overlaid b\
the encroaching Finn. This opinion is countenanced by the follow-
ing facts. Geijer assures us that the earliest historical acconntB of
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 289
ihc Lapps and Finns testify to their diversity and primitive separa-
tion. Under the combined pressure of the Swedes and Norwegians
on the west, and the Finns on the east, the Lapponic area has, from
the dawn of history, been a receding one. Lapponic names for places
are found in Finland, and, as already observed, human bones more
like those of the Laplanders than the Scandinavians have been found
in ancient cemeteries as iar south as Denmark. Peter Hogstrom
tells us that the Lapps maintain that their ancestors formerly had
possession of all Sweden. We have it upon historical record, that so
late as the fifteenth century Lapponic tribes were pushed out of
Savolax and East Bothnia towards the north.
Prof 8. NiLSSON, of Lund, thinks that the southern parts of Sweden
were formerly connected with Denmark and Germany, while the
northern part of Scandinavia was covered with the sea ; that Scania
received its post-diluvian flora fix)m Germany ; and that as vegeta-
tion increased, graminivorous animals came from the south, followed
by the camivora, and finally by man, who lived in the time of the
-8«>» primigenius and Ursus Spelceus. In proof of the antiquity here
•^signed to Scandinavian man, he tells us that they have in Lund a
skeleton of the Bos pierced with an arrow, and another of the UrsuSj
^bich was found in a peat-bog in Scania, under a gravel or stone
^^pcsit, along with implements of the chase.^'® From these imple-
^^nts, he infers that these aborigines were a savage race of fishers
**^d hunters.
** tht fknns of the abohgiiial inhabitants found in these ancient barrows are short
(^'^ehy-ccphalic of Retnns), with prominent parietal tubers, and broad and flattened occi-
'^^'^ It 18 worthy of remark, that the same form of cranium exists among seTeral yerj
*^ The reader wiU find some highlj interesting and curious speculations upon the
^^tiq^tj of British Man, in a paper entitled. On the Claimt of the Gigantic Irish Veer to U
*"***uiir«rf oM contemporary with Man, recently read (May, 1855), by Mr. H. Dsnnt, before
^^ Qeologieal and Polytechnic Society of the West Riding of Yorkshire. ** In my endeavor
^ <^-^^ the Megaoeros down to the human era,'' says Mr. D., in concluding his paper, ** I
t^ no means adrooating the idea that they haTe, as species, been equally long inhabi-
of this earth. On the contrary, I suppose that the last stragglers on^, which escaped
ll'^^^liilation by physical changes and causes, may have continued to exist down to Man's
^^^ mppemrmnoe on the British Isles ; and as precisely similar riews regarding the extinction
^^« Dinomis in New Zealand haTe been adyocated by Dr. Mantell in one of his last com-
^^^^S«atioDs to the Geological Society, I shall make no apology in concluding with his
when speaking of the Moa-beds : — Both these ossiferous deposits, though but of
ly in geological history, are of immense antiquity in relation to the human inhabi-
of the oonntry. I belioTe that ages, ere the adTent of the Maoris, New Zealand was
sly peopled by the stupendous bipeds whose fossil remains are the sole indications of
^^^^ former ezistenee. That the last of the species was exterminated by human agency,
^^ ^h% Dodo and Solitaire of the Mauritius, and the Gigantic Elk of Ireland, there can be
^ <^«rabt; biit> ere man began the work of destruction, it is not unphilosophical to assume
physieal rerolatiQiii, indneing great changes in the relatiTe distribution of the land
19
290 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
ftnoient people, such as tho Iberians or Basques of the Pyrenees, the Lapps and Samoiedtt,
and the Pelasgi, traces of whom are still found in Qreece.
** Next in succession to this aboriginal race, subsisting bj fishing and hunting, eooMi
another with a cranium of a more lengthened oral form, and prominent and narrow oeeipot
I think this second race to haye been of Gothic extraction, to have first comomietd tki
division of tiie land for agricultural purposes, and consequently to haTC had bloodj itrife
with the former inhabitants
'*The third race which has inhabited Scandinayia came poesiblj fh>m the Nodli lad
East, and introduced bronze into the country ; the form of the skuD is Tery diiFercnt fun
that of the two former races. It is larger than the first, and broader than the seeoad, ibI
withal prominent at the sides. I consider this race to have been of Celtic origin." Ik
fourth, or time Swca race, introduced into Sweden weapons and instruments of iron, lod
appear to have been the immediate ancestors of the present Swedes. With tliifl n»
Swedish history fairly begins, i"
Prof. Eetzius, in the main, coincides with the opinion of Pro£
NiLSsoN. He applies to the Lapps the term Turanic, and regards
them as the relics of the true Scandinavian aborigines — a people
who once occupied not only the southern part of Sweden, but J«o
Denmark, Great Britain, Northern Germany, and France. He calls
the Turanic skull, brachy-cephalic (short-head), and describes it as
short and round, the occiput flattened, and the parietal protuberances
quite prominent. ^'^
A cast of a Norwegian skull in the Mortonian Collection (No.
1260), is remarkable for its great size. It belongs to the dolicho-
cephalic variety of Retzius. The fronto-parietal convexity is regular
from side to side. The occipital region as a whole is quite promi-
nent ; but the basal iiortion of the occiput is flat and parallel with
the horizon when the head rests squarely upon the lower jaw. The
glabella, superciliary ridges, and external angular processes of the
OS frontis are very rough and prominent, overhanging the orbits and
intcr-orbital space in such a manner as to give a very harsh and for-
bidding expression to tho fiice. The semi-circular ridges passing
back from the external angular process, are quite elevated and sharp.
The nasal l)ones are high and rather sharp at the line of junction;
orbits capacious ; malar bones of moderate size, and flattened antero-
latcrally ; superior maxilla rather small in comparison with the infe-
rior, which is quite large, and much flared out at the angles. The
facial angle is good, and the whole head strongly marked.
According to Prof Retzius, the Swedish cranium, as seen fco^
above, presents an oval figure. Its greatest breadth is to its greatest
and water in the South Pacific Ocean, may have so circumscribed the geographical Hmi^*
of the Dinornis and Palapteryx, as to produce conditions that tended to diminish th^'*
numbers preparatory to their final annihilation."
>^ Report of the British Association for the AdTancemont of Science, for 1847, p. 81.
>» See l^Iullcr's Archives, for 1819 p. 575.
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 291
length as 1000 : 778. The external occipital protuberance is remark-
ably prominent, so that the external auditory meatus appears to occupy
a more advanced position than is really the case. A plane passing
through the two meati, perpendicular to the long diameter of the
cranium, cuts this diameter nearly in the middle. The face is long,
but not very prominent, the inferior jaw well pronounced and massive,
while the inter-orbital space is large, as is generally the case with the
Northern races of men. From the skulls found in ancient tombs,
we may infer that this form has not varied for at least 1000 years J^
The Swedish form of skull, judging from the specimens in Mor-
ton's Collection, bears a family resemblance to the Norwegian, and
in several respects is not unlike the Anglo-Saxon head figured in
the first decade of Orania Britannica, In the Anglo-Saxon, how-
ever, the chin is more acuminated, and the maxillary rami longer.
The chief points of resemblance about the calvaria, are the slightly
elevated forehead, the rather flattened vertex, and the inclination of
the parietalia downwards and backwards towards the occiput. This
latter feature is also possessed by the Norwegian cast referred to
above.
In the skull of a Swedish woman of the thirteenth century (No.
1249 of the Mortonian Collection), the singularly protuberant occi-
put projects &r behind the foramen magnum. The skulls of an
ancient Ostrogoth (No. 1255), and two ancient Cimbric Swedes (Nos.
1560 and 1532), evidently belong to the same peculiar type. These
four heads resemble each other as strongly as they differ from the
remaining Swedes, Finns, Germans, and Kelts in the Collection.
They call to mind the kumbe-kephal®, or boat-shaped skulls of
Wilson. No. 1362, a cast of an ancient Cimbrian skull, from the
Danish Island of Moen, presents the same elongated form. It differs
from the four preceding skulls in being larger, more massive, and
broader in the forehead.
Nos. 117, 1258, and 1488 possess the true Swedish form as described
above.
Two Swedo-Finland skulls (Nos. 1545 and 1546) — marked in my,
manuscript catalogue as appertaining to ^' descendants of colonists
who settled in Finland in the most remote times" — are broader,
more angular, and less oval than the true Swedish form. The hori-
zontal portion of the occiput is quite flat, and the occipital protube-
rance prominent
Three Sudermanland Swedes have the same general form. Three
Swedish Finns (mixed race) have a more squarely globular, and less
Ueber die Soh&delfonnen der Nordbewobner in Miiller's Archiy., 1^16.
292 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
oval cranium than the true Swedes. In the skull of a TaraiiDic
Swede (No. 121) the posterior region of the calvaria is broader, auJ
does not slope away so much. In general configuration this craniain
approaches the brachy-cephalic class of Retzius.
A Danish skull figured by Nilsson,** after Eschbioht, of Copen
hagen, resembles the Lapponic much more than the Norwegian oi
Swedish forms described above.
The cranial types of Great Britain — the '^ islands set in the sea-"
— next claim our attention.
The ethnology of the British Isles appears to be veiy closely ca^'
nected with that of Scandinavia. According to Pro£ Nilsson, it^^
ancient inhabitants of Britain are identical with those of Norw^^l
and Sweden.*®* Reference to the views put forth by different ethn^^
graphers and archeologues reveals to us a remarkable degree c^^^
uncertainty respecting the cranial forms and general physical chara^^^
ters of the primitive Britons.
" It seems strange/' says Dr. Prichabd, « that such a subjeet as the physioal ohaiact^^^
of the Celtic race should ha^e been made fL theme of controTersj. Yet this has ha;
and the dispute has turned, not only on the question, what characteristie traits belonged V
the ancient Celtsd, but, what are those of their descendants, the Welsh and the Seoi
QaSl ?" "^ Again, he says — ** The skulls found in old burial-places in Britain, which I ha*
been enabled to examine, differ materiaUy fh>m the Grecian model. The amplitude of
anterior parts of the cranium is very much less, giving a oomparatirelj small space for
anterior lobes of the brain. In this particular, the ancient inhabitants of Britain a]
to have differed very considerably from the present The latter, either as the result of man;
ages of greater intellectual cultivation, or from some other cause, have, as I am persuaded,
much more capacious brain-cases than their forefathers."^* In another place, he asks —
'•* Was there anything peculiar in the conformation of the head in the British and Gaulish
races ? I do not remember that any peculiarity of features has been observed bj Boman
writers in either Gauls or Britons. There are probably in existence sufficient means for
deciding this inquiry, in the skulls found in old British cairns, or places of sepulture. I
have seen about half-a-dozon skulls, found in different parts of England, in sitiiAtions which
rendered it highly probable that they belonged to ancient Britons. AH these partook of ose
striking characteristic, viz., a remarkable narrowness of the forehead, competed with the
occiput, giving a very small space for the anterior lobes of the brain, and allowing room for
a large development of the posterior lobes. There are some modem Kngtish and Welsh
heads to be seen of a similar form, but they are not numerous. It is to be hoped that such
specimens of the craniology of our ancestors will not be suffered to fall into decay.'* >**
The hope here expressed, I may say, en pasMntj has at length met
with an able response, in the Orania Britannica of Messrs. Davis
1^ Skandinaviska Nordens Urinv&nare, ett fSrsok i oomparativa Ethnographien mf 8. Nils-
son, Phil. Dr., &c. Christianstad, 1888. I. Haftel, Plate D, Fig. 10.
ui See his Letter to Dr. Daris, quoted in Crania Britannka, p. 17.
IBS Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, 8d edition, toL IIL London, 1841,
p. 189.
w Ibid, 8d edit., vol. I., p. 805. »» Ibid, HL, 190.
OF THE RAGES OF MEN. 293
and Thurnam, who have spiritedly undertaken to "resrcue and perpe-
tuate the fiEuthful lineaments of a sufficient number of the skulls of
the ancient races of Britain to preserve authentic data for the
future."
Mr. Wiij>i, a difltingmBhed antiqamrj, calls the primitiTe Irish — those who, in the remo-
teet times, built the pyramidal sepolohres with stone passages — ** globular-headed." The
skulls found in the " Cromlechs,'* or sepulchral mounds of a later date, he assures us are
*' ehiefly characterised by their iBxtreme length from before backwards, or what is technically
tenned their antero-posterior diameter, and the flatness of their sides ; and in this, and in
most other respects, they correspond with the second form of head discovered in the Danish
aepulchres." They also '* present the same marked characters in their facial aspect, and
the projecting occiput and prominent frontal sinuses, as the Danish" skulls. ** The nose,
an common with all the truly Irish heads I have examined, presents the most marked pecn-
liaritiesy and evidently must have been very prominent, or what is usually termed aquiline.
'With this we have evidence of the teeth slightly projecting, and the chin square, well marked,
mod also prominent ; so that, on the whole, this race must have possessed peculiarly well-
marked features, and an intelligent physiognomy. The forehead is low, but not retreating.
The molar teeth are remarkably ground down upon their crowns, and the attachments of
the temporal muscles are exceedingly well marked. .... Now, we find similar conditions
cf head still existing among the modem inhabitants yf this country, particularly beyond the
Shannon, towards the west, where the dark or Fir-Bolg race may still be traced, as distinct
iWmi the more globular-headed, light-eyed, fair-haired Celtic people, who lie to the north-
east of that river." In the ** Eistaeven," a still later form of the ancient funereal recep-
tacles, " the skull is much better proportioned, higher, more globular, and, in every respect,
spproaching more to the highest forms of the Indo-European variety of the Caucasian
From these interesting researches of Mr. WUiDE, it appears quite
evident that Ireland has, at different and distant periods, been peopled
by at least two, if not three, distinct races, of which the first was
characterized by a short, and the second by an elongated form of
ekuU ; thus corresponding remarkably, in physical character and
order of succession, to the early inhabitants of Scandinavia.
Prof. Danisl Wilson, the learned general editor of the Canadian,
Joumalj has recently demonstrated the existence in Scotland of two
<3istinct primitive races, prior to the appearance of the true Celtae.
£e thus refers to the crania of these ancient people :
** Fortunately, a few skulls from Scottish tumuli and cists are preserved in the Museums
^' the Seottisih Antiquaries and of the Edinburgh Phrenological Society. A comparison
^ tliMa with the specimens of crania drawn by Dr. Thumam from examples found in an
*Bei«Bt tumular cemetery at Lamel Hill, near York, believed to be of the Anglo-Saxon
I'^'i^Ml, abundantly proves an essential difference of races. i<* The latter, though belonging
^ ^l^e superior or ddieho-kephalie type, are small, very poorly developed, low and narrow
^^ ^^e forehead, and pyramidal in form. A striking feature of one type of crania from the
^^o^tiA harrows is a square compact form
Lecture on the Ethnology of the Ancient Irish. By W. R. Wilde, 1844.
Nitural History of Man, p. 198.
294
•IHE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
<*No. 7 [Figs. 22 and 28] was obtained flrom a eist disooTered under a large oi'tfA ^
Nether Urquhart, Fifeshire, in 1886. - An acoonnt of the opening of seTeral cairns v^
Fig. 22.
Fig. 28.
" No. 7. NiTHiB Urquhabt Cairn."
tamuli in the same district is giyen by Lieutenant-Colonel Miller, in his < Inquiry respeetis*^
the Site of the Battle of Mens Grampios.' ^^ Some of them contained urns and burnt boA^^
ornaments of jet and shale, and the like early relics, while in others were found implemaXB'^
or weapons of iron. It is selected here as another example of the, same class of crania. . • '
The whole of these, more or less, nearly agree with the lengthened OTal form described
Prof. Nilsson as the second race of the Scandinayian tumuH. They have mostly a si
larly narrow and elongated occiput ; and with their comparatively low and narrow f<
head, might not inaptly be described by the familiar term boat-shaped. It is probable tla^^
further investigation will establieth this as the type of a primitive, if not of the primes •■
native race. Though they approach in form to a superior type, falling under the first <^^
dolicho-kephalic class of Prof. Retzius's arrangement, their capacity is generally smaJl*
and their development, for the most part, poor; so that there is nothing in their o
characteristics inconsistent with such evidence as seems to assign to them the rude
and extremely limited knowledge of the British Stone Period
** The skull, of which the measurements are g^ven in No. 10 [Figs. 24 and 25], is
same here referred to, presented to the Phrenological Museum by the Rev. Mr. LiddeH
Xft
Fig. 24.
Fig. 26.
** No. 10. Old Steeple, Montbosb.
is a very striking example of the British brachy-kephalic type ; square and oompa^^
form, broad and short, but well balanced, and with a good frontal development. I^
doubt pertained to some primitive chief, or arch -priest, sage, it may be, in council,
brave in war. The site of his place of sepulture has obviously been chosen for the
reasons which led to its selection at a later period for the erection of the belfry and
w ArchsBol., Vol. IV., pp. 48, 44.
OF THE RACES OF HEN. 295
tower of the old burgh. It is the most elerated spot in the neighborhood, and here hw cist
liad been laid, and the memorial mound piled OTor it,, which doubtless remained untouched
so long as his memory was cherished in the traditions of his people
'* Few as these examples are, they will probably be found, on further inyestigntion, to
l>elong to a race entirely distinct from those previously described. They correspond very
nearly to the brachy-kephalic crania of the supposed primeyal race of Scandinavia, described
l>y Prof. Nilsson as short, with prominent parietal tubers, and broad and flattened occiput.
In ftnont&l development, however, they are decidedly superior to the previous class of crania,
mnd such evidence as we possess seems to point to a very different succession of races to
tbmt which Scandinavian ethnologists now recognize in the primitive history of the north
of Europe
^* So far as appears from the table of measurements, the following laws would seem to
Im indicated: — In the primitive or elongated dolicho-kephalic type, for which tho distinc-
tive title of kombe-kephalio is here suggested — the parietal diameter is remarkably small,
iMing frequently exceeded by the vertical diameter ; in the second or bracby-kephalic class,
the parietal diameter is the greater of the two ; in the Celtic crania they arc nearly equal :
and in the medieval or true dolioho-kephalio heads, the parietal diameter is again found
^leeidedly in excess ; while the preponderance or deficiency of the longitudinal in its rela-
tive proportion to the other diameters, furnishes the most characteristic features referred
to in the classification of the kumbe-kephalic, brachy-kephalic, Celtic, and dolicho-kcphalio
^ypes. Not the least interesting indications which these results afford, both to the ethno-
logist and the archssologist, are the evidences of native primitive races in Scotland prior to
the introaion of the Celtse ; and also the probability of these races haring succeeded each
other in a different order from the primitive colonists of Scandinaria. Of the former fact,
wis., the existence of primitive races prior to the Celtse, I think no doubt can be now enter-
tained. Of the order of their succession, and their exact share in the changes and progressive
<leve1opment of the native arts which the archaeologist detects, we still stand in need of fur-
ther proof.
** The peculiar characteristic of the primeval Scottish type appears rather to be a narrow
prolongation of the occiput in the region of the cerebellum, suggesting the term already
mpplied to them of boat-shaped, and for which the name of kumbe-kephala may perhaps be
conveniently employed to distinguish them from the higher type with which they are other-
^ae apt to be confounded
«< The peculiarity in the teeth of certain classes of ancient crania above referred to is of
'Very general application, and has been observed as common even among British sailors.
The cause is obrious, resulting from the similarity of food in both cases. The old Briton
of the Anglo-Roman period, and the Saxon both of England and the Scottish Lothians, had
lived to a great extent on barley-bread, oaten cakes, parched peas, or the like fare, pro-
ducing the same results on his teeth as the hard sea-biscuit does on those of the British
iwlor. Such, however, is not generally the case, and in no instance, indeed, to the same
extent in the skulls found in the earlier British tumuli. In the Scottish examples described
above, the teeth are mostly very perfect, and their crowns not at all worn down
•* The inferences to be drawn from such a comparison are of considerable value in the
indications they afford of the domestic habits and social life of a race, the last survivor of
which has mouldered underneath his green tumulus, perchance for centuries before the
era of our earliest authentic chronicles. As a means of comparison this characteristic
appearance of the teeth manifestly ftimishes one means of discriminating between an early
and a still earlier, if not primeval period, and though not in itself conclusive, it may be
foond of considerable value when taken in connection with the other and still more obvions
peenfiarities of the crania of the earliest barrows. We perceive from it, at least, that a
very dedded change took place in the common food of the country, from the period when
the native Briton of the primeval period pursued the chase with the flint lance and arrow,
tad the ^ear of deer's horn, to that comparatively recent period when the Saxon marandern
296 TUE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
began to effect settlements and build booses on the scenes where they had ravaged the vil-
lages of the older British natives. The first class, we may infer, attempted little coltiTitiai
of the soil
** Viewing Archsaology as one of the most essential means for the elucidation of primitiTi
history, it has been employed here chiefly in an attempt to trace out the annals of ov
country prior to that coraparatiTely recent medieval period at which the boldest of our lib-
torians have heretofore ventured to begin. The researches of the ethnologist carry lu baek
somewhat beyond that epoch, and confirm many of those conclusions, especially in reUdofl
to the close affinity between the native arts and Celtic races of Scotland and Ireland, ik
which we have arrived by means of archeolog^cal evidence. . . . But we have found froB
many independent sources of evidence, that the primeval history of Britain must be soof^t
for in the annals of older races than the Celtsd, and in the remains of a people of whom we
have as yet no reason to believe that any philological traces are discoverable, though they
probably do exist mingled with later dialects, and especially in the topographical nomen-
clature, adopted and modified, but in all likelihood not entirely superseded by later eolouits-
With the earliest intelligible indices of that primeval colonization of the British Ides our
archssological records begin, mingling their dim historic annals with the last giant inee*
of elder .worlds; and, as an essentially independent element of historical research, they
terminate at the point whore the isolation of Scotland ceases by its being embraced into
the unity of medieval Christendom." ^^
Mr. Bateman, who has carefully examined the ancient barror^
of North Derbyshire, describes the skulls found in the oldest of
these — known as the Chambered Barrows — as being elongated
and boat-shaped (kumbe-kephalic form of Wilson). The cranio*
of the succeeding two varieties of barrows are of the brachy^
cephalic type, round and short, with prominent parietalia. In th^
barrows of the "iron age" — the most recent — he found the pre-
vailing form to approximate the oval heads of the modem inhabi—
tants of Derbyshire.^®
From the foregoing statements, a remarkable fact becomes evident-
While Retzius, Nilsson, Eschricht, and Wilde are remarkably har-
monious in ascribing the brachy-cephalic type to the earliest or Ston^
Period in Scandinavia, Denmark, and Ireland, we find WiESON ancJ
Bateman equally accordant in considering the kumbe-kephalse a8th0
first men who trod the virgin soil of Caledonia and England. In th0
present state of antiquarian research, then, we are forced to conclude
that the primitive inhabitants of Britain are identical with those of
Sweden and Denmark, but that in different parts of these countries
the order of their sequence has varied.
Fig. 26 (see next page), reduced from a magnificent life-size litho--
graph in Crania Britannica, represents a strongly-marked aboriginal
British skull of the earliest period. " It was disinterred from th^
lowermost cist of a bowl-shaped Barrow on Ballidon Moor." It
188 The Archaeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland ; Edinb. 1861 ; pp. 168-187, 6«6-^
1* JourriJil of the British Archaeological Society, vol. VII.
Amciixt Butoh.
r alveoli being irlioll; ftbftorbed.
OF TBE BACES OF HEN.
belongs to the brachy-cephalEe of Ret-
rioB, and ie regarded by Dr. Davib,
\rbo gives us the following description
of it, as a typical example of the ancient
British form.
" Thij oruuQin poiuBsai t, rugged fnee, the
l«ni ef which kts rongb, ■ngulu', eapeoially the
Wer jiw, and deeply impresied bj itrong moi-
ralar actiaa. The apace enclosed by the lygo-
natio snh ii rather large. It ii the Bknll of a
sao of probably about forty-fiTO years of age.
HiB teeth, which are not remarkably large, miut
^*B besQ Goinplete at the period of iDtenosnt,
e^Mpt the two last molars of the opper jaw on the
"A aide, which had prerionily perished by caries,
B<xB* of the molaiB still retain a thick coating of tartar ; and the teeth altogether indicate
la* aavera atrrice to which they were enl^ected during life, for the orowne of almost all are
■ora down to a Isfel surface, by the maatioation of hard sobstaDCOR. The nasal bones,
Vnioh had been fractored obliqoelj acroaa the centre doring the life of this primitiTF hnn-
'"• pooribly in some encoiinter of the chase, and had united perfectly, with a slight bend
■> tha righL are Tery prominent. The opening of the nostrils, moderate in siie. is just an
''^ in diameter. The &ontal sinnBeS are large, and project oanaiderably OTer the noae.
"'* frontal bone is not particularly remarkable either for its arched or receding form, but
iaeliaes to the latter. The parietal bones are regular, and do not present much lateral
P*«ttiiiMney. The occipital ie somewhat fnll abOTe the protuberance, which itself is
•''"ORly marked. The point of the chin is hollowed out, or depressed, in the middle, a
'"* Uncommon feature of the British skull, which may perhaps be taken as an indicatiotk
* * dimple, a mark of bennty in the other lez. The profile of the calTarium presents a
'**'ty uuifarm ourrature, interrupted by a slight rising in the middle of the parietal bonea^
"^ Oxt occipital protuberance. The Outline of the Tertical aspect is a tolerably rsgalar
°***- The entire cranium is of moderate density. ... Its most striking pecoliaritiss are '
* ■'Ode character of the face, greatly heightened by the prominent b'Ontal siunses, and
"aodcnte dimenuons. It seems to hsTe belonged to one whose struggle for life waa
"^^i^ to conquer the denllen* of the forest his chief ekill, and whose food consisted of
^"u* and eaane articles. Still there remain irrefragable endenoes, even at this distant
'> tbat hia strife wa* a sacceseful one, and that he became the lord of the wilderness "
-A.11 ancient British skull (Fig. 27),
7^**» a chambered tumtilas at Uley,
^'otlcesterahire, figured and de-
**»bed in Crania Britanniea, af-
^^^ a good idea of the dolicho-ee-
r*i»lic or long-headed form above
'^enedto.
* ** Is the tlmll of a man of probably not leas
^*^ tfity-fl*e. The tatorea are more or less
\^^ t<^ether, and, in many plaoea, completely
^^**'Mad. The cranium ta of great thickness,
^••'•Bj Id the nppn- part of the ealTariam ;
^^•rietil bonea, in the situation of the tubers.
Fig. 27.
298 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
being about four-tenths of an inch in thickness, and the frontal bone, around the eminenMik
not less than half an inch. The skull is of large capacity, and is remarkable for its length in
proportion to its breadth, belonging decidedly to the dolicho-cephalic class of Retxius. Thi
form is slightly deficient in symmetry. The forehead is narrow, contracted, and itth«r
receding, but not low ; a sort of central ridge is to be traced along the summit of the en-
nium, which is most marked in front of the coronal suture, and falls away to a deiided|j
flat surface above each temporal ridge. The Tery pyramidal aspect thus given to the front
view of the skull, is well shown in our figure. The parietal tubers are moderately prood-
nent. The occiput is full, prominent and rounded, and presents a strongly-marked tiu»-
verse ridge. The squamous and mastoid portions of the temporal bones are rather snaA;
the external auditory openings are situated farther than usual within the posterior half of
the skull. The frontal sinuses are very marked, and the glabella moderately promiDait;
the nasal bones, of moderate size, project rather abruptly. The insertions of the oraseki
of mastication are strongly marked, but neither the upper nor lower jaw is so large, rugged,
or angular as is often the case in skulls from ancient British tumuli. The malar bones ire
rather small, and the zygomata, though long, are not particularly prominent^ The aseendiBg
branch of the lower jaw forms a somewhat obtuse angle with the body of that bone; the
chin is poorly developed ; the alveolar processes are short and smalL In both jawe, moit
of the incisor and canine teeth are wanting, but have evidently fallen out since death. The
molars and several of the bicuspids remain in their sockets. All the teeth are remariubly
worn down, and the molars, especially those of the lower jaw, have almost entirely lost their
crowns ; indeed, as respects the lower first molars, nothing but the fangs remain, ronod
which abscesses had formed, leading to absorption and the formation of cavities in the
alveolar process. The worn surfaces of the teeth are not flat and horisontal, but slope awiy
obliquely, from without inwards, there being some tendency to concavity in the surfaces of
the lower, and to convexity in those of the upper teeth. The former are more worn on the
outer, the latter on the inner edge. Altogether, the condition is such as we must attribote
to a rude people, subsisting in great measure on the products of the chase and other uato^
food — ill-provided with implements for its division, and bestowing Uttle care on its prepaid
tion — rather than to an agricultural tribe, living chiefly on com and fruits. Such, we ha^
reason to believe, was the condition of the early British tribes. "o The state of these, ^
least, contrasts decidedly with that observed in Anglo-Saxon crania, in which, though tJ* ^
crowns of the teeth are often much reduced by attrition, the worn surfaces are, for the m(
part, remarkably horizontal."
In the same work, the reader will find a well-executed lithograph
an Anglo-Saxon skull, which Dr. Thurnam is inclined to consider
belonging to the " lower rather than the upper rank of West Saxo;
settlci^s."
"Tho general form of the skull, viewed vertically," says Dr. T., "is an irregular length^^ — '
ened oval, so that it belongs to the dolicho-cephalic class, but is not a well-marked exampli
of that form. The general outline is smooth and gently undulating; the forehead is poorly'
developed, being narrow, and but moderately elevated. The parietal eminences are tolerably
full and prominent. The temporal bones, and especially the mastoid processes, are small
The occipital bone is full and rounded, and has a considerable projection posteriorly. The
frontal sinuses are slightly marked ; the nasal bones small, narrow, and but little recurved.
The bones of the face are small, the malar bones slightly prominent. The alveolar processes
^^ CoDsar*8 words are, " Interiores plerique frumenta ilon serunt, sed Incte et came vivuDt,
pellibusque sunt vestiti." Lib. V., c. 14. Two or three centuries later, aceording to Dion
Cassius, the condition of the northern Britons was similar; the Caledonians and Meats had
still no ploughed lands, but lived by pasturage and the chase. Xiphilon, lib. zzr., e. 12.
OF THERAGES OF MEN. 299
4L th« foperior maxillary boQe^i [premaTul/ariex) ure prominent, and doyiate so considomb^y
from the upright form, as to place the skall rather in the prognathio than the orthognathic
daat. The ramus of the lower jaw forms an obtase angle with the body of this bone. The
diin is moderately full J'
The BO-called Anglo-Saxon race — a term which, for several reasons,
ought to be discarded froQi ethnological nomenclature — is represented
in the Mortonian collection by four skulls. No. 80 — ^the skull of an
English convict, named Gwillym, — belongs to the dolicho-ccphalic
form, but is not strictly oval, being flattened posteriorly. In general
configuration, it resembles the Northern or Gothic style of head.
The face bears the Finnic stamp. No. 639 — the skull of James
Moran, an Englishman, executed at Philadelphia for piracy and
murder — is long, flat on the top, and broad between the parietal
bones. The posterior portion of the occiput is prominent, the basal
surface is flat The face resembles that of Nos. 1063 and 1064 —
Germans of Tubingen— while the calvaria approaches, in its general
outline, the kumbe-kephalic form above alluded to. No. 991 — an
English soldier — belongs decidedly to the Cimbric type, briefly re-
ferred to on p. 291. No. 69 — ^the skull of Pierce, a convict and can-
nibal— is long and strictly oval. It resembles the Cimbric type.
The Anglo-American Race — another very objectionable term,
which, as applied to our heterogeneous population, means everything
and nothing — has but eight representatives in Morton's collection.
Nos. 7 and 98 possess the angularly-round Germanic form. No. 24
— a woman, setat. 26 years — is intermediate in form between the
German and Swedish types. No. 552 — a man, tetat. 30 years —
resembles the Norwegian described on page 290. No. 889 — a man,
«tat. 40 years — ^resembles 552 in the shape of the calvaria, but has a
smaller face and less massive lower jaw. No. 1108 — a male skull —
bears the Northern or Gothic form ; the face resembles that of the
Tubingen Germans.'^^
The Anglo-Saxon race, according to Morton, differs fi:om the
Teutonic in having a less spheroidal and more decidedly oval cranium.
*' I hare not hitherto exerted myself to obtain crania of the Anglo-Saxon race, except in
the instance of individaals who have been signalized by their crimes ; and this number is
too small to be of mnch importance in a generalization like the present. Yet, since these
skulls have been proonred without any reference to their size, it is remarkable that fiye give
an aTerage of 96 cubic inches for the bulk of the brain ; the smallest head measnring 91,
and the largest 105 cubic inches. It is necessary, however, to obserre, that these are all
■ale erania ; but, on the other hand, they pertained to the lowest class of society ; and
ftree of them died on the gallows for the crime of murder."
^"^ In •rranging the Mortonian collection, I have excluded fW)m the Anglo-Saxons the
tknll of a lanatie Eng^shman (Nq. 62) ; and from the Anglo-Americans, scTeral skulls of
InatieSy idiots, children, hydrocephalic cases, &o. This rule has been adopted throughout
tha whoto eoDeetion.
f'lllO TMiC DIlANIAL (Ml A IIACTERISTICS
" Tlih Ait|£l<i AMitiiiitNiiii I lift llitiiiil tlnnnniiiktiU of ihn AriKlo-M»xoi»— eonformmiUftar
fliiiiMMhilNili'ii III Itiii iimniil iiliii<k. Tliny iHiMKM, In notnmon witli their Engluh anmtan^
NHil ill iuittMiii|MfiiifMi iir I hull' NiiiNlKititmltoii, II morn ««liinf{Ato(l head^ than the miBixed
iliiHiiiHiM TliM fnw oiniiIh lit iti,v |iiiiiiioMliiii hiiTn, witliotit ozcoptioii, bceii denved froB tkt
l.itvtiMi Mini li'Hiil itiitiUNliMJ |tiitiliiii iif llm oiiiiiiiiuiiliy — iiialurAoiors, paupen, andloBiibtti
I'lih InivfMl liiiilii lin« liiMiii \I7 iMililo lii««hrii} llio HiiiaUpiit 82; and the mean of 90(nearij)
II mU Willi IIinI iif llm imlliMiiUgi TpuIoiiIo raov. Tlio hoxob of thoM aeven BkaUsirefiov
hinIh Ninl lliiiMi I^Mimlii." (MoiiTtiN).
rnihinHrnplioi'M luivo not , vol n>;iv(Mi upon the essential charactet^
»»r llii* l\|«liMil Uollio ttkull. Ao««oiilin^ to PuiniARD, "Some remain
loiohl in Uritttiu ^ivo iviihoii to HUKpivt that the Celtic inhabii&r^
i»l tlilw oonnin ^Urihun^ \u\\\ in onrlv tiinos 8omothing of theM:»T-£'-
linn oi 'rniiniiitn tonn ot* tho homl.'**** Or. Mortox inform? 'iis'^j
Hio \\%A\t ot UnitiUix. Sootliuul, aiul Irt'laml — tlio dosoondarts :c "^
ptintUixo \uw\ *' l\i»\o tho hojul nithor olonpitoil, and the fz^rsiir-E^
ntm>*x\ \\\u\ ^Mit hli\;l\il\ jm*hod : tho bixnv is low. straiiT?'.:, ar i Vt^Tt^
\\u^ \'\\^^ \\\\s\ \\i\\\ iuv \\)^\\{^ \\w noso and mouth lari^L\ ar.d '2*i it-^^
IvMios hich. Tho o^noral oor^ozr :•: zik ^5»
is anj^tilar. and tho oxpross'.oi: bi^sL ' ^
\V' ' 'X a !o;tor to Mr. l^u^^o^^ ho itV:;3Stf^ - ^
'**^\ \ Ts^kki^ri. a p^vplo fivqr.cr.T^T >:-T>>.r>-^ -:- .
^•\\. \ :V.o V*jr\;^:\an iv.or.ur*u'^y.T> Tir i>. ~
"i ■ » > . « '^ •
% ■ * % ■ ^
If" • « * * ft « % ^^ *•*«•■■ V ■« •««*% %« « .' % "m^* ■ . * M ^^
\
• . s
' ... V. "■'^ »«."'■>, ■ V - : •!•< '••■ "K- ■■■ •'^'ZT
^^ a , ^ -•-. •! • •;■•., -•.■•■-*»--^ ^- •■^T' ■ill*-.'- -- ^^ . .T
^^ a « • ■ * ^
• M
■* ^ . >"■- '■•*w i» L.tm -'= --lifc^if.- -
•• ^*«»«-n ^ .**.-.
• •% *
OP THE RACES OF UEN.
Sbbrbs' GaUrie Anthropohgiqve, ^>
at Paris, conUins a skull (Fig. 29)
marked "Type Celte, — d6coavert
datu I'anciea pare de Madame de
Pompadour & Bellevue, pres Faris."
The discrepancy of opinion indi-
cated in the preceding paragraph,
resalto from the &ct already stated,
that Ireland has at different periods
been the home of different and dis-
tinct races of men, whose history is
recorded only on their mouldering
oeseoos remains, and the rude im-
plexnenta with which these remmns are generally found associated.
Theae different races have transmitted, in varying degrees of purity,
theii respective and peculiar types of skull to tiie Irish population
of the present day. To each and all of these types, the terra " Keltic"
"*« 'been applied ; hence, the term has at length become synonymous
^th "Irish," and, therefore, lost all definite and certain meaning,
J*i«t as the very comprehensive word "American," as applied to
the heterogeneous population of the United States, means Dutch,
^»»glish, Irish, French, Red Indians, &c., &c.
_ The Keltic race is represented in the Mortonian Collection by
^'Slit Irish heads, four skulls from the Parisian catacombs, and one
^^Ho the field of Waterloo. No. 18 — a female Irish skull from the
-A.l>ljey of Buttevant, County of Cork — has a form intermediate
**®'tween the Cimbric and Swedish types, already described on page
*^ I- In No. 21 — a soldier killed at the battle of Chippeway — the
*^c*tluc or Teutonic calvarial form is associated with a heavy, massive
**<^o. No. 42 — the skull of an Irishman, tetat. 21, imprisoned for lar-
^® *» J, and in all respects a vicious and refractory character — approaches
T**^ square Germanic form. No. 52 — from the Abbey of Buttevant —
^*« the same form. No. 985 — skull of an Irishman, eetat. 60 years —
T^Kig rather broad between the parietal tubers, also approximates
5**^ Gothic type. The fece resembles that of some of the Finns, but
^ *xn»ller and less massive. No. 1186 — an Irish cranium fi^m Mayo
~^ian^ — beloDgs to the peculiar boat^haped Cimbric type. No.
^^9 — a cast of the skull of one of the ancient Celtic race of Ire-
•^Si^iM — ap[>eatB to me to be the most typical in the Irish group
^^>« briefly enomerated. This head, the largest in the group, is
"^ Tfai*«Mt b«M* tlw ftoDowIiig memonndimi : "DeM«nd»Dt of W KDri«nt IMh Elng^
*^*«aite OVoMor. — Ori^Ml in DabUn."
302 THE CRANIAL CUARACTERISTICS
very long, clumsy and massive in its general appearance. The fore-
head is low, broad, and ponderous ; the occiput heavy and very
protuberant; the basis cranii long, broad, and flat; the ort)itB
capacious; and the distance &om the root of the nose to the
upper alveolus quite short In its general form, it very much
resembles the Cimbric skull, No. 1362. The Cimbric type, how-
ever, is somewhat narrower in the frontal region, and widenB
more posteriorly towards the parietal protuberances. In hiB
work, cited above, Prof. Nilsson figures a massive, oblong head
to which the Irish skull under consideration b&rs a considerable
resemblance. A very heavy skull from the field of Waterloo (No.
1564) is strictly and beautifully oval. Of the four heads from the
catacombs at Paris, three are decidedly brachy-cephalic, and one
of the Germanic form.
Leaving Western Europe — the home of the Celtee — and turning
our steps towards the region of the old Hercynian Forest, and the
sources of the Saale River, we meet with a type of skull which has
figured pre-eminently in the momentous and stirring historical eventB
of which Europe has been the arena. The Germanic, Gothic, or
Teutonic skull which Tacitus regarded as indigenous to the heart
of Europe, is briefly described by Morton, as "large and spheroidal,
the forehead broad and arched, the face round. . . ." ^ Prichabb,
after stating that we derive no information from the classical writers
concerning the form of the head in the ancient Germans, says: "The
modern Gennans are well known to have large heads, with the ante-
rior part of the cranium elevated and fiiUy developed. They have
this peculiarity of form in a greater degree than either the French
or Englisli."''*^ Vesalius observes, "that the Germans had gene-
fally a flattened occiput and broad head."*^ According to Kombst,
the Teutonic skull is larger and rounder than the Keltic. The head
and face form a semi-circle, to which the small end of the oval ifl
added, formed by the inter-maxillary region. The brow is broad,
high, and massive.^ Near the close of the Decades^ Blumknbach
figures a cranium found in an ancient tumulus near Bomsted, iB
the district of Weimar, and which the poet-philosopher Goethe flnp*
posed to be that of an ancient German. He unfortunately giv^^
no description of it, but merely alludes to its symmetry and "fion-
tem globosam et limbi alveolaris angustiorem arcum." Vimoni, ^
his chapter on Tetes nattonaleSy speaks of the " capacity considerable,"
*• Crania Americana, p. 18.
"0 Roseurchos into tho Nat. Hist of Man, iii. 898. "^ ]>e Corp. Fab. BmmMM^
"• A. Keith Johnston's Phyncai Atlas of NaittnU Phmomena, 2d edit, p. IOC
OP THE RACES OF MEN. 303
the thickness of the bones, and the great development of the upper
and anterior parts of the German skull.^^^ The reader will obtain a
ireneral idea of the Germanic eaU „. ^^
^ . Fig. 80.
varial type from the accompanying
engraving (Fig. 30), representing
the skull of the illustrious German
poet, Frederick Schiller. It is
reduced from Plate L of Dr. Carus'
" Atlas der Cranioscopie." ^ The
authenticity of the drawing, the
evident beauty of form and har-
Enony of proportion, the brilliant
literary souvenirs inseparably at-
tached to the memory of the au-
. BCHILLKR.
thor of the Bobbers^ and friend of
Qcethe, and especially the somewhat Sclavonic cast of the facial
region, have induced me to adopt this skull, in preference to any
of the heads contained in Morton's Collection, as the standard or
typical representative, not so much of Teutonic as of Central and
£aj8tem Europe, in general. Dr. Cams thus comments upon this
J^roJU du Ordne de Fridiric de Schiller d'apris un pldtre mouli :
'* Dans TeDsemble, la proportionna1It4 est, on ne peat plus henrense et en parfaite har>
ttionie ATec lea qualit^s d'un esprit dminent, lesquelles durent sons tons les rapports, placer
SehiUer jk cot^ de Goethe. Chacane de trois Tert^bres du cr^e se tron^e dans I'^tat da
d^Teloppement le plus beau et le plus complet ; la Tertiibre m^diane est particuli^rement
grande, gracieusemente voiit^e, finement model^e. Le front est essenticUement plus d^
"velopp^ enlargeur quo celui de Qoethe,cheK qui cependant il €tait plus saillant au milieu. . . .
L'ooeiput est ^galement expressif, sans bosse ni protuberance ; c*est surtout par une cer-
taine formation ^l^gamment arrondie de toute la tdte que Toeil de robservateur se sent
«gr6«blement captiy^."
Of all the European crania in Morton's Collection, that of a Dutch-
man approximates most closely what I conceive to be the true Ger-
manic or Teutonic form. This skull is remarkable for possessing
the large internal capacity of 114 cubic inches — the largest in the
entire collection. The calvaria is very large ; the face rather small,
delicate, well-formed, and tapering towards the chin. The frontal
diameter or breadth between the temples, 5s 4| inches ; the greatest
breadth between the parietal protuberances is 6f inches ; the antero-
posterior or longitudinal diameter is 7$ inches; the height, mea-
M Trmit^ de Phrenologie, Humaine et Compar^e. Par J. Vimont. Paris, 1S35, ii. 478.
*M Atlas der Cranioscopie, oder Abbildungen der Scbsedcl- nnd Antlitzformen Beruebmter
Oder Most BMrkwuerdiger Personen, Ton Dr. C. O. Cams. Heft. L Leipsig, 1848. The
plates are accompanied with German and French text
304 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
sured from the anterior edge of the foramen magnum, in a direct
line to the sagittal suture, is 5|i inches. A certain angularit; oi
squareness of the frontal and posterior bi-parietal regions, gives t»
this head the Teutonic form. The posterior or occipital region i*
flat and broad, and presents to the eye a somewhat pentagonal out-
line. The temporal regions are full, the mastoid processes larg^
and the basis cranii nearly round. The outline of the coron^
re^on resembles a triangle, truncated at the apex. This latt^^
feature is also seen in one of the Finnic skulls (No. 1538).
Sixteen skulls represent the Suevic or Gtermanic race in Morton- ^^
Collection. The form of No. 37 — the skull of a German woman — - —
is round. No. 1063 — a German of Tubingen -:— exhibits the sqna^:^'^
form very decidedly. The occiput is flattened ; the fiace large
long. No. 1064 — also of Tubingen — has the Swedish or Northei
angular oval, a type distinct from the oval of Southern Europe, wil
which hasty observers are apt to confound it. It is a well-fonn<
head, and in some respects resembles the Anglo-Saxon skull
in Crania Britannica. No. 1188 — also of Tubingen — resembles
preceding skull. No. 1189 (Tubingen) bears the Swedo-Pinnic typ«
Nos. 1191 — German of Frankfort— 1192 and 1193 — Prussians
Berlin — approximate the square form. Nos. 1187 (Frankfort),
1065 (Prussian), present the Swedish type. No. 1066 (Prussian),
square, or angularly round.
It will thus be seen, from the foregoing observations on the cranL
of the races of Northern, Central, and Western Europe, that we muj
distinguish for these regions several distinct cranial types — a Lap:^
ponic, a Finnic, a Norwegian, a Swedish, a Cimbric, a Gtermanic^^
an Anglo-Saxon, a Keltic, &c. ; that the modern Finn represents, ii
all probability, the ancient Tchudic or Scythic tribes ; that the Noi
wegian and Swedish are varieties of the same type ; that the Ger-
manic form is intermediate between the Finn and Swede ; that
Anglo-Saxon skull is allied to the Swedish, its fsicial portion bearing,
to some extent, the Finnic stamp ; that the Cimbric type is veiy
ancient (more ancient, perhaps, than any of the forms just enume:
rated, except the Lapponic), resembles the kumbe-kephalic, and
represents a primitive humanitarian epoch; that the Keltic type,
if indeed any such exists, should be regarded as a variety of tiie
Cimbric — a low and early form ; and lastly, that the various types
of skull to a certain extent approach, represent, and blend with each
other in obedience to the great and, as yet, not properly understood
law of gradation which seems to pervade and harmonize all natural
forms, and in consequence, also, of the amalgamations which, within
or THE BACES OF MEN.
805
certain limita, moat liave accompanied the BacceeBive occupancy of
this region by the races of men Under coDBideratioD.
In the following Table, the reader will find these races compared
tojfether in relatioD to their cranial capacities.
TABLS III.
Kdkopkaii Ceania,
i->
SW»
OnMjun.
Asau-
*"^r"-
E«.
o™, 1
Vn/,
Vof,
\0<«
No. in
1
JV«.
loffm.
I.SW.
fcv".
■jm
flO
m
0)
■n
„
njin
sn
^
IMI
w.
lOM
w.
mm.
MM
I<».76
M,
M.T.
»U1
88.^
e4.w
3
m
ir-ii
or
^
n
7S
3
so!
1
I-"——
MM
90^
«,.
-
M.»
Iji the above Table, the reader will observe the high cranial
opacities of the Swedes, Finns, and Germans ; he will also per-
I I'^e that the Anglo-Saxons and Anglo-Americans posBcss the same
.**!&« ftyerage; while the mean for the Kelts and CSmbri is several
^*^fee8 less. It is a curious fact, that in the column marked " Kelts,"
. <*8. 21, 42, 52, and 985 exhibit the Gothic ^e, as before men-
**»«d (page 801), and have in general the high internal capaei^-
***" the Korthern races ; while Kos. 18, 1186, and 1564, which are
. the (Hmbric type, possess a lower internal capacity. The Table
~* "Jot eitcnsive enongh to base upon this interesting fiict any posi-
^o eondoBion ; bnt as &r as this fact goes, it appears to me to
^'^fiim Hxe enggestaon already advanced, that the Cimbric and
**ltic trp^ of akaU are closely allied, if not, indeed, identical.
-Aj the observant traveller, coming from the west, approaches the
^*lra of the Vistula, he becomes aware of some modifications of the
'***Jialtype jurt deBcribed, — modificalions which call to his mind
20
306 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
dim recollections of the Turk, the Tartar, and the Finn. In thiB
region — ^tlie debatable ground upon which, from veiy remote periods,
the Sclavonian and the German have overlapped and blended,— Ue
encounters here and there certain transitionary forms, which prepare
him for a change of type. Once beyond the Vistula and the Carpar
thians, in the country of the Wend, the Slovack, and the Magyar, be
is called upon to study a form of head, whose geographical area ^-
Sarmatia of the classical writers — extends from the region just indi-
cated into central Asia, having the Great Uwalli for its northern, aod
the Euxine Sea and tribes of the Caucasus for its southern boundary -
The dawn of history reveals this extensive tract occupied, as at
present day, by the Sclavonians, a great family, whom an able wri
in the North British Review^ for August, 1849, considers to be
much an aboriginal race of Eastern, as the Germans are of Cen
Europe.
According to Prichard, this great people, who appear to be
aboriginal European branch of the ancient Scythse, "have the co
mon type of the Indo- Atlantic nations in general, and of the Int ^
European family to which it belongs."** M. Edwards thus minute- ^
describes the Sclavonic type :
**The contour of the head, viewed in ft'ont, approaches nearly to a square; the
surpasses a little the breadth ; the summit is sensibly flattened ; and the direction of
jaw is horizontal. The length of the nose is less than the distance from its base to
chin ; it is almost straight from the depression at its root, that is to say, without decid
ourvation ; but, if appreciable, it is slightly concaTe, so that the end has a tendency to to
up ; the inferior part is rather large, and the extremity rounded. The eyes, rather d
set, are perfectly on the same lino ; and when they have any particular character, they a
smaller than the proportion of the head would seem to indicate. The eyebrows are thi
and very near the eyes, particularly at the internal angle ; and from this point are ofti
directed obliquely outwards. The mouth, which is not salient, has thin lips, and is mQ<
nearer to the nose than to the top of the chin. Another singular characteristic may
added, and which is very general; viz., their small beard, except on the upper lip. Sa
is the common type among the Poles, Silesians, Moravians, Bohemians, Sclavonic Hooj
rians, and it is very common among the Russians."**
According to Prof. Retzitjs, the Sclavonic cranium is of an ova-i-'
form, truncated posteriorly. Its greatest length is to its greate^^^-
breadth as 1000 : 888. The external auditory meati are posterior U
the plane passing through the middle of the longitudinal diamet^i
The face is exactly like that of the Swedes.
The Sclavonic Race is but poorly represented in the cranial coUe^^^^"
tion of the Academy. Besides the cast of a Sclavonian head ficor^^
Morlack, in Dalmatia, it contains only the head of a woman fro^^*^
Olmutz in Moravia. "I record this deficiency in my collectioD*
wrote Dr. Morton, a short time before his death, " in the hope tb*
** Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, iii., 442.
»• Dcj» Caractferes Physiologiques des Races Hnmaines. Par W. P. Bdwaida, 1829L
OF THE RACES OF MEN.
307
(1261).
*ome person, interested in purauita of tbia nature, may be induced to .
provide me with materials for making the requisite comparisone.
My impression is, that the Sclavoiiian brain will prove much leea
'''oluminoua than that of the Teutonic race."
The Olmutzian head above alluded to [Fig. 31) very weti repre-
**ent8 the skull-type of Eastem
Europe. It presents the fol-
lowing characters: — General
form of the head globular,
Hkoagh wanting in symmetry,
in consequence of tfie posterior
pox^on of the right parietal
tc7oe being more fully devel-
oped than the corresponding
porTJon of the left; the calva-
ria <jiiitc large in proportion to
tii^ face, and broadest poste-
ric»rly between the parietal pro-
taberancea; the forehead is
hi^li, and moderately broad; the vertex prceente a somewhat flat-
tened appearance, in consequence of eloping downwards and back-
waxiifl towards the occiput; the occipital region is also flat, and the
breadth between the mastoid processes very great. The face is small
and delicat*, the nasal bones prominent, the orbits of moderate size,
the malar bones flat and delicately rounded, and the zygomatic pro-
cesses email and slender. The lower jaw is rather small, rounded at
the angles, and quite acuminated at the symphysis. If classified
according to its form, this head would find its place near to, if not
l»etween, the E^almuck and Turkish types.
Interlopers in the lands of the Slovack for 1000 years, and speaking
* dialect of the Finnish language, the Magyars, or Hungarians, pre-
sent ns with ethnic peculiarities which, for several reasons, are worthy
otxr close attention. Like the Yakuts of the Lena, tliey are a dislo-
eat-ed people. The displacements of the two races, however, have
been in opposite directions. The physical characters, language, and
tJ».ditions of the Yakuts indicate a more southern origin ; the cranial
tyX»e and language of the Magyar point to the North, Edwards thne
hriefly describes what may be called the Hungarian type, in eontra-
diatiDCtioa to the Slovack :
** XIfmI ne&rtj round, forehaiul little deTelopccI, low, (uidheniiing; the ejes plactd obljqnely,
**> c^al ihe eiterniil angle in elevated ; tlie nose ehart lud flat ; mouth prominent and lipi
'^■^h; neA'ttrj strong; go that the bitek of Ihe head appears Hat, Torming almoEt a atraiftht
^••*? vilblhenape; beard irenk and scutttring ; stalure amalL'*'"
308 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
It is to be regretted that the Mortonian Collection contains not a
single Hungarian skull. Well-drawn descriptions of the crania of
this nation would, in all probability, settle at once and forever tlie
long-disputed question of their origin. I may say, in passing, haw-
ever, that the above description of Edwards rather tends to the sap-
position that the Hungarians are cognate with the Finns.
Upon the southern border of the lands of the Magyar we enconnt^^
the Wallachs, the probable descendants of the ancient Gtetee or I>»-
cians, and the only living representatives of the ancient Thraci^i^
race, whose area extended from the shores of the MediterraneftXi,
northward beyond the Danube, and eastward into Asia MinoT.
Here the human 'type again varies, to such an extent, indeed, ib^^^
Prichard speaks of the "Wallachs as a people peculiar and distia <5t
from all the other inhabitants of the countries on the Lower Danut>^-
*♦ The common Wallacb," he continues, " as we are informed by a late traveller, dilPt!**^
in a decided manner from the Magyar or Hungarian, as weU as from the SUras ^-^
Germans who inhabit the borders of Hungary. They are generally below the initi
height, thin, and slightly built. Their features are often finely shaped, their
arched, their eyes dark, their hair long, black, and wavy; their countenances are
expressive of cunning and timidity. They seldom display the dull heavy look of
Slovak, and still more rarely the proud carriage of the Magyar.
" Mr. Paget was struck by the resemblance which the present WaHaohs bear to
sculptured figures of ancient Dacians to be seen on Trajan's Pillar, which are rei
for long and flowing beards."**
In the Bulgarians of the southern banks of the Danube, and tb^
Albanians of the Venetian Gulf, we discover still other tj-pes, diff^*""
incr alike from each other, and from the "Wallachian. Like tb^
Basques of the Pyrenees, the Bretons of France, and the Gaels ^
Britain, tlie Albanians or Skippetars differ in language and physi^^
characters from the races by which they are surrounded, and app^^
to be the remnant of a people who, if not identical with the mV^*^'
rious and much-debated Pelasgi, were, in all probability, their cot^^
porarics. They differ decidedly from their Greek neighbors, h^^^^
generally nearly six feet high, and strong and. muscular in prop^
tion "They have oval faces, large mustachios, a ruddy colof ^-
their cheeks, a brisk, animated eye, a well-proportioned mouth, ^^.
fine teeth. Their neck is long and thin, their chest broad; tl^^^
legs are slender, with very little calf."^
Neither time nor space permits me, nor does the Mortonian Cy*^ "
lection contain the cranial material necessary, to illustrate ^^
*» Researches, &o., iii. p. 504. See, also, Paget*s TraTels in Hungary and Transjlr^^
Tol. ii. p. 189, et teq. London, 1839. See ante, Pulsxky's Chap., fig. 70, "Daoian."
"• Poqueville cited by Prichard.
OF TEE BACES OF MEN.
309
*^Uttierou8 and diversified types of sknll which are now, as iu the
*^<>8t ancient times, found scattered through the Grecian, Italian,
*>M Iberian peninBulas of Europe — in fact, all along the shores
oii)xs Mediterranean. Tribe after tribe, race after race, nation aft«r
liation, appear successively to have occupied the soil of Europe,
jilajiiig out their allotted part in the great Life-drama, and then
sinking quietly into the oblivion of the dim, mysterious, and eternal
Past, whose only records are vague traditions, and strange linguistic
ibrras — whose sole monuments are rude mounds, and mouldering
iuixiatile bones. Here and there, we are called upon to confcm-
pla'te fragmentary and isolated communities, whose origin is lost
in the uight of time, and who for long ages have clung to a moun-
tain range, to a valley, or a water-course, differing from the more
iiic><36m but still ancient people about them, and slowly awaiting
tha-t annihilation which they instinctively feel is sure to come at last.
As tlie Universe maintains its life and pristine vigor by an unending
destniction, which is simply an incessant transmutation of its parts ;
aad. as the health of individual man is preserved by the ceaseless
molecular death and metamorphosis of the tissues, so the Human
Family — tlie huge body humanitarian — is kept alive and strong"
npon the globe by the decay and deatli, from time to time, of its
etljni* members. If these passive, stagnating parts were allowed to
accii mulate, the death of the whole would be inevitable. Thus
hoa-i-y Nature, establishing in death the hidden sjirings of other
forms and modes of life, maintains herself ever young and vigorous,
and through apparent evil incessantly engenders good.
It would be unpardonable, iu this attemjitcd 8ur\'ey of the cranial
cbax-acteristics of the races of men, thougli ever so hurriedly made,
if -^e omitted to notice the Greeks and Romans — respectively, the
intellectual and physical masters of the world. In the Greek skull,
we "behold the emblem of exalted reason ; in the Roman, that of
aoparalleted militarj' prowess. Not alone in the matchless foi-ma
wliich the inspired chisel of a Phidias and a Praxiteles has left us,
may we study tlie Grecian type. Among the Speziotes of the Archi-
pelago, and in various localities through the Morea — the area of the
aitoient IlelleneB — these marble fig^ures still find their li\-ing repre-
sentatives ; thus attesting, at once the truthfulness of the artist, and
tbe pertinacity with which nature ever clings to her typical forms.
N"o»- need we resort to the Ducal Gallery at Florence, to obtain a
coi-ret-t idea of the Roman tj-pe, as embodied in tlie busts of the
**-rl_T Emperors of tho Seven-billed City. Travellers inform us, that
^la type, unchanged by the vicissitudes of time and circumstance,
3JU
THE CRANIAL CHARACTEKISTICS
BtiU lives and inoveB in the " Traeteverini," or mob population of the
Tiber.
Dr. Morton thus describes the Greek phyeiognomy:
"ThB fureliead ia high, eipanded. and but lltUe trohcd. no thst U fomu, wilb the
■tnight wid poinWd noiB, ft uewlj recliliaeiir ouUiLe. This confommtitm Fometimw
imparts an appearanoo of dispro portion to tM
upper part of ihe fads, which, bowerer, i< in a
p«at measure coantcraolod by tho Inrgenew of lie
eja. The Greek face ii a Gna a-ral. oud small in
eompariioD to the tolumiiiDUB head. The staines
of the Otjmpian Jupjter, and the Apnllo Beliiden
(Fig. S2), oodtg; an exact ide» of the perfect
"la the Greek," aays Mabtik, "the oount*-
nanee has b moro aaimnt«I expreinon ; Uir ejea
ara largo: and the farcLoad adTandiig. prodocca
a tnarkcd but elegant *up«r.«rbital margin, oo
vhich the eyebrows are delicilely pencilled; lb*
noHO, ftilliug straight from the furobeitil, ■omettnLM
inclines to an aquiline form, aad is often of rather
mora than moderate length ; the apper lip is short,
nud the mouth delioalvl; ninalded; th« lower jaw
is Gol BO largo as to disturb the otdI ooiitour of tha
face, and the chin is promiDont: the general ei-
preaaion, with less of eleraness than in the Koibbb,
Ima equal daHng, and betokens iatelloalukl wall^
Bldmenbach describes a Greek ekiiU — with one exception, the
moat benittifi]! head in his collection — in the foliowioji; terms: "The
y[g s8. form of the calvai-ia sub-globular ; the fore-
head most nobly arched ; tho euperior max-
illary bones, just beneath the tiasal aperture,
joined in a plane almost perpendicular; the
malar bones even, and Hl<ii)ing niodcratoly
downwards,""' Fig. 33, borrowed from the
first volume of Prichard'a Researches, repre-
sents the skull of a Greek, named Oonstan-
tiue Demetriades, a native of Corfu, and for
a long time a teacher of tlie Modern Greek
language at Oxford.*" The Mortoniun Col-
lection ia indebted to Prof. liurKins for tho cast of the skull of a young
Greek, which in its general form and character verj- much resembled
the above figure from Priebard. I find the calvaria well developed ;
the frontal region expansive and prominent; the facial line departs
»» Tran. Amer,, p. 12.
>" Docas Seita, p. 6.
1 Man and MonkeTi, p. 228,
i* Op. oit, p. xtIL
J
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 311
but slightly from the perpendicular, and the facial angle consequent!}
approaches a right angle. A small and regularly-formed face, devoid
of asperities, harmonizes well with the general intellectual character
of the head proper. The malar bones are small, flat, and smooth,
with just enough lateral prominence to give to the face an oval out-
line ; the alveolar margins of the maxillse are regularly arched, and
the teeth perpendicular.
Crossing the Gulf of Venice, we next encounter the Roman form
of head — " a striking type," to use the language of Dr. Wiseman,
** essentially the same, from the wreathed image of Scipio's tomb,
to Trajan or' Vespasian, consisting in a large and flat head; a low
and wide forehead; a face, in childhood, heavy and round — later,
broad and square ; a short and thick neck, and a stout and broad
figure. Nor need we go far to find their descendants ; they are to
be found every day in the streets, principally among the burgesses,
or middle class, the most invariable portion of any population."'"
Slumskbach presents us with the figure of the skull of a Soman
pTsetorian soldier, and accompanies it with the following description :
** QenenJ form very fine and Bymmetrical ; oalvaria sub-globose, terminating antoriorlj
^ a forehead elegantly smoothed ; glabella and superciliary arches moderately prominent ;
Basal bones of a medium form, neither depressed nor aquiline ; cheek-bones descending
8*>itly from the lower and outer margin of the orbits, not protuberant as in Negroes, nor
^^'^^^tdly expanded as in Mongols ; jaws with the alveolar arches and rows of teeth well-
•t^unded; ezteraal occipital protuberance very broad and prominent."*^
SAjmiFORT figures a Roman skull, and speaks of the broad, smooth,
^^d perpendicular forehead; the even vertex, rising at the posterior
*^^^; the lateral globosity, and general oblong form.^** According
Jkf OKTON, " the Roman head diflfers from the Greek in having the
'^head low and more arched, and the nose strongly aquiline,
^ther with a marked depression of the nasal bones between the
j» ^-*'^" Martin speaks of the Roman skull as well-formed, "the
_ *^oe^(l remarkable rather for breadth than elevation ; eyes mode-
^ y^ large; a raised and usually aquiline nose; full and firmly
^ ^^^^d.lips; a large lower jaw, and a prominent chin, distinguish
^ ^oman ; and an expression in which pride, stemncBs, and daring
J, J^nded, complete the picture of * broad-fronted Cffisar.' '*^^® Dr.
^ '^^DS, after critically examining the busts of the early Emperors,
^^scribes the Roman type of head :
II
gil^ — , ^ 'Vertical diameter is short, and the face, consequently, broad. The flattened sum-
^^e cranium, and the almost horizontal lower margin of the jaw, cause the contour
-tores on the Ckmnection between JScienoe and Revealed Religion, p. 162.
-Jea, 4to, p. 7. *^ Tabulae Craniorum diversarum Nationum, P. L
^'^.tiia Americana, p. 18. '>' Man and Monkeys, p. 228.
I riAXlAL CHARACTERISTICS
>i 2 ±-ia:L zs Kcr^xiinaie dcddedlj to a sqnare. The lilenl p«tt
: u.-* ':x«h«ftd low; the nose trniy aqoifine — Uu enmUR
■V.
!;*.■ i^«t:
^ i^sjT zirs xc kiti i&ijLT ^<f:r« reaching the point, the base being horixoDU^*
. Tjrmr? I^s-rlr^Sw in the followiDg terms, a " Schadel A^^
--J. Kr.iiTirs.'" tjuken itom an ancient cemetery at York:
- :: :.: ^ ▼ : 77 Urr?. i^ '.« &£?h &9 wt2 as in breadth, though of the doUeho-eep1»^
rn- I: 1* :r.*i*r iKt* u>vanis the xertex, tban bebw towards the' b*'**
: -j irr*r :r c^.r:=A: sorficc and the Tcrtez are somewhat flat; the eirc'*''*'
:^k:i ir-.ci iZ'.Ti. is % \:zz, weJg©-Ske oral, terminating posteriorlj in i il»»^*^"
F R^^:ii :r:;ftl w«II arched, but rather low; superciliary ridges 00*^'
la.
-7* %f>9v« j:' ii-f fr.'cu: b'.-ae small not prominent; no fW»ntal protuberances; tanpy
::.■■; i.i ' i ? r- j .x- rl!! z : r *rl« 1*: protuberances large, forming lateral angles in a poste^^
*. ;^ ; -iaaiir.'j: vl: irar: : tie <«mi-cireular temporal ridge eloTated towards the wrt^
.. a: ..- -i-i. ?• <i::i-r:. *J:e pr.tubennce rather prominent; the sagittal suture 8ligt:>>
:-^«*:i.. .-^y^.■^.::l-■:•■ — — * r.^ierl.T part; receptaculum cerebelU large, &c.""»
^IJ
'•..
H « \ 1
y\: >4
a-
ls
is
It
i-
A€3
:;>■ »-X T-iT-ros and minutely describes, in Crania Britanni^^^^
r::inus« found in a Soman sarcophagus at Yo
(the ancient Eburacum), erect
probably during the third ce-
tury of our aera. He info
us \hat this skull (Fig. 34)
a veiy fine example of the a-
cieiit Roman cranium; that
is unusually capacious, its
mcnsions being much above t
average in almost every dir*:?'*-*-
tion; that the forehead, thou <x^>
low, is remarkable forbreadtli :
that the coronal surface preseii'^^
an oval outline, and is notat>l*^
for its great transverse diamct^*" '
that the parietal region is ^^
:cr.\von\l fossw large; the mastoid proce^^*^*
\:.;. :uul prominent ; the occipital bone full ^^^
^ iv. its upper half; the frontal sinuses and '•^ ^
V ; iho nasiil bones very large and broad, w"'^^
...': the lachrymal bones and canals large; "i^ .
.. :;.o superior maxilhv somewhat unduly pror^\ ,
- v..:n'dn, and thus giving a slightly prognatt ^^
bony palate wide and deep, Ac.®*
\kX.
•».«.
\.o
^ T;.-rj:u*, in MUller's Archiv fUr Anat, Phys., &e. Ja]»>
.. -vir. ft ^^rer'-On thermniaof the Ancient Romans," read
,s ?:■!?.»*): A**\^iation. Si-j-t., 18'm.
"*•
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 313
he long-vexed, but still unsolved problems of the histo-
le ethnologist, is the origin and affiliations of the ancient
Whether they were emigrants from a foreign land, as,
few exceptions, the traditions of the ancients imply, or
8 most modem writers contend, they are really indigence,
pen question. Possessing a civilization stretching back to,
bout 1000 years b. c, a cultivated literature ^and great phy-
3e, an elaborate religious system, whose machinery rivalled
city the colossal Theisms of Hindostan and Egypt, and an
^elopment of a high, and in some respects peculiar order,
ed all the early nations of Europe, except the Greeks, when
Imiest days. Their language was cognate with older forms
llenic and Latin tongues ; but, judging fix)m the figures
d upon the coverings of sarcophagi, in painted tombs, and
3 productions, their physical characters distinguished them
from the surrounding nations. According to Prof. K. 0.
e proportions observed in these figures indicate a race of
ire, with great heads ; short, thick arms, and a clumsy and
mformation of body, the " obesos et pingues Etruscos.*'
ar to have possessed large, round faces ; a thick and rather
, large eyes, a well-marked and prominent chin.'^ Ed-
tvever, speaks of observing among the peasantry of Tus-
3nt Etruria), in the statues and busts of the Medici family,
bas-reliefs and effigies of the great men of the Florentine
Et type of head characterized by its length and narrowness,
ierable frontal development, by a long, sharp-pointed, and
e.
ralerie Anthropolo- ^*g« S^-
Paris, contains a
'Usque donn6 par le
larles Bonaparte,"
otograph of which
panying figure was
The reader will ob-
peculiar conforma-
s skull; the rude
IS of structure, the
f the frontal region,
J of the crown, and
J . ,. ,. ^ Crane iTBusQUi.
rard inclination of
ftl bones towards the full and rounded occiput. The
% Abhandlung der Berlin, Akad. 1818 and 1819, cited by Priehaid, li
., iii. 256 : — but, see, on these philological and arehAologloil qM
liap. L, and M. Pulszky'a Chap. II., in this Tolume, aU$.
314
THE CRAXIAL CHARACTEBISTICS
description of Miiller coincides very well with the appearance of
this skulL
Fig. 86.
Phcekiciah.
In Fig. 86 the reader haB
before him another pecolifr^
type — and a unique speci-
men— of skull, that of t"b.^
Ancient Phoenicians, the
wanderers (a name their hab:
suggest and justify), the
navigators and comme
traders of antiquity, who,
early as the sixth cent
B. c, had dared the waters
the Atlantic, and, peihaj^^
doubled the Cape of 6
Hope in their fearless explorations; and whose language, after bei
lost for nearly two thousand years, has lately been deciphered, and i
long-hidden secrets revealed to the world.'''
**I received this highly interesting relic," says Dr. Mobtoh, "from M. F. Fresncl,
distinguishcU French archxologist and traTeller [since deceased, Febmary, 1866^
Bagdad, in the midst of Ninevite explorations], with the following memorandam, a.
1847: — * Crane provenant dcs caves sdpalchrales de Ben-Djemma, dana Itle de Mtl
Co crane parait avoir appartenu & un individu de la race qui, dans les temps lei pB-
ancicns, occupait lu cote septcutrionale de TAfriquo, et Ics iles adjacentes.* "*^
This cranium is the one alluded to in the interesting anecdo*^
narrated by the late Dr. Patterson, in his graceful Memoir, ^^
illustrating the wonderful power of discrimination, the tactui vk^^^i
acquired by Dr. Mortox in his long and critical study of crani o
graphy.^'^ From this circumstance, and from the many singol**'
and interesting associations inseparably connected with its antiquiO'
its introduction here cannot fail to be received with a lively 8Ct»>^^
of interest by those engaged in these studies. It is in many resp^^
a peculiar skull. In a profile view, the eye quickly notices ^^
remarkable length of the occipito-mental diameter. This feat^ -
gives to the whole head an elongated appearance, which is nii>^\
heightened by the general narrowness of the calvaria, the backwi*'
slope of the occipital region, and the strong prognathous tendei> *"^
of the maxillse. The contour of the coronal region is a long ov"^*^'
which recalls to the mind the kumbe-kephalic form of WiLSCT-^*
The moderately well-developed forehead is notable for its regulari^^J
In its form and general characters the face is sui generis. It m.
«» See Pulszky's Chap. I., p. 129-187, ante.
s>^ See Morton's Catalogno of Skulht of Man and the Inferior Animglii
No. 1352.
"ft See Types of Mankind, d. xI.
PhJUda., 1^^'
J
OF THE RACES OF JBEN. 315
iaptly be compared to u double wedge, for the J'acinl bones are
only mclined downwaids and remarkably forward, thus tapering
'Ords the chin, bnt also in consequence of the fiatuesB of tlie
lAT bones and the inferior maxillary rami they appear laterally
apressed, eloping gently, on both aides, from behind forwards,
^-ards the median line. The lower jaw is large, and much thrown
Bvardg. The slope of the superior maxilla forms an angle with
) horizon of about 45". Notwilhetarding this inclination of the
^dllii, the incisor teeth are bo curved as to be nearly vertical.
LUce the prognathism of the jaws is quite peculiar, differing, as it
BS, from that of the Eskimo cranium already alluded to, and from
B true African skulls presently to he noticed.
In the consideration of European types, we pass next to the sup-
Bcd primeval home of the human family. In the mountainous
it fertile region of the Caucasus, extending from the Enxiuo to the
LEpian Seas, dwell numerous ti'ibes, speaking mutually uuintelli-
jJe languages, and differing in physical characters. From this
fion were the harems of tlie Turk and Persian supplied with those
kutdful Georgian and Circassian females, who have, to no small
»nt, imparted their physical excellence to the former people,
me idea of the multiplicity of languages spoken in this small area
y be obtained from a fact mentioned by Pliny, that at Dioscurias,
mall flea,-port town, the ancient commerce with the Greeks and
CQADB was carried on through the intervention of one hundred and
■ty interpreters.
^ins Caucasian group of races, comprising the Circassian or Kabar-
ti race, the Absn^ or Abassiane, the Oseti or Ir6n, the Mizjeji, the
>^ana, and the Georgians, is classed by Latham, singularly enough,
b the Mongolidfe. In alluding to tVieir physical confonnation, he
akB of them as "moditied Mongols," although he confesses his
bility to answer tlie patent physiological objections to such an
mgement — objectious based upon the symmetry of shape and
icacy of complexion on the part of the Georgians and Cireassians.
thm T^tXlj soicntififl portion of tbess anatomical reaaons" {fur connecting tbo kbove
j» 'witb the Eurapean nations), snjB lie, "consists in a eingU fact, vhicb vaa na followil:
imeiiblLCh liad a solitar; Georgian skoil, and that Eolilar; Oeorginn skutl vas tLe Gneat
> collection, tbat of a Greek being the next. Hence, it was taltcn aa the type of the
of Uie more orgnaiied diTisionB of oiir species. More than this, it gnrc its name to
jpe, »iid iDtraduced the term Cavtaiiiin. Never has a, single head done more hnrm to
oe tliKii was done in the va; of poathiUDOua mischief, b; tlie bead of this WDll-sLaped
le trom Oeorgia. I do not saj that it was not k fair sample of all Georgian slinlla. It
,t or might not he. I only ]aj before critics the amount nf induction that the; have
The VarietieB of Man, pp. 105, 111, 108, The altentioQ of the reader is directed to
fallovriiig paragraph, dcscripIiTe of the Georgian cranium referred lo above. "The
d ia of such di^tingiuilied elegance, that it attraota the attention of all
316
THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Fig. 87.
Circassian (764).
Now Morton's Collection con-
tains four well-marked Ciicaa-
sian heads, — ^two male and two
female, — which, although they
do not strictly coincide in ^^^
ture and configoration with the
Georgian skull, nevertheless a?"
proximate more decidedly ^^
Japhetic or European form tha^
the Mongolian, as will be seen
by the annexed cut and descrip"
tion of one of these crania, tb*^
of a man, aetat. 40 years, ai^^^
^
k".
exhibiting an internal capacity of 90 cubic inches. The calvaria ^
well developed and regularly arched, and in size considerably exce^^^
the face. The proportions between the vertical, transverse, and lox^'
gitudinal diameters are such as to convey to the eye an impressi^^^
of harmony and regularity of structure. The high and broad to*"^*
head forms with the parietal region a continuous and symmetri^^
convexity. The occiput is full and prominent. The fiwje is stron^^y
marked; the orbits moderate in size; the nasal bones promine^'*' '
the malar bones small and rounded ; the teeth vertical ; tiie maxil*^
of medium size, and the chin prominent. The fulness of the far^^^^
its oval contour, and general want of angularity, decidedly separ^^-
this head from the Mongolian type, as represented by the Kalmim '^^^
skull already figured and described. Did space permit, other diff^
enees could readily be pointed out.
These characters accord very well with the descriptions of
people, given us by different travellers. The Circassians who c
themselves Attighe or Adige (Zychi of the Greeks and Latins, Tche
kess of the Russians) have always been celebrated for their person
charms. Mr. Spencer says that, among the Kottahaizi tribe, eve
individual he saw was decidedly handsome.*" "The men," sav
visit tlio collection in which it is containod. The yertical and ftrontal regions form a
and smooth convexity, which is a little flattened at the temples ; the forwhead is high am
broad, and carried forwards perpendicularly over the face. The cheek-bones are 8maII«i#«^
descending from the outer side of the orbit, and gently turned back. The super^Iiarj
ridges run together at the root of the nose, and are smoothly continued into the bridge of
that organ, which forms an elegant and finely-turned arch. The alveolar processes ar«r
softly roondod, and the chin is full and prominent In the whole structure, there is nothing'
rough or harsh, nothing disagreeably projecting. Hence, it occupies a middle place between
the two 'opposite extremes, of the Mongolian variety, in which the face is flattened, and
expanded laterally ; and the Ethiopian, in which the forehead is contracted, and the jaws
also are narrow and elongated anteriorly.'' — Lawbs290S, op. cit, p. 228.
^ Travels in Circassia, ii., 245.
OF THE RACES OP MEN. 317
Pai*la8, " especially among the higher classes, are mostly of a tall
stature, thin form, but JBCerculean structare. They are very slender
about the loins, have small feet, and uncommon strength in their
arms. They possess, in general, a truly Soman and martial appear-
ance. The women are not uniformly Circassian beauties, but are,
for the most part, well formed, have a white skin, dark-brown or
black hidr, and regular features I have met with a greater
number of beauties among them than in any other unpolished
nation."^ Says BiiAPROTH, — " They have brown hair and eyes, long
feces, thin, straight noses, and elegant forms." ^ "Their profile
approaches nearest the Grecian model," writes Morton, " and falls
little short of the beau-ideal of classic sculpture." ^ The Abassians,
Piobably autochthones of the north-west Caucasus, — "are distin-
S^ished irom all the neighbouring nations by their narrow fitces, by
^^ f gore of their heads, which are compressed on both sides, by the
shortness of the lower part of the fiwje, by their prominent noses and
aark-brown hair."^^ From all accounts, the Georgians, "a people
^^ ^oropean features and form," are but little, if at all, inferior to
^^ Circassians in physical endowments. According to Reikeggs,
^^ Oeoredan women are even more beautiftil than the Circassians.^
^-•e sang de Q6orgie," says Chardin, " est le plus beau de TOrient,
^ J« puis dire, du monde. Je n'ai pas remarqu6 un visage laid en
P^ pays-li, parmi Tun et I'autre sexe, mais j'y en ai vu d'ang^-
^a^e8."»
^I^e extreme south-eastern section of the European ethnic area,
pying mainly the table-land of Iran, is represented in the Mor-
^^ian Collection by six Armenian, two Persian, and one Affghan
,^^^1L A general family resemblance pervades all these crania.
^o^y are all, with one exception, remarkable for the smallness of the
^^^ and shortness of head. In the Armenian skull, the forehead is
^*i'^x)w but well formed, the convexity expanding upwards and back-
^^^^ds towards the parietal protuberances, and laterally towards the
^^^poral bones. The greatest transverse diameter is between the
P^^etal bosses. This feature, combined with the flatness of the oo-
^t^tat, gives to the coronal region an outline somewhat resembling a
r^'^^^ngle with all three angles truncated, and the base of the triangle
^^^^fcing posteriorly. In fact, the whole form of the calvaria is such
^ impress the mind of the observer with a sense of squareness
"* Tr»TdB in Southern Proyinces of the Rosdan Empire, L 898.
"* nraTds in CanoMiv^ Countries.
■* Grtnia Americana, p. 8. ^ Elaproth, CaQoaeaf, y. SI
■i ABgemeine hifltorische-topographiBche Beschreibnng dee Kantaaoi.
* Yojagos en Perse, I., 171.
318 THE CRANIAL CH AH AGTEBISTIC S
and angularity. The dimensions of the orbits are moderate; the r.-;ri
malar bones small, flat, and retreating; the zygomatic prooeflBes ^ .^.^e
slender, and the general expression of the &ce resembling that d^^
Circassians, from which latter it differs in being shorter. The Per- ^-^
sian head is less angular, the frontal region broader, the occip^^
fuller, and the malar bones larger. The lower jaw is small ^^
rather round. The Affghan skull — that of a boy, aged about six-
teen years — resembles, in several respects, the EQndoo type alrea^?
described.
The Syro-Arabian or Semitic race, comprising the Arabians,
Syrians, Chaldseans, Hebrews, and cognate tribes, also felb witl^^^^
the European area.
" The physical conformation of the Arabs proper," says MoaT^^ '
" is not very unlike that of their neighbors, the Circassians, althodf^*^^
especially in the women, it possesses much less of the beautiful. «
The Arab face is a somewhat elongated oval, with a delicately-poin
chin, and a high forehead. Their eyes are large, dark, and full
vivacity ; their eye-brows are finely arched ; the nose is narrow
gently aquiline, the lips thin, and the mouth small and expressive.. ^
In another place, he says : " The head (of the southern or peninsc*
Arabs) is, moreover, comparatively small, and the forehead rat^*"^
narrow and sensibly receding ; to which may often be added a mea-^
and angular figure,^ long, slender limbs, and large knees."'*
Frazer thus describes the physiognomy of the genuine Arabs. "
countenance was generally long and thin ; the forehead moderat^^^
high, with a rounded protuberance near its top ; the nose aquili ^
the mouth and chin receding, giving to the line of the profile a
cular rather than a straight character ; the eye deep set under t>
brow, dark, and bright."^ According to Db Pages, the Arabs
the desei-t between Bassora and Damascus have a large, ardent, bla
eye, a long face, features high and regular, and, as flie result of
whole, a physiognomy peculiarly stem and severe." *■
The famous Baron Larrey asserts that the skulls of the
display " a most perfect development of all the internal organs,
well as of those which belong to the senses Independent!
of the elevation of the vault of the cranium, and its almost sph
form, the surface of the jaws is of great extent, and lies in a straigh
or perpendicular line ; the orbits, likewise, are wider than they
»* Cran. Americana, p. 18.
^ '*Totitcs leurs formes sont angaleoBes," Bays Denon; '*lear bart>e oonrto et & m^che^^^
pointnes." Voyage en Egypte^ I., p. 92.
3)> Cran. ^.gyptiaca, p. 47. *f NairatiTe of a Joaraoy in KhorataB.
•" Travels round the World.
RACES OF HEN.
319
mally seen in the crania of EuropeanB, and thej are somewliat less
dined backwards ; the alveolar arches are of moderate size, and
ey are well supplied with very white and regular teeth ; the caninea,
peciaHy, project but little. The Arabs eat little, and eeldom of
imal food. We are aUo convinced that the bones of the cranium
> thinner in the Arab than in other races, and more dense in
>portion to their size, which is proved by their greater transpa-
>cy."»
IThe reader will obtain some idea of the Arabian cranial type from
' subjoined figure, representing several BMawees of the IsthmuR
Suez (Nob. 766-770, of the Mortonian Collection.)
Fig. 88.
AsABs (BMiircs of iBtbrnuE).
?*5g8. 39 and 40 represent the profile and facial views of an ancient
Syrian skull, obtained, by Dr. Laiard, £rom an ancient mound,
Aaoisn Ahtsiak.
% now deposited in the British Musenm. The representations
~^ given are reductions from natnral-size drawings sent to Dr.
"^T by Mr. J. B. Davis, of Shelton, Staffordshire, who, in an
■■> ComptM Reodn*, t. 6, p. T74.
620 THE CBANIAL CH A B AC T E H I ST ICS
accompanying letter, Toaches for their general acconw^ and fuHbr
fulneBB to nature,
■■This sknll," aaysDr. NOTT, " is Tery InteTwting, in lareral points of tIiw. IdtnBMM
aiie conGrme liUtocy bj slioving thai nons bat a high ' CAooMian' r«o« eonld li»Ta icUmd
so much greiLtnesB, The meiunreinenta taken from the drkiring kts —
Jiongitudinal diuneter, Tf inehea.
Tnuurena " 6| "
Teitioal " 6i "
"It is probable that the parietal diameter 1b larger thtun Uiemeararenent here^ieA-
becauge, poMeasor of only front and profile Tie**, I think these may not expraM hirl7
the poaterior parts of the head. There are but tiro heads in Uorton's whole ^J]^**
series of eqnal ate, and these are ' Pelaagie ;' nor more than two equally lai^ tbnH^"'^
his American series. Daniel 'Webster's head meftsored — longitadinal lUMneter, 7{iiiAe>>
trnasrerse, 6] ; vertical, 6} : and oomparison will show that the Asi^riaii head ii bat *
fraction the smaller of the two "^
■'This Assyrian head moreoTer is remarkable for its olow reaeablanee to mto*! *>^
Morions Egyptian senas olasaed under the 'Felaagia form.' It thus adds »not!>**
ponerful confirmation Co the hot this Tolame ('Types of Mankind') establishes n>-t
that the Egyptian! at all monamentsl times, were a mixed people, and In all biMoiicsl
ages were maeh amalgamated wiUi Cholduo races. Anyone, hmiliarwith craiiis,Tl)«
will oompore this Assyrian hood with the beaatifol Egyptian seriea Uthographed in tb«
Crania ^gypttaea, cannot fail to be atrooh with its resemblance to many of the latter, ere»
more forcibly than anatomists will throngh oar small, if aoonrate, wood-onta."
F'S *i The femiliar Hebraic type is very
well shown in Fig. 41 (No. 842 of tb*
Mortonian Collection), representing *
mummied cranium, taJcen from *^,
Egj-ptian sepulchre. "This hea.^'
writes Morton, "poasesses great *^'
terest, on account of its decided '0-^
brew features, of whicb many ^-^
amples are extant on the moi**'
ments" (of Egypt). The fragment* *"
colossal head from Kouyunjik (Fig. 42, on next page), affords an exc ^
lent idea of the higher and more ancient Chaldteic type.
I hasten to complete the consideration of Caucasian ^pes by refc^
ring briefly to the peculiarities presented by Egyptian crania. I^
'*° But GTen the head of Webster is surpassed by the skoll of a Qerman baker, in t ^
SIusBum of the UniTersity of LonisTille, which Prof. T. Q. BrcHABDSOX, ¥fith the asaiBtan ^
of Prof. B. SiLLiHAN, Jr., found to possess the eitroordinary internal «apaai^ of 126.^*
cubic inches, and to present the following eitemsl measnrementi i
Occi pi to-frontal, or loDg^tndinal diameter.. ..._»...._._.». ^tnehei.
Bi-parietnl, or trannerse diameter .■.,«»„.,«..„....... GJ- ■•
Vertical diameter. «........_, U ••
Circiiraferpnce _ 284 "
Over the vertei, between the centres of the anditory meatuses... 14| ■■
See EUmtnlt of J7unian Aiuttomy. By T. O. Bichardaon, H. D. FbiUda., 1B54, p, 1G7.
OF THE RACES OF MEN.
321
k's severely Icanied and ac- f'B- ^3.
>a.te labore in tbia field are too
[1 known to the scientific world
r-ender necessary in thie place any
glhened craniographie description
.lie exceedingly ancient and highly
■lized occupants of the classic JVifo-
t TeUua. Premiaing that the popn-
.on of Egypt, even in very remote
tea, was exceedingly mixed, that
t ancient sepiilchreB of the Nile
itain Negroid as well aa Caucasian
uuia, and that, among the lattar,
>BTor( distinguished three distinot
■xns or varieties — the Egyptian pro-
r, the Pelaegic, and Semitic, — I
o«eed t» give the reader some idea of the first two of these varieties,
■ xoeans of the following concise extracts and expreesive illustrations,
|c«n at random from Crania Mgyptiaca.
**The Eg)'ptian form differs from the Pelasgic in having a narrow
i<3 more receding forehead, while, the face being more prominent,
e facial angle is consequently less. The nose is straight or aqui-
■^ the face angular, the features often sharp, and the hair uniformly
n^, soft, and curling The subjoined wood-cut (Eig. 43)
Fig. 43.
Pig 44
N
THE CRANIAL C U A K A C T E R I ST I C8
illustrates a remarkable head, which may serve as a type of thegi
ine Egjiitiati coiifonnation. The loug oval cranium, the r
forehead, gently aquiline nose, and retracted chin, together will ■
marked distance hetwoen the nose and mouth, and the long, amol
hair, are all characteristic of the monumental Egyptian," auJ ^
shown in Figs, 44, 45, 46 {retro). " To this we may add, tlial the ill
deficient part of the Egyptian skull is the coronal region, wliiclj
extremely low, while the posterior chamher ia remarkably fall I
prominent."
Tho Pelasgic form is represented in Fig. 47 — "A benutii
formed bead, with a forehead high, I
and nearly veitical, a good corooal P
and largely developed occiput. The S
bones are long and §traight, and the «
facial etructure delicately proporlia
Age between 30 and 36 years. lotei
capacity 88 cubic inchee; facial angle Bl^]^.
Fd(UffKform,"—md ia Fig. 48,— "He«^
Fig. 47.
I
of a woman of thirty, of a fault-
less Caucaeian mould. Tho hair,
which is in profusion, is of a dark
brown tint, and delicately curled.
PeJaagieform." Fig. 49, originally delineated in Napaleon*8i)«CT
de VEgypte, admirably illustrates the Egyptian typo or coufigim
Of tlic Fellahs of Lower Egypt, the lineal descendants of the a
rural Egyptians, an excellent idea may bo obtained fVom the eni
iiig on next page (Fig, 50), representing five aknlla of this po^
-' The skull of the Fellah is strikingly like that of tho snuicut T
tJan. It is long, narrow, somewhat flattened on the eidcs, and
prominent in the occiput. The coronal region is low, the for
moderately receding, the nasal bones long and nearly atnughj
cheek-bones small, the maxillary region slightly proguatlicMiflJ
the whole cranial structure tliiu and delicate. But, notwithstaqj
or THE RACES OF HEN
ng-sa
Hg. w.
"fclioBe resemblanceB between the Fellah and Egyptian skulls, the latter
2>oase88 wbat may be called an otteohgical expreasion peculiar to
'tJiemselves, and not seen in the Fellah."
According to PauNEB, the ekall of the Fellah is broader and
"tilucker than that of the Arab.***
Fig. 61 represents a Coptic craninm, which Morton deBcribee as
"elongated, narrow, but
otherwise mediately de-
"veloped in front, with
great breadth and falness
in the whole posterior re-
coil. The nasal bones,
thon^ prominent, are
broad, short, and concave,
taxi the nppor jaw is
BTerted. There is also a
remarkable distance be-
tween the eyes." **
Tom we now to the consideration of the haman sknll-types cha-
racterinng the so-called African KealniT— a region cnt o^ as it were,
from the rest of the world by the vast Saharan Desert, once the bed
of an ancient ocean, bnt now constituting a natural line of demarca-
tion between the organic worlds of Europe and Africa.
A glance at a laige chart or map of the African continent, as at
present known to ns, reveals the variona races or nations of this
part of the world, distributed in a somewhat triangular manner.
The apex of this triangle, composed of the Hottentot family, coin-
cides with the southern extremity of the continent ; the two sides
are represented by the tribes of the western and eastern coasts ;
while the base, aldrting the sands of Sahara, and stretching from
•■ Di» TTibacUdbMl dw ■ItigTpUMlun H«iuoh«Draf«. TodDt. FnuPmner, MOnohen
]8w,^Is.
*■ CrHds iBgypdMa, p. 67.
OF THE BACES OF HEH^ 325
(No. 983 of the Gollecttoa) ie
neither an unoBual nor exagge-
rated form, is rendered evident
by comparing it with the Creole
Negro given in the first volume of
PluCHiSD's laborious Betearchu
into the Phytieal Eistory of Man-
kindf with the drawings of Sandi-
MBT,*" and Camper,** or with the
eknll represented on Plate VDX
<^ Lawrehce'i Lecture§, Indeed,
this latter drawing presents a more degraded form than the accom-
panying figure. The general typical resemblance, however, is so'
great, tiiat I transcribe, without hesitation and for self-evident rea-
Bous, the following description by Lawsence :
"Thi &aat of the besd, including the forehMd and face, is comprMeed Utarftn;, and
Muidmblj alangsted towards the n-ant ; hence the length of th« whole Bkoll, frooi Ut«
'Mb to the ocoiput, is conudenble. It forms, in this respect, the etrongeat oontnst to
Iw ^obnlu ehspo which Eome of the Cancuivi rooes present, and which ie 1017 ramsrk-
tide in the Turk. — The capsuty of the cranium is reduced, pulioiilu'lj in its tmal
F*'t- ■ . . The face, on the contrary, is enlarged. The fKintal bOD« is «hortar, and, M
*dl u the parietal, less eicaTated and leaa eapaeions than in tha European ; the temporal
'"gi mooDts higher, and the space which it includes is much more oonuderable. The
^' of the skull eeems compressed into ■ narrow keel-like form between the two poweiAil
'"'■poral muscles, which rise nearlj to the highest part t>f the head ; and has a oompreased
*Vat, wLich is not equally marked in the entire head, on aoconnt of the thickness of the
*wd(s. Instead of the ample swell of the forehead and Tertei, which risei between and
''I'pleltly BDrmounts the eamparatiTely weak temporal muscles of the European, we often
"* oidja small space left between the two temporal ridgea in the Ethiopian. — Tbefora-
■w migDon ie larger, and lies farther back in the head; tfa« other openiDgs for the
'"*(o 6f the nerves are larger. — The bony substance is denser and harder; the ndei
" lie aknll thicker, and the whole weight consequently more considerable. — The bony
'M'^'atiu employed in mastication, and in forming receptaolea for the organs of scum, if
^Pr, itronger, and more advantageously oonstruoted for powerful effect, than In the
"'*■ >bere more extensile use of experience and reuon, and greater ciriliiation, supply
™* plsca gf animal strength. — If the bones of Che face in the Negro were taken as a basis,
^ a oruiiun were added to them of the same relatiTQ magnitude which it possesses in the
■*'"'P«tn, a receptacle for the brain would b* required mnch larger than in the latter case.
"^ner, we And it oontidembly smaller. Thns the intellectual part is lessened, the ani-
^ ■rguH are enlarged : proportions ore prodooed jnM opposite to thoee whieh are fonnd
'■e Qreoian ideal model. . . . The narrow, low, luid slanting forehead, and tiio elonga-
^ >f Ilia jaws into a kind of muiilo, giTB to tliis head an animal nharactsr, which cannot
^^'* the most cnrsory examination. ... It is sufficiently obrions, that on a Tertioal
" Uetanui Acad. Logd. BalaT., t 1, tab. 8.
"iKiMrtat nrleaTarieljs Matnrelles, ka., tab. L, flg. S. — Since writing the above, a
■^JWof human crania and costs, formerly belonging to Dr. Harlan's Collection, have
7^ prteented to the Academy, by Mr. Barlan. Among thtae, is the cast of a MoiamUqn*
"^ oknaly reaembling the, heads aboTe alluded t«.
326 THE, CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
antero-posterior section of the hend, the area hf the face will be more eonsiderablc in pro-
portion to that of the cranium, in such a skull, than in the fine European forms.— The
larger and stronger jaws require more powerful muscles. The temporal fossa is mock
larger ; the ridge which bounds it rises higher on the skull, and is more strongly mtrted,
than in the European. The thickness of the muscular mass maj be estimated tnm tkt
bonj arch, within which it descends to the lower jaw. The ijgoma is larger, itroogcr,
and more capacious in the Negro ; the cheek-bones project remarkably, and ire vsj
strong, broad, and thick : hence they afford space for the attachment of poweifiBl bm-
seters. — The orbits, and particularly their external apertures, are capacious.— Both
entrances to the nose are more ample, the caxity itself considerably more eapsdoiUi tk
plates and windings of the ethmoid bone more -complicated, the cribriform lamella 9ff*
extensiye, than in the European. The ossa nasi are flat and short, instead of fbrmiig ^
bridge-like conyexity which we see in the European. They run together aboTe into •>
acute angle, which makes them considerably resemble the single triangular nasal boM
of the monkey. . . . The superior maxillary bone is remarkably prolonged in front; its il^^
•
lar portion and the included incisor teeth are oblique, instead of being perpendicular, si ^
the European. The nasal spine at the entrance of the nose is either ineonsiderable* ^
entirely deficient The palatine arch is longer and more ellipticaL The alTeolar edp
of the lower jaw stands forward, like that of the upper ; and this part in both is narro^*
elongated, and elliptical. The chin, instead bf projecting equally with the teeth, mM ^^
does in the European, recedes considerably like that of the monkey. — The charaet^''*
of the Ethiopian Tariety, as obserred in the genuine Negro tribes, may be thus rans^^
up: 1. Narrow and depressed forehead; the entire cranium contracted anteriorly: ^^
cayity less, both in its circumference and transyerse measurements. 2. Occipital foraitf*-^''^
and condyles placed farther back. 8. Large space for the temporal muscles. 4.
deyelopment of the face. 5. Prominence of the jaws altogether, and particularly of
alyeolar margins and teeth ; consequent obliquity of the facial line. 6. Superior i
slanting. 7. Chin receding. 8. Very large and strong sygomatic arch projecting tow:
the front 9. Large nasal cayity. 10. Small and flattened ossa nasi, sometimes c
dated, and running into a point aboye. — In all the particulars just enumerated, the N
structure approximates unequiyocnlly to that of the Monkey. It not only differs from
Caucasian model, but is distinguished from it in two respects ; the intellectual charac
are reduced, the animal features enlarged, and exaggerated. In such a skull as that rep
sented in the eighth plate, whiehf indeed, h<u been particularly aelectedj hteautt it it jfroa^i
eharacterizedf no person, howeyer little conyersant with natural history or physiology,
fail to recognize a decided approach to the animal form. This inferiority of
is attended with corresponding inferiority of faculties ; which may be proyed, not so mner-
by the unfortunate beings who are degraded by slayery, as by eyery fact in the past
and present condition of Africa." ***
Thus much for the cranial physique of the genuine tropical Negro- -^
The tribes of Western Africa present us with higher forms of ih^^
skull, and less degraded physical and intellectual traits. Thes^^
tribes, divided by a recent writer and zealous missionary, the Rev^^
J. L. Wilson, into the Senegambians, and the Northern and Southem^^
Guineans,^' for the most part dwell in small isolated communities^
each composed of a few villages, and having an aggregate populatiom^
varying from two to thirty thousand. Even the kingdoms of Ashantee^^
M« Op. cit, pp. 242, 8, 4-6.
>*^ Ethnographic View of Western AfHea.
or THE RAGES OF MEN. 327
and Dahomey, the largest political organizations of Western Africa,
are not superior in population and extent of territory to some of th«i
smaller European kingdoms. According to Wilson, the inhabitants
of this region have fixed habitntions, cultivate the soil, have herds
of domestic animals, and have made very considerable progress in
most of the mechanic arts. That the various tribes differ remarkably
from each other in physiognomical characters, will be seen from the
following condensed notice of some of the principal families.
The Mandingoes, a commercial people occupying the country in
which the Niger takes its rise, extending through the kingdoms of
Bambouk, Bambara, and Wuli, and, in smaller or larger groups, cover-
ing all the country from Jalakonda to the sea-coast, are described by
RTiLSON as " men of tall stature, slender, but well-proportionedj black
omplexion, and woolly hair, but with much more regular features
ban belong to the true Negro." According to Goldberry, they
esexiible more the blacks of India, than those of Africa.^ " The
ppearance of the Mandingoes," says Major Laing, "is engaging;
heir features are regular and open ; their persons well-formed and
omely, averaging a height rather above the common."
The Fulahs inhabit Fuladu, north-west of Manding, the region
^etween the sources of the Senegal and Niger, and the three large
Jenegambian provinces, Futa-Torro, Futa-Bondu, and Futa-Jallon,
^^ending also towards the heart of Soudan. The origin and purity
yi this peculiar people have been much discussed. Linguistically
^nd physically, they are distinct from the surrounding tribes over
^hom they rule. They deny their Negro origin, and consider them-
selves a mixed race. However, " their physical type of character is
\4yo permanent, and of too long standing, to admit of the idea of an
ntermixture. In all mixed races, there is a strong and constant
endency to one or the other of the parent types, and it is difficult to
'oint out a mixed breed that has held an intermediate character for
ny considerable time, especially when it has been entirely cut off
•oxn the sources whence it derived its being. But the Fulahs are
, in all their physical characteristics, just what they have been
many centuries. And it would seem, therefore, that their com-
l^:xion, and other physical traits, entitle them to as distinct and
X dependent a national character as either the Arab or Negro, from
^^ union of which it is supposed that they have received their
rtgin."^ Goldberry informs us that the color of their skin is a
irjd of reddish black; their countenances are regular, and their
is longer, and not so woolly, as that of the common Negroes ;
TraTels in Africa, Vol. I. p. 74. *« Wilson, op. cit., p. 7.
328 THE CRANIAL CHABACTKHISTICS H
their language is altogctlicr diftbrent from that of tlie nAtiowf^
whom they arc surroumled — it is more elegant and sonorous."'*
MoLLiEN, relyiug upon traditions extant about the Senegal, think)
that the Fulahs migrated along with the Jatofs from North Africa,
whence they were expelled by the Moors.""' D'Eichthal assigni
them ^ Malayan origin;"' but tlie inquiries of Hodgson negative
this opinion."^ The Jalofs, a compact and limited people, occupyiDg
all tlie maritime distrieta of Senegambia, as well ^ a large part of
the intetior, number one million souls, who are distributed into fooo
sections, — those of Cayor, Sin, Salem, and Brenk. They are the
most northern, as well as the most comely, of all the wesb-coasi
Negroes, and, according to Golubhrkt, are robust and wcll-mado
tlieir features are regular ; thuir color a deep and transparent btack
hair crisped and woolly ; nose rather round ; lips thick."* The Vu.
family, comprising the Timaiiis, Bulloms, Deys, Condoos, Qolahft
and Mcndas, is one of the principal families of North Guinea. The^
"are very black, of slender frames, but with large and well-formecj
heads, and of a decidedly intellectual cast of countenance." The
Manou, or Kroo family, eompriaes the Bassas, Fish, Kj-oo proper,
Sestos, Grcbo, Drewin, and St. Andrew's people, tribes occupying
the Liberian coast, between the Bassa and St. Andrew's rivers.
"The person of the Kruman is large, square-built, and renuirkabjy
erect. lie has an open and manly countenance, and liis gait is
impressively dignified and independent liis head, however, is
small and peaked, and is not indicative of high intellectual capa-
ci^." The Quaquaa, with dark complexions, and veiy large, round
heads; the Aahautees, of the luta or Amina family, presentiDg
more decided Negro charact«ri8tics than the otlier tribes of this
region ; the Dahomey family ; and finally, the Benin tribes, a very
black race of savages, inhabiting the country between Lagos and
the Xamerun Mouutains, complete our rapid glance at the people
of Noilhem Guinea.
The above-mentioned families are represented in the Mortonian
Colleefion, by skulls of the Mina, Dey, Grebo, Bassa, Golah, Pcs«ah,
Kroo, and Eboe tribes.
The Golah skull (No. 1093), is remarkable for ite massiveness and
density. The calvaria is well-formed, expanding fram the frontal
■• Op. oil., Vol, I. p, 72.
« Hintolre et Origine dcs FouUIib
Its U Baa[6t6 EUinolDgiqne, i. I.
If Natus on Kortium Africa, Ui« Sjilum uid Soudao.
York. nU-
■"Op. cit., pp. 74-76.
OF THE RACES OF' MEN. 329
region back towards the occiput^ which is flat and shelviug. The
two halves of the os frontis fonu a double inclined plane, whose
summit coincides with the sagittal suture. The basis cranii is full
and round, and the mastoid processes large ; nasal Bones flat, and
falliDg in below the glabella ; orbits large, and widely separated ;
malar bones laterally prominent This latter feature, in conjunction
with the double inclination of the os frontis, gives to the head a
pyramidal form. The superior maxilla is distinctly everted at the
alveolar margin. Another head of the same tribe is longer and
narrower, and, in consequence of the flatness of the malar bones, has
leaa of the pyramidal form. — The calvaria of a Pessah skull (Ko.
1095) is oblong in figure; the forehead flat, and receding; super-
ciliaiy ridges ponderous; malar bones large and flat; upper jaw
everted ; lower jaw retracted, occiput protuberant In a Kroo head
Qfo. 1098), I find the forehead broad and high ; the calvaria regu-
larly arched, and having its greatest diameter between the anterior
and inferior parts of the parietalia; the occipital region flat and
Bhelviug downwards and forwards to a small foramen magnum;
nc^a^toid processes large; £Eice very broad; malar bones shelving
Blightly like those of the Eskimo; inter-orbital space very large;
''ipper jaw slightly everted ; teeth rather small, and vertical ; zygo-
^natic fossse deep. In another Kroo skull, the vertex is flat, the
forehead recedent, and the jaws more prognathous. The calvaria
^f a Dey skull is narrow in front and broad posteriorly, with a flat
"^^rtex ; iGace small, regular, and compact, and, were it not for the ^
Pixyection of the superior alveolus, might be considered as almost
European. The skull of an Eboe (No. 1102), presents characters
Bunilar to those just detailed. It does not coincide with the physical
descriptions of these people recorded by Oldfieli) in the London
^^dical and Surgical Journal (October, 1835), and by Edwards in his
SUtory of the We$t Indie$j but is chiefly remarkable for the great
obliquity of the orbital opening, and the unusual smallness of the
Mastoid processes.
Between North and South Guinea, the Kamerun Mountains
appear to form a natural ethnographic line of division, rising as
^Qj do some fourteen thousand feet above the sea-level, and pre-
^nting upon their nortiiem aspect the Old Kabardian language,
^d upon their southern, the Duali — two dialects which, according
^ Mr. Wilson, are as different from each other, with the exception
of a few words that they have borrowed by frequent inter-communi-
^tion, as any two dialects that might be selected from the remotest
parts of the country. All along the coast, from the Kamerun to the
^ape of Good Hope, an extraordinary diversity of physical type pre
330 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
vails among the inliabitants. Thus, in the Oabiiii alone, "Wilsok
dUtinguishes at least five very marked types. "1. There U the
Jewish tf/pe, where the profile is strikingly Jewish, the complexion ,^^*
either a pale or reddish brown, the head welt-formed, figure slender, ^ *'
but well-formed, and the hair neai-ly as woolly as that of tlie pur^^,,''
Negro. 2. Tlioro is another, that may be regarded aa the Fulal^
tifpe, where the etatiire is of middle size, complexion a dark broi
the face oval, and features regular, the hair in some cases crisp
woolly, and in others soft aud even silky. 3. The Kaffir type, whi
the frame is large and strong, the complexion a reddish-brown,
lipa thick, but not turned out, the nose somewhat dilated, but r^^
flat like the Negro, the hands aud feet well-formed, but the haii^ =
crisp or woolly. 4, A type corresponding to the description giv- ^e^h
of the Kanierun and Corisco men, and in some cases showing- ^
decided approximation to the features of the Soniaulis, rcpreseut^^j
in Prichard's work on the physical history of Mau. 5. What -mi^j
be regaj-ded as an approximation to the true Negro tjfe, the mo^art
striking iustance of which we have ever seen, is that of a man h^^
the name of Toko, whose likeness is to be found in the Datf-Siar^,^
for 1847. But even this shows a much better formed head, and ic-.
more intelligent countenance, than belongs to the pure Negro.""
In a Bengueilft skull in the Collection (No. 421), the forehead is
broad and capacious, the calvarial arch full and regular, the postfirior
region appears elongated in consequence of the angle formed by Uio
junction of a large Wormian piece and the occiput proper; face regu-
lar, superior maxillie prognathous. A Mozambique skull (No, 428),
resembles in form that of the Bonguella and Kroos. In another
Mozambique head (No. 1245), however, the forehead is narrower
and higher. A cast of a Mozambique skull, recently added to the
Collection, presents an exceedingly low and degraded form. Throe
Hottentot heads are long, compressed anteriorly ; foreheads low ; the
whole face small and prognathous, the slope, trom the glabella to
the upper alveolus, being continuous; the occipital region protube-
rant. Only one of these heads approximates the pyramidal form.
Two Kathr skulls are characterized by high, peaked foreheads ; the
sagittal suture marked by a prominent ridge, and the calvaria pyra-
midal in form. Two Hova skulls have the base long aud narrow,
the vertex flat, the orbits narrow and high, and the superior maxillte
prominent.
The reader will obtain some idea of the different cranial forms of
Africa, by glancing at the annexed cuts (Figs. 53, 54, 55, 56, 61
I
OF TBE
ACES OF MEN.
331
"rora the worke of Morton, Prichabd, and Martin, and
ftpreeeiiting a few of both the higher aud lower couformatioua
£7f the skull.
Fig. 58.
Fig. 64.
CbroIiK Neobo.
I'asBing from Africa to America by the way of the Canary Islc8,
"W-e encounter a peculiar type or form of skull — that of the ancient
Qizanches, who inhabited these Islea before tliey fell into the poaaes-
sion of the Spaniards. The annexed cut (Fig. 59, on next page,)
bIiowb that this type is neither African nor American, but appertains
332
BE CRAXIAL CBARACTESISTICS
Ff. 5S. nifaer to the "Cancasiaii" femily, u tug-
gmted bv CuTiEX, in his obaervatioiu qua
the Viniu BotUiUotte.^ This opinion it cod-
finned bv a Goanche akull in the Mortoniu
CoilecdoD.
Throngh CraHia Anurieatia, it has long
been known to the edentific world thit %
remarkable aamenesB of osteolo^cal cha-
racter pervades all the American tSa»
from Hudson's Bay to Terra del Fuego.' It
13 eqnallr well known, that the researches of Huhboldt and Galutik
have demonstrated a conformitv not less remarkable In the lacgnage
and artistic teodencitrs of these numerous and widely-scattered abo-
rigines. Dr. MoRTOS divides the American race into two great
fiimilies — the Toltecan, possessing a very ancient demi-civilization,
and the Barbarous tribes. The latter, he aub-divides into the A|^
lachian, Brazilian, Patagonian, and Fuegian branches. The A[^
laohiau3 are chAraoterized by a rounded head ; large, salient, and
aquiline nose: dark-brown and very slightly oblique eyes; large
aud straight mouth, with nearly vertical teeth; the whole free
triangular. The physical traits of the Brazilian group difler bat
little from those of the Appalachian. A larger and more expanded
nose, and laiger mouths and lips, seem to constitute the only dif'
ference. T:ill statures, fine forms, and indomitable courage distin'
guish the Futagonian group. The Fuegians have large heads, bioad
tiices, small eyes, clumsy bodies, large chests, and ill-ehaped legs.
As the cranial tyj-ve or standard representative of these American
Barbaroi, I have solectod the head of a Cotoiiay, or Black-fijot chiet
Fig. BO.
named the "Bloody Hand" (Fig. M).
It is from the upper Missouri, asA
was presented by J. J. Audubon,
Esq. (No. 1227 of the Collection>
The following extract from the Oran»
Americana will serve to give the rea-
der a general idea of the cranial pecu-
liarities of the American type, while
a comparison with the subjoined 6g-
urea will show how extensively thi»
type has been distributed over our
contineut.
"After examining a great number of skulls,! find that the natioot
east of the AllogUany Mountains, together with the cognate tribes
" UfmoireB dn Una
(I'Uiitoin nmtat*!)*, t.
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 333
have the head more elongated than any other AmcrieanB. This
remark applies especially to the great Lenap^ stock, the Iroquois^
and the Cherokees. To the west of the Mississippi, we again meet
with the elongated head in the Mandans, Ricaras, Assinaboins, and
Bome other tribes. Yet even in these instances, the characteristic
truncation of the occiput is more or less obvious, while many nations
east of the Rocky Mountains have the rounded head so characteristic
of the race, as the Osages, Ottoes, Missouris, Dacotas, and numerous
others. The same conformation is common in Florida ; but some
of these nations are evidently of the Toltecan family, as both their
characters and traditions testify. The head of the Charibs, as well
of the Antilles as of Terra Firma, are also naturally rounded ; and
we trace this character, so for as we have had opportunity for exami-
nation, through the nations east of the Andes, the Patagonians and
the tribes of Chili. In fact, the flatness of the occipital portion of the
armiium will probably be found to characterize a greater or less
nunber of individuals in every existing tribe, from Terra del Fuego
to the Canadaa.^ If these skulls be viewed from behind, we observe
the occipital outline to be moderately curved outwards, wide at the
** It U pleftnng to •obserre the xmabated energy and leol which the Professor of History
*Bd EngKsh Literature in UniTersity CoHege, Toronto (already, as we haye seen, celebrated
for his archnological and ethnological researches in Scotland), still bestows upon his
'^^te stndy, in his new Canadian home. In a recent No. of the Canadian Journal of
^«Au(ry, 8€ien€€^ tmd Art (NoTember, 1856), of which he is the editorial head, the reader
vin tad, from his pen, an interesting account of the Discovery of Indian Remams in Canada
^tit. From this article I select the following paragraph, fiom its bearing upon the sub-
i**tinatter presented in the text aboTc: "No indications," says Prof. W., "haye yet been
^^^ttd of a race In Canada corresponding to the Brachy-cephalic or sqnare-headed monnd-
^|*>1^ of the Mississippi, although such an approximation to 'that type nndonbtedly
Pfviils thronghont this continent as, to a considerable extent, to bear ont the conclusions
^ ^. Morton, that a conformity of organization is obyious in the osteolog^cal structure
^ the whole American population, extending from the southern Fuegians, to the Indians
ibrtbg the Arctic Esquimaux. But such an approximation — and it is unquestionably no
''^— Btm leases open many important questions relatiye to the area and race of the
ttdcBt mound-builders. On our northern shores of the great chain of lakes, crania of the
'^^ recent brachy-cephalic type haTO unquestionably been repeatedly found in compara-
^^ modem natiye grayes. Such, howcTer, are the exception, and not the rule. The
PvvviiHng type, so tkr as my present experience extends, presents a very marked predomi-
''^ of the longitudinal OTer the parietal and Tertical diameter; while, CTen in the
^^'^ptoal eases, the brachy-cephalic characteristics fall far short of those so markedly
^'^gttiBhing the ancient crania, the distinctiye features of which some obserrers haTO
''■niied them to exhibit. In point of archssological eyidence of ancient occupation, more-
'^t onr northern sepulchral disclosures haye hitherto revealed little that is calculated to
^ to oar definite knowledge of the past, although the traces of ancient metallurgic arts
^Q*it the probability of such eyidence being found. The discoyery of distinct proofs
^ ^ tneieDt extension of the race of the mound-builders into these northern and eastern
'^<MU, would famish an addition of no slight importance to our materials for the primeyal
^""^ of the Great lake districts embracing Canada West"
334 THE CRANIAL C H A E A GTE BI ST I CS
occipital protuberanceB, and full from those points to the opemng
of the ear. From the parietal protuberances there is a ehf^^y
curved slope to the vertex, producing a conical, or rather a vedgft-
shaped outline. Humboldt has remarked, that 'there is no race on
the globe in which the frontal bone is so much pressed hackwards,
and in which the forehead is so small.'™ It most be observed, how-
ever, that the lowness of the forehead is in some measure compen-
sated by its breadth, which is generally considerable. The ill
forehead was esteemed beautiful among a vast number of tribei ;
and tills fancy has been the principal incentive to the moulding
of the head by art. Although the orbital cavities are laige, the
eyes themselves are smaller than in Europeans ; and FassiSB aaserts
that the PuelchS women he saw in Chili were absolutely hideous fion
the amalluess of their eyes. The latter ar^ also deeply set or sank
in the head ; an appearance which is much increased by the low and
prominent frontal ridges "Wliat has been s^d of the bony
orbits obtains with surprising uniformity ; thus the superior mi^
is but slightiy curved, while the inferior may be compared to id
inverted arch. The lateral margins form curves rather me^lta
between the other two. This &ct is the more interesting on acccont
of the contrast it presents to the oblong orbit and parallel mat^
observable in the Malay. The latter conformation, however, i>
sometimes seen in the American, but chiefly in those skulls wbii^
have been altered by pressure to the frontal bone. — The nose con-
stitutes one of the strongest and most uniform features of the In^
countenance ; it mostly presents the decidedly arched form, witiont
being strictly aquiline, and still more rarely flat. — The nasal caviti*
correspond to the size of the nose itself; tfd
"—^ the remarkable acuteness of smell possessed bj
the American Indian has bean attributed to fl*
great expansion, of the olfactoiy membiaiit-
But the perfection of this sense, like that of
hearing among the same people, is periiali>
chiefly to be attributed to its constant and *»■
sidnouB cultivation. The cheek-bones are largs
and prominent, and incline rapidly towards th^
lower jaw, giving the &ce an angular confbnn*'
tion. The upper jaw is often elongated, aiuS
much inclined outwards, but the teeth are fi>*
the most part vertical. The lower jaw is broad
and ponderous, and truncated in front The teeth are atao vei^
laige, and seldom decayed; for among the many that reinun in th'
skulls in my possession, veiy few present any marks of
" Homimtnts, t. L, p. 168.
OP THE RACES OF MEN.
g^ltlaoogli they are ofteu much worn down by attrition in the masti-
cation of bard eubstances."
The Peruvian sktill "is remarkable for its small eize, and also,
as j >i8t observed, for ita quadrangular form. The occiput ia greatly
compressed, sometimcB absolutely vertical ; the sides are swelled
otit^ and the forehead is Bomewhat elevated, but very retreating.
Tt>« capacity of the cavity of the cranium, derived fr^m the measnre-
m^nt of many specimens of the pure Inca race, shows a singularly
sotx^n cerebral mass for an intelligent and civilized people. These
be^fcda are remarkable not only for their smallness, but also for their
irr"^gularitj; for in the whole series in my possession, there is but
on ^ that can be called symmetrical. This irregularity chiefly con-
si^tia in the greater projection of the occiput to one side than the
ofct>er, showing in some instances a surprising degree of deformity.
A-» this condition ie as often observed on one side aa the other, it is
no*! to be attributed to the intentional application of mechanical
fo"K^» ; on the contrary, it is to a certain degree common to the whole
A-cnerican race, and is sometimes no doubt increased by the manner
iri which the child is placed in the cradle,"
Trom the preceding paragraph, it will be seen that Dr. Morton
considered the asymmetry of the Peruvian head to be congenital.
Jjx a subsequent essay he concluded that this deformity was the
rosalt of pressure artificially applied.^ According to Rivero and
TscHDDi, this deformity can be demonstrated upon the mummied
fcetus. It must, therefore, be regarded as the natural form of a
primeval race. This opinion is confirmed by the following extract
from a letter of Dr. Lund, of Copenhagen, addressed to the His-
torical and Geographical Society of Brazil, concerning some organic
i^mains discovered in the calcareous rocks in the Province of Minae
Qeraea, Brazil.
*' W« know," a*;? he, "that Ihe hnmnn figure! foand flcnlplureS in the nncicnt mono-
****ta of Mexico represent, for Ihe grenter pari, n singuliir eonrormntion of head, — being
••"iiiely wilhODt furebend — Iho cranium retreating backwards immedinlely BboTO thesuper-
•Siliarjarch, Thisanomaly.ifhicb is genernlly attribulad to an arlificinl diafigumlion of tha
"^vd, or the lacle of the artist, now admits nmorB natamt explanation ; it being now proTed.
"y these BQtbentic dacninents, that there really eiist«d on this coatinent a race eibibiting
™i« >nomuloua conformation."'"
Many curiona facts might be mentioned in this connection, ehow-
"»g that not a few of the artificial deformations of the head witnessed
>n certain races of men, are in reality imitations of once natural types.
•• Ve know," sajs Ahid^s Tbiebst, "that the Hans used artificial means for girinir
Mongolian phjpiognom; to their obildren; tbej flnttcned tile nose with Grmlf-straiDed
L
** Klhaognphj and Archnology of th« American Aborigiaes, Silllman's Journal,
l!a*embtr, 1846.
» This letter was translated by Liaol. Strain, U. S. S., and a aynopsia of It pablisbw! tn
111* FroceedingB of the Philada. Acad. Nat. Scioncep, Febmaij, 1844.
336 'the cranial characteristics
linen ribbons, and pressed the head to make the eheek-bonen projeeting. What eorid *^
the T-easonable cause of this barbarous custom, if not the effort to approach a fbmi, vbi^^
among the Huns, was held in greater regard — in a word, the aristocratic race! Thif<^
pose quoted by the Roman authors, to get the helmet better fixed on the head, is leur^
credible. It seems more probable, that when the Mongols were masters of the HimSi
MoTisolian physiognomy was the priie attached to aristocratic dittlBctionB; they
qnently tried to approach this fornix and considered it an honor thus to deform th«
in order to resemble^the reigning nation. This is most likely the oanse of thoae
deformations which historical writers so particularly describe. "*'
This opinion is also entertained by Proft. Retzitjb"' and Eboh-
RXCHT.^ Zeunb thus expresses his views upon this interesting "^
siabject:
« « Though some naturalists presume that the flatness of the Huancft skull and the hclf^t ^
ot the Natches skull are produced by artificial pressure when young, yet CaiiFBa oootiBdi m
against this idea, on page 87 of his * Natural Difference in Faces,' translated by Sgwimnw, ^
as does also Catlin in his * North American Indians,' and I am of the opinion that if thoe -^
did not already exist a disposition to these forms in nature^ the Afferent natioM otaU .^
Xk^rer haTe conceiTed the idea of carrying it to extremes."
The following extract from a letter addressed to Dr. J. H. B. McClkl — .^^
li AN, by Mr. George Gibbs, Indian Agent, dated Fort Vancouver, Ore — ^
gon, December 17, 1855, will be read with interest in this connection
« Let me point out to you one thing to be noted as regards skulls from this part of tl^^^^
country, which was brought to my notice by an article in Schoolcraft's book. I forget ^>^^j
whom. Among ten figures given, are Chinook skulls unflattened. Skulls from the ngiram ^
where that practice preyails, which are in the natural state, are those of daTes, and tbooQ^i
possibly bom among the Chinooks, or other adjacent tribes, are of alien races. The eb ^m^
racteristics must not be assumed therefore from these. The practice prerails, genenll^E-,
fk^m the mouth of the Columbia to the Dalles, about 180 miles, and from the StrtitBc>/
Fuca on the north to Coos Bay, between the 42d and 48d parallel south. Northward of tb«
Straits it diminishes gradually to a mere slight compression, finally confined to women, f*^
abandoned entirely north of Milbank Sound. So east of the Cascade Mountains, it diet 9**'
in like manner. Slayes are usually brought from the south — I should rather say wew, f"***"
the foreign slaye trade has ceased, though not the domestic (I am not talking of home ^^'
tics) — and the Klamath and Shaste tribes of California probably famished many for ^^
country, while captiyes from here were taken still north, and from Puget's Sound as fit ^
the Russian possessions. The children of slayes were not allowed to flatten the skull, *^
tlicroforo these round heads indicate, not the liberty-loying Puritan of the west, but t^^
serf. I mention this, because in minute comparisons it is proper to take all precaution' ^^
insure genuineness. Skulls taken from large cemeteries, or from sepulchres of whate^
form erected with care, may be deemed authentic, saying always the chance of intemt^f
riage with distinct tribes, which is usual, because the bodies of slayes are left neglected) ^
the woods ; the Chinooks, for instance, preferring to buy wiyes from the Chilialis or Cowl *^^*
tribes of Schlish origin. If I get time to finish my general report this winter, yon will 0^
*i Quoted by Prof. Rbtzius from Burckhardt's German translation of Thierry's
** Attila 8childorungen aus der Geschichte des f&nften Jahrhunderts, Leipsig, 1852."
paper " On artificially formed Skulls from the Ancient World,*' by Prot Retiiua, in
ccedings of Philada. Acad. Nat Sciences, for September, 1855.
^ Phr6no1ogien bedomd fr&n en Anatomisk st&ndpunkt. Af Prof. A Retiiiii.
^ Anp;aaende Bctydningen af Hjcnieskallens og hele Hoyedets FormfonljelH^b^'^'
(Skand. Naturf. Sallsk. Fordhandl.)
OF THK BACKS OF KEK. S37
^■rtt«r daMIi, nppoalBg mhrBji jon are not tlr»d of thM& I havs narer bean able tc get
»B TinftWitiraiml aknll of a white Iialf-bread. Theaa, also are new iattcnad, the pride
vf fatMBumea in the mother prwenlng to the ehlld the attribntaa of the enperior raoe." **
Figs. 62, 6S, 64, and 6S, following, repreaect, respectively, the
Siead of a Creek chief, in the poaeession of Dr. Norr, of Mobile ; the
tfAcnll of a Sionx or Dacota warrior (No. 605) ; the skull of a Seminole
Kg. 82.
■M See Prooeedipga of FhUad*. Aoad. Nat. Selenoea, March, 1860.
338 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS
warrior, elain at the battle of St. Josephs, in June, 1886 (No. 604)
and the cranium of an ancient mound-builder (No. 1512), " found b;
Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier, in a mound in the Scioto Valley, Ohic
and described and figured by them in their Aneient ManumenU oftk
Mzi8i$9ippi Valley, PI. XLVH. and XLVIH.
The general form of the Peruvian skull is shown in Figs. 6
and 67 {retro).
The cranial types of Oceanica still remain to be discussed. Wit
my limits already overswelled, I can but allude in the briefest mai
ner to a few of the more important and striking skull-forms of th
vast region, which has been anthropologically divided by Jaoqu
iroT^ into three great sections, viz. : 1. Australia^ comprebendio
New Holland and Tasmania, or Van Diemen*s Land; 2. Potynui
embracing Micronesia and Melanesia, or, in other words, the isljJK
of the Pacific Ocean, from tlie west coast of America to the Fhil^
pines and the Moluccas; and 3. Malaysia, comprising the Simda
Philippine, and Molucca islands — the East Indies, or Indian Archi
pelago of the geographer.
According to Pkichard, the numerous types of this immenw
region diflfcr decidedly from each other, and also from those of th<
old and new world. Jacquinot, however, affirms that the Polyne
sians do not diflfcr sensibly from the American tribes." Blanchar]
also speaks of" une grand analogic entrc loa pcuplcs do la Polyuesi
et ceux de rAmeriquc.**^ The correctness of this opinion Dr. Nor
positively denies, resting his negation upon a comparison of the skull
of the two races.'* Blumenbach, Desmoulins, and Pickering aseur
us that the Polynesians belong to the Malay stock. Such an aflKJiB
tion Crawfurd clearly disproves.
Jacquinot thus characterizes the Polynesian race : " Skin tawnjf
of a yellow color washed with bistre, more or less deep ; very ligh
in some, almost brown in others. Hair black, bushy, smooth, an<
sometimes frizzled. Eyes black, more split than open, not at al
oblique. Nose long, straight, sometimes aquiline or straight ; nofi
trils large and open, which makes it sometimes look flat, especial];
in women and children ; in them, also, the lips, which in genera
are long and curved, are slightly prominent. Teeth fine, incisor
^^ Voyage na Pole Sud, Zoologio, t. 2. ObserTations stirles Races llumaines de I'AmMqii
M^ridionale et do rOcdanlo.
••• Op. cit.
MT Voyage au Pole Sud, Anthropologie ; Toxte, p. 6S. In the same paragraph, howerei
he says, " Nous pensons qu'il eziste ontre eoz des caraotftres diBtinctiOl^ dee
appr^iables dans la forme du cr&ne."
M Types of Mankind, p. 48S.
' 'op the racks of men. 380
1^tx*g^* Cheek-bones large, not salient ; enlarging the £Eu;e, which,
nevertheless, is longer than wide."
This description is confirmed by most of the travellers who have
visited the region nnder consideration. "All voyagers, however,"
saj^s Morton, " have noticed the great disparity that exists between
the plebeians and the aristocratic class, as respects stature, features,
and complexion. The privileged order is much fairer and mnch
taller than the other ; their heads are better developed, and their
profile shows more regular features, including the arched and aquiline
slight examination of the skulls in the Mortonian Collection
rep^^c^oting this race, is suflieient to show, that while a' genemJ
resemblance of cranial forms prevails throughout this region, yet
Goxisiderable variations in type can be readily pointed out. A
glftuce at the beautifol plates of Dumoutier's ^^ Atlas" serves to
oonfirm this conclusion.
The head of a Kanaka, of the Sandwich Islands, — a race of people
*« tlie most docile and imitative, and
perhaps also the most easy of in-
gtr^ction, of all the Polynesians" —
appears to me to afford a good idea
of the general cranial type of Poly-
aefiia. The head (Fig. 68) is elon-
gated; the forehead recedent; the
f^oe long and oval; the breadth
between the orbits considerable;
the alveolar margin of the supe-
rior maxillary sliffhtly prominent;
_ , .1-1 1-, DAHDVICH ISLANDKB.
tlxe lower jaw large and regularly
rounded. The breadth and shortness of the base and the peculiar
flatness of the sub-occipital region give to the whole head an elon-
gated or drawn-out appearance.
This peculiarity of the basi-occipital portion of the head is still
l>^tter shown in Figs. 69 and 70, on next page, which represent the
cranium of a Sandwich Islander, who died in the Marine Hospital at
Mobile, while under the care of Drs. Levert and Mastin. " This
sfenll," says Dr. Nott, "was presented to Aqassiz and myself for
Examination, without being apprised of its history. Notwithstand-
^iig there was something in its form which appeared unnatural, yet
it resembled, more than any other race, the Polynesian ; and as such
did not hesitate to class it. It turned out afterwards that we
right ; and that pur embarrassment had been produced by an
"* Crania Americana, p. 69.
THE CKANIAL CH AB ACTEBISTIC S
Kg. 69. Kg. TO.
SiaitWICB ItLlSDIK.
TiknOAi, TiMw or 8*mm.
Pig.71.
artificial flattening of the occiput; which process the blander,
while at the hoepital, had told Drs. Levert and Maetin, was
habitnal in his family. The profile view betraja lees protube-
rance of brain behind, and the vertical view more compiesmon
of occiput, than belongs generally to his race; bat Btill there
remaine enough of cranial characteristics to mark hie Polyneaian
origin ; even were not the man's histoiy preserved, to attest flie
gross depravity of hia animal propensities."
Fig. 71, redoeed from Plate S2 of D»-
montier's Atlas, represents the head of »
native of Mawi, one of the small islBiids
of the Sandwich group. This head appears
to me to possess a somewhat higher de-
velopment than is seen in the two pre-
ceding figures.
The sknll of a cannibal, in the Mortonian
Collection (No. 1531), from Christina Island
— one of the Marquesas — exhibits a nar^
row, dolicho^iephalic form; the frontal re-
gion flat and narrow; the posterior region broad and pondeiom;
the face massive and roughly marked ; the superior maxilla more
everted than in the Sandwich Islander ; altogether a low and brutal
PI yo form, though the internal capaci^ is as
high as 90.5 cubic inches. This head re-
sembles in several tespects the skull of a
man of the Tais tribe (Nukahiva), figured
by Dnmoutier on his 29th Plate. It di^rs
from the latter in having a somewhat re-
tracted lower jaw; a feature which approxi-
mates it to the Malay head figured belov.
Fig 72 represents one of a collection of
NDKAHiTAjr. crania brought by BiruoiiTtBE from the
Sandwicb I>l«n»ib.
OF THE EAGES OF HEN. 341
ancient oasnarieB in the Island of Nakahivii. Dlanchakd has care-
fall; studied this collection, and aleo a series of Marquosan crauia
ID the " Galerie Anthropologique du MuB^iim d'Histoire Ifaturelle."
He infonns xa that —
•• CompuvtiTement bus cHinea dw EDrop^ens, mux des nfttorcU des Ilea MsrqaiseB se
MOntmit bcanconp plaa tittieia et plos ftrrondia vers le Bommet Le frontal fuit non-
Moleniant en uritos, mkia ans»i mir let citiB. Cet ob est unai anondi ct D'offre an ancuue
fifon ca mf plat g^ntral qn'on obBerre DrdiiiaiTcnieDt dans lea tfites das EoropieoB, STeo dag
raaocea i la vtritj tria-notablet.
" En maaQraot la hanteur do crUne dea Nonkaliiilgnt dn bord iDKrienr du niBiilUra
npiricoT fc I'angle da la derniire molaira on depois I'apopbjse ttLMtoidieiuie jusqn'au bord
nMian dn eoronal i son loMTtion av«c lea pari^tanx, et comparant estta meaive nveo celle
da r^paiMeor dn ci«na prima da la partie la plua aTano^e du frontal I I'origine da Toon-
fital, naiu aTona tronTd ahai plneienn Bidets qne cette banlanr StaJt i, peina mfirianre
1 Tip^menr. Cliei nn pina grand tiombre cependont, nona aTona troQTJ la largeur da
trina, eonaldM par le e6t6, d'enrinin nn hniti^me Bap^rienrc ft la hantenr, at mtmo nn
pan plnB, ehei denx on troia IndiTidns. De ca c6td il 7 a done des difffrenoea indiTldaellei
" Iia coronal dani la ptna granda largenr, prira d'one eutnre i, I'sntre, a'est montr^ d'ana
flaadna aeDaiblnnent inoindre HTeo de trts-Ugires TariationB, qne la hanteur priee da I'ori-
fioa dH 0* Daiani i la Kntnra m^diana dee parifitanz. Un orane de femma eenl noua a
bami eaa danz meaorea figalee.
** La diatanca de TapopbyM mattolditnne i I'eitrtimitf de la michoire Bnptrienre I'eat
^onvja, ehai tons lea erftnea de Kanaqnee, Sgale i I'aBpaca compriB antra I« bord externa
te deu 01 joganz ptia i lanr Insertion aTec I'oa frontal.
** Dana ee type anfin on conatata encore nne pro^minence bien prononefa dea apophjaea
TSonatiqnM nna forte aaillie das ob maiilliurea et une forme oTalaire dana la baae dn
(fftna^ Foceipital jtant aanBiblement attjnnf en arrilira.
** lea tttea de femmea prtsentent lei mSmeB caraeUrea qne les tStcs d'homnos. lea
■due* mpporta antra lea proporliona de la bolte cr&uienne, da I'os frontal, etc., arcc les oa
d* 1» taea nn pen moina eaiUanta."
In Fig. 73 (skull of a Taitian woman), Kg. 78.
the reader has before him the cranial type
of tiM Society Islands.
"Keu renarqnona," aaTi Bi.uioBAaii la mSme
"**> gfnirala de la ttte qaa ohei ea natnrele des
I1*B HaiqaiBaa; o'eat igalement una fame pTnun dale,
^^ pnaonete anoore qne nana na avona m parlont
■ilean dana la tite d'honune qui porta Bur la plnnche
^ Buifros 1 et 2 ; maia ici 1'allongement gdn£r>i1 da
*** tita none fUt eroire i nne portieularilj tont t fait
iBfindnalla. Mfeinee rapporta antre la bantear et U
iNtMiir dn orftiia que ohei lea EanaqaeB, et eependant,
^ pat la profil, la ttta nooB paralt plna arrondie chei lea TsIUeng, lea paritftani noaa
MDUaat moina dtpiitnfe en amfcre. 80ns le rapport dea proportionB da I'oa frontal,
*'*■• diei lea prioMenta, nona avona conatatd nn pea moina de largeur qne de bantaor.
^ *^e daa oa nazillairaB nana paratt aiuxi plua prononcfie cbei le Tallien qne ebei la
''"bhiTien, Caoi aat trkf-marqni dona la tflta de femme portont anr la plancha XXX lea
^fcui 8 et 4. & Ton neanre la longnenr oomprise entre rapopb;ae nwatoldienna at
'ttMadtt da majdlloire mpirienr, on varra, an portont catta maanre anr I'aapaoa comprif
34:: THE.CBANIAL C H A B AC TE RI ST IG S
eatre leu ui Jngknz i leor fDMrfion, qn'alle aat mkiiir«ttenieDt snpfrinire 1 odl* qu vm
kToKB noaanae anr de nambrBU orfLnes do natareU doa lies MtrqaiBas. Cette dUHKHi
Mt ftOBsi tTtB-Banrible duia le arLne d'eofant qui, aur U mtme planehs, porta lea aakm
ng. 74.
TOROA bLANDIB.
DuHorilBR figures, in hie beautiful Atlas, aeveral erania from
ToDgataboo and Yavao, of wbicb I select one (Fig. 74), that of
a Tonga Islander, to repreaeDt the sknll-
type of t^e Friendly Islands. Aceoiding
to Blanchard, tbese crania resemble, in,
their general form or type, those of the
Mangar^viens, Taitians, and other Folpe-
sians. He assures oa that the proportioni
of the calvaria, the prominence of the ^go-
matic arches, and the maxillary bones, ip-
' pear to be the same in all. Yiewed in front,
the head of the Tongans partakes of the
pyramidal form more decidedly than the
skulla of the other Polynesiana. The coro-
nal region is also a little longer.
"Si le caractiro," aaja Blahchabd, "obaerrj ici lur qnelqaM indiTidns appaitini 1 k
plus grande nuuse dea habitanta de I'arcbipel des Amia, il deriendra diideat qn'il ten
nn carftelirc aathropologiqae pour dis^Dgaer lea Tongsoa de lean Toivni d* I'eat, M fH
oe oamctire tradnit une enp^rioriU relatiTe d'tnleUigeDca."
A higher form of the skull than the Tongan, is seen in Fig. TS,
which represents the head of a Feqw
Islander,in the Collection of theRojtl
College of Surgeons, London. It m
thus described by Martin :
" Tba forehead is small, and latenllj eompwrf-
the spaoe ocoapivd b; the temporal muMhbdif
<|aiteflat; bnt the centre of each paiietalbcatit
boldly and abmptlj conTei ; the top of the kiad.
or coronal arcb, U ridge-like, with • dopt don-
ward on each side; the cheek-bonea ua lait*aal
deep ; the npper mftrgin of the orbila 1* «aoolk :
and the ftvntal sinaset are but sligfatl; inAotid:
the orbits are krge, and nthercirenlar; tbcMKl
bonea are abort and depreaeed, and the nanl ^
fioe ia of remarkable vtdth and •itent, aa it 1^1
of the posterior nares also; tho alroolftr ridge of the superior maiillar; boti* pf<5«*
modcratel; ; the lower jaw is rery thick and deep ; the postorior angle ia roondcd, aad *■
base of the ramuB arched, so that the posterior angle and the chin do not loach apha*:
the basilar process of the occipital bone is less inolined upward than in Bto or six KaroptM
■kulls eiamiaed at the same time : the coronal sntare onl; impinge* on the apbeoiMd boH
b; a qaarC«r of no inch. Prom the middle of the occipital eondjle to the alTe«hrTi4<
between the) two middle incisors, (be measurement is fonr Inshee and thive^gfatbi: ^
posterior doTelopment of the eraninm, boTond the middle of the oondyle, tht«« InihM <■'
tbree-wghtha."
Fhjek Is LAN deb.
OF THE BACKS OF HEN.
843
Maliculo.
Fig. 76 repreaentB the head of a native of Mali- ^'b- '8.
«olo, one of the New Hebrid^.
Aa we journey westward toward Anetialia, we
fiod the haman craaial type changing again in
the inhabitants of the Yitian Archipelago. A
^nce at the fignres on plate S3 of Duhodtibr's
Atlas, shows at once that the Yitian Bkulls differ
to some extent from thoae of the other Foljneaian
races already noticed. The cranium of the former
is more elongated posteriorly, and the maxillar^-
bonea are more salient; the forehead is lower and
more recedent, bo that, viewed in front, the head has less of the pyra-
midal form. Blanchard has pointed out considerable diiferences in
the dimensions of the Yitian, as compared with the other Pulynesian
Bknlla. He also compares together African and Polynesian crania. '
and observea that if these two great groups resemble each other in
cerbun characters, they differ not the less remarkably in others.
It is obviously impossible for mo, in this place, to give an elaborate
description of the various skull-forms of the Polynesian realm. Such
a description, in the hands of Blanchard, has already grown into an
octavo volume of nearly three hundred pages. Let it suffice, there-
fore, to say, that the traveller, as he visits in succession the numerous
groups of islands composing the Polynesian realm, is constantly con-
fronted with interesting and instructive modifications of the funda-
mental type of this realm.
The Malay conformation next claims our attention. From the
heads of this race in the Mortonian
Collection, I select No. 47, as the
representative of this widely-diffused
and peculiar ^e.
"TIm slcnn of tbe Uala?" (Fig. 77), mjs
■mnw, "praseota the rollowing charaetera:
tha forehemd ia Imr, modcntelj prominent, and
uebad; tha occiput ia mncb eompre«s«d, and
dflai prajaeting at fta upper and lateral parts ;
tta orbita ara obllqne, oblong, and remarkably
qaadiangolar, tbe nppar and lower margins
bdng almost atraight aod parallal; the naaal Malay.
boDca ara broad and flattened, or even conoaTe ;
liMeb«ak-bon«B are high and expanded; the jaws are grcntly projected; and Ibenpptr jaw.
together with the teetb, la much inclined ontwards, and often nenrl; horiiontaL The teath
B« b; nature rerurkably line, bat are almost oniforml; filed awny in Tront, to enable them
to imbiba tba aolor of the batel-nat, which rendera them black and unsightly. — The fkcial
ta^e ia laaa than in the Mongol and Chineae ; for the aVerage, ileriTed from a m
«f lUrtaeo parfbot akoDa in my poBKeaeion, giTra about seTentj-tbre* degrece." <
Fig. 77.
"•Crania
p. 66.
344
THB OHANIAL CB AB AC TBBISTIOS
The exceedingly low and degraded Anatralian type u ih
the foUowiDg eDgravings. Fig. 78 (No. 1S27 of the CollectioE
aents the sknll of a native of Port BL Philip, New Sooth
"This Bkull," BajB Mostoh, "ia the nearest approach to th
^rpe that I have seen." It is a truly animal h^. The toK
exceedingly flat and recedent, while the prognathism of the f
maziUaiy ahuost degenerates into a muzzle. The alveoli
Aititauua or Port St. Paiur.
N*w Hou^aniR.
Nativb of Tikok
instead of being round orovalin outline, is nearly square. Th'
►lead is elongated and depressed along the coronal region, tl
3ranii flat, and the mastoid processes veiy large and roughly i
The immense orbits are overhung by ponderous superciliary
This latter feature ia atill more evident in No. 1451 of the Col)
which, though varying somewhat in type, presents in general tb
brutal appearance. Fig.79,from Pricuard'b " Researches," rep
OF THE BAGES OF MEN. 345
the 8kall of an Australian savage, which is in the museum of the Gol-
1^ of Surgeons. It somewhat resembles Fig. 54 in its general form.
The longitudinal ridge running from the forehead to the occiput, which
18 fi^uently observed in Australian skulls, is conspicuous in this.
The ridge formed by the frontal sinuses is likewise prominent, and
there is a deep notch over the nasal processes of the frontal bone.
These characters are very strongly marked in the skulls of the
Oceanic nations, as in those of the New Zealanders and Taitians.*^
Figs. 80 and 81 — from Dumoutier's "Atlas" — represent respectively
a native of Baie Raffle^ on the coast of New Holland, and a native of
Amnoubang, in the Isle of Timor.
According to Capt. Wilkes, the " cast of the (Australian) face is
between the African and the Malay ; the forehead unusually nar-
Torw and high ; the eyes small, black, and deep-set ; the nose much
depressed at the upper part, between the eyes, and widened at the
base, which is done in infancy by the mother, the natural shape
being of an aquiline form ; the cheek-bones are high, the mouth
large, and furnished with strong, well-set teeth ; the chin frequently
retreats ; the neck is thin and short"
** The general characters of the Australian skull," writes Martin,
"consist in their narrowness, or lateral compression, and in the
ridge-like form of the coronal arch ; the sides of which, however,
we less roof-like, or flattened, than those of the Tasmanian skull. . . .
Tbe superciliary ridge projects greatly, giving a scowling expression
to tie orbits, and reminding us of some of the larger Apes ; the nasal
bones, which are exceedingly short and depressed, sink abruptly,
forming a notch at their union with the fix>ntal bone, which projects
over them ; the forehead is low and retreating ; and the external
orbitary process of the temporal bone is very bold and projecting,
while the space occupied by the temporal muscle is strongly marked ;
the orbits are irregularly quadrate ; the cheek-bones are prominent ;
the face is flat, and seems as if crushed below the frontal bone ; the
external nasal orifice, and that of the posterior nares, are very ample ;
^^ coronal suture terminates as in the skull of the Feejee Islander ;
^^ lower jaw is more acute at its angle than in the skull just alluded
^ l>ut it is arched upward at the chin."*"
•"1 conclusion, I place before the reader six figures, representing
Ta«inanian, New^Guinean, and Alforian skulls. They are taken
™J3a the works of Du Perry, Prichard, Martin, and Dumoutibr,
*^d are introduced here, not only to complete our survey of cranial
^ Op. cit, Vol L, p. 299. *" Man and Monkeys, p. 812.
S46
THE CBANIAL OH A B ACTE BI STIC S
formB, but also to exhibit a few of those inferior ^es through whick:^,^
die human family, in obedience to a grand and deeply underiyin%,^^
taw of organic unity, seeks to connect iteelf with the great anim
seriea of which it is the undoubted head and front.
TaMahiah, from Wet>t«m Cout of
Tan Diemen'i land. (RojalCol-
llg« of SurgeoDS, London.)
Tamumu* (Priehwd'n KewarcbOB).
Niv OuiNlAN (Dumuutior'a Atlne).
ALroDBon-EMDAHCNi (MarUo'*
Man and Moaluja}.
p
OF THE RAGES OF MEN. 347
Here oar rapid panoramic survey of the diversified cranial charac-
teristics of the human family mu^t terminate. In thb survey, having
no theory to establish or defend, I have carefully and impartially pre-
sented the facts as I have found them, for the most part, indelibly
traced upon the specimens in the vast Mortanian Collection, l^or
bave I depended upon this Collection alone, as will appear from the
Erequent references to and quotations from the more important of the
numerous works which constitute the literature of my subject. This
method has been adopted, as fiffording the best idea of the past his*
tory, progress, and present condition of craniographic research, and
its claims to be considered as one of the natural sciences. By such
a procedure, moreover, the reader has gradually become acquainted,
as it were, with the zealous and inde&rtigable workers in this field,
whose names are intimately associated with many of the facts dis-
cussed in this essay. Feelings of professional pride prompt me,
in this place, to refer particularly to two of these laborers, who, with
careful hands, have materially assisted in building an Ethnologic
edifice, whose fair proportions will yet delight and astonish tiie
world. The researches of Prichard and Morton constitute right
noble columns guarding the entrance into this edifice. Recog-
nizing, at an early period of their professional career, the scientific
claims of medicine — claims seldom perceived by the mass — their
expansive minds led them steadily onward, beyond the crowded
middle-walks of their calling. Both were phyiicians^ in the primi-
tive sense of the word — medical naturalists, whose broad and com-
prehensive views shed a lustre over the healing art. There is a
singular propriety in thus coupling the labors and lives of these
two philosophers. Their patient, unresting industry and strong
determinative will enabled them to prove conclusively to the world,
as indeed Hunter and others had already done, that, to a consider-
able extent, scientific investigation is not only compatible with the
active daily duties of the physician, but in reality, by inculcating
close and accurate habits of observation, very often becomes a
guarantee of success in the performance of those duties. As con-
firmatory of this, hear what their respective biographers have said
of them: "Dr. Prichard applied himself,*' says Dr. Hodgkin, "with
as much zeal to the practice, as he had done to the study of his
profession. He established a dispensary. He became physician
to some of the principal medical institutions of Bristol. He had not
only a large practice in his own neighborhood, but wa% often called to
distant consultations. Notwithstanding the engrossing nature of
these occupations, he found time to prepare and deliver lectarM
■ -.u- z^'JZ labor and toil, and inconvcn
..-. :u::i^-- i^iuains: he explained problems ii
r :.,:^-indy jxzended the sick ; he published
.-..^^i. .:.:!. Ja the science of anatomy, an
r V. iv rfcn"cd the city gratuitously, as phi
,^^ L s '-^i*. iiid delivered courses of leetun
',.-.. .u .'. ilc^e. where he was Professor of J
^r vr^ v. ue by a man whose family was \\
.. .? •l::■.:^* icrivable in chief from his exe
>,.•_ v-r^ the manifold and onerous duti<
.-. . •:::.'. -Mid ind published his two brilliai
: i... : ;:--:ci-:ii* detached papera on ethnogK
v> I iiiis*? two men present several in
-..»-•: .iielr lalujrs were steadily directed
-^. L'i:v'., j^.z :hey sought that object through
-:^.5»- .. ''V::h laborious hands, Prichard
-,> •, ravyL and from numerous philolo^
. ■%> u v-jtrious languages, an immense
.. .ii^LL-Iy and learnedly digested. W"
,:.x.:i"a:i».t?, Morton gathered from the re
^-;- ::i. vorid, those bony records which h
. ^ .T.:a* ir:d discrimination. Prichard, th
. — , :j.*-:rulLListory of manaphilosophico-litc
,, .^ :.-- .•ki.-i.^sv.^phioal naturalist, stamped it witl
^ ^ . -.^•i's Vo the ethnological student, the pul:
^TT*;^* »*-- -^'^C continue a shining and a guidi
• .. »* -wv!? cannot fail to find, in the histor
OF THE RAGES OF MEN. 349
graphy, I have preferred, occasionally, to Btiggest what appeared to
me a legitimate iDduction, rather than to pronounce positively and
authoritatively upon the facts presented. In the same cautious man-
ner, the following propositions are placed before the reader, as more
or less clearly derivable from the foregoing facts and arguments.
1. That cranial characters constitute ^n enduring, natural, and
therefore strictly reliable basis upon which to establish a true classi
^cation of the races of men.
2. That the value of such characters is determined by their con-
stancy, rather than by their magnitude.
8. That these characters constitute, in the aggregate, typical forms
of crania.
4. That historical and monumental records, and the remains found in
068uaiies, mounds, &c., indicate a remarkable persistence of these forms.
5. That this persistence through time, as viewed from a zoological
Btand-point, renders it difficult, if indeed possible, to assign to the
Ie&<ling cranial types any other than specific values.
C That, in the present state of our knowledge, however, we are
l>y no means certain that such types were primitively distinct.^* The
^u»tx)rical period is too short to determine the question of original
Tiiaity or diversity of cranial forms. Moreover, this question loses its
^J^cipiortance in the presence of a still higher one — the original unity
<3iverBity of all organic forms.
T, That diversity of cranial types does not necessarily imply diversity
oripn. Neither do strong resemblances between such types infal-
*\^1 J indicate a common parentage. Such resemblances merely express
^^^^ciilarily of position in the human series.*^
** Those who haye studied the natural history of man," says Prof. Drapib, in his
admirable work on the ' Conditions and Course of the Life of Man,' ** have occupied
^^^■HiBelTes too completely with the idea of fixity in the aspect of human families, and have
"^ted of them as though they were perfectly and definitely distinct, or in a condition
^^ ^(inifibnum. They have described them as they are found in the yarious countries of the
^^V«, tad since these descriptions remain correct during a long time, the general inference
^ ^n inrariability has gathered strength, until some writers are to be found who suppose
^'^t there hare been as many separate creations of man as there are races which can be
^^^Bgoished fWmi each other. We are perpetually mistaking the slow moTements of
^^ifere for absolute rest We compound temporary equilibration with final equilibrium.**
^liis paragraph I find in Chapter VII., which is as singularly unhappy in its craniological
^^^'^^liiilons, as the leading idea of the work, though not noTel, is grand and philosophicaL
^ ^lie abore language of Dr. D. is meant to be applied to geological periods of time, it is
^*^^kably eorreet ; if it extends not beyond the historical epoch, it is without the support
or
**8*il n*y a qn'une senle race muable," writes J. E. Cornat (de Rochefort), « c'est-l^
pouvant ftToir des Tari^t^ il n'y a eu H la gentee primitiye qu*un seul p^re et qu'une
mhn d'ww mtaie eep^. B'll y a phuieun racet immvti^Uif il y a eu H la gmhm
^"^^litiTe phukwn etp^cet de phret et de mhm, Toute la question est done renferm^o d**«
^ ^mdSki <m dana fimmutahUiti des races, pour arriTer H la oonnaiseanee da noaibvi
SIAL CHARACTERISTICS
oranial type admits of certain variation^
which variations constitate divergent
I^L '.zs=sK -iivefgent forms must not be confounded with bybr^^
l«ii. .t j» rme, are produced by modifications in the ino^^
^;q I ze -ieveioping principle; in the former, however, the^
ot^ -iepend upon climatic conditions, in the latter &^\J
-a-i. : -^MiL rrtcesunalgamation.
\ ThaE r^ifions exist for considering some, at least, of the b^^
^i^c*A .rtnieiiii deformations as strictly natural types, representin.^
Titfiv tiumanitarian epochs.
7'::ic a rvgnlar ^^tem of gradation seems to underlie and
^rarioos eranial forms of the human family,
uitstie wnoA appear to be pre-represented or anticipat
.-^tftuui^ •ypes of skull exhibited by different genera and specie
■^ ■'ra: : xe t«oid artificial deformations as the forced imita
ct ->•« !x«mL ?T^ "od upon this ground admit them in oi
iss^ X .*^fiis^'tt3k«. as some writers have done, then the per-
3tw -nxitfi 5*tm to break the animal chain by disparting
ittii itofiktf^s — Ae group which stands nearest to man — will
<rff«ht9 :«x!KEr!; ^ £lled intelligibly.
* 1
-?jfca«r*.* Jufttrurf Se Mcfpkologie Humaine^ 2de partie, p. 116; Paris, 1860.)
-^^ iM Bflr.'ot!itv rtT rMip^«k«nrtcn and specific forms is pretty well determined for
isi;^3* :^rtva. 3^ ^ tiii? period a remarkable e<|iiilibriiim of physical conditions
js^a^av^ bL 1^ a&te-historic epoch, the queetioa of the mobility or inmo-
kx»1. 3 ^mins:a. viih all organic forms, mnst be stncUed over a wider tioe-
..d^i. sa^MT kticnc pijTiacal circumstances. If now we recall the great physio-
^^.ai^ «.< d*£ laiMT ^« iailaence of the rital principle, organic matter assumes %
->. ^'^t ai3*.aft^ iiwafied form (the organic cell and its derelopmental modi-
..^ s^-^ :)cifi :ii::» I'm constitates the medium through which all the actiTe pheoo-
•i^ ir« iMaif«ss<«i. and if we, furthermore, reflect upon the mass of CTidence
wM-i Mjrvo^y :«ma» w <vvr relate, if not, indeed, to identify the rital with the physical
M%«»v tMtt it 1* ill afpMT that the study of specific forms, when carried thrtragh great
^0|L!'^«*i -7^*^ a* » reality, • study, not so much of parentage, as of the functional or
vftMiaiCai ^wer^ "^i physical conditions. The question of what conatitntes species is by
M wiMk^ •MvMun^y coanecttd with that of parentage. Naturalisti, measuring nature by
Xtetvii tMriod» ^t time, hare too often fallen into the error of regarding specific sameness
^ ^ .^^^ ^f c\>mmott origin. Very philosophically obaerrct Dr. Liidt : *• Naturalists hate
^^ ^^ <y:»ttfttstixed that knowledge through which they praelieal]y sstiflMte the Tslue of
>^^c«fec<cc« determining a species. What may be Tiewed as distinct sab-genera by one, wiB
^ .>««8<amd as only distinct species by another, and a thiid wmj riew both as varieties
c '^'^^^ l« *^* *^' ^^ ***•■* words, or rather in the atteespt to define them, we go too ftr
,^t* ^ as*>ciate them with the nature of the origin of the beugs in queetion. Weknow
^^j^ whateter in relation to tiie origin of liring bengi, awl even we cannot positively
.«|M Aat W^ connected with some fom was set ce ilstMl vitb tOM, spaoe, and matter,
Ma tfcat sH nring beings hate not sMOsam^ tad dliengwa^ iMtwied from the lowest
^^;* ^iw>yiiMi ofRmniu^BMimMMimmiU ^^^n^ -AmL Nat. Soienees. N. J^
Cft
OF THE RACES OF MEN. 351
14. That typical forms of crania increase in number as we go
from the poles to the equator.
15. That the lower forms are found in the regions of excessive cold
And excessive heat; the higher occupying the middle temperate region.
16. That cranial forms are inseparably connected with the physics
cf the globe.
The entire arctic zone is characterized by a remarkable uniformity
or sameness of climatic condition and animal distribution. The
Btonted plants exhibit but few specific forms ; and where the cold
16 most intense and most prolonged, this uniformity is most evident
Here, also, the human cranial type is least varied. Bending his steps
southward, and traversing the temperate Asio-European continent,
the observant traveller becomes aware of a gradual increase in the
^ight and heat of the sun ; and accompanying this increase, he
beholds a peculiar and much more diversified flora and fauna.
At every step, organic forms multiply around him, and monotony
rfo^y pves place to variety; a variety, moreover, in which a
i^markable system of resemblance or representation is preserved.
The temperate zone," says Agassiz, '4s not characterized, like
arctic, by one and the same fauna; it does not form, as the
**^tic does, one continuous zoolo^cal zone around the globe."
And^ Again, he says: "The geographical distribution of animals
^^ this zone, forms several closely connected, but distinct com-
ons." Now, we have already seen that the globular, cranial
of this region .is more varied than the pyramidal form of the
^^treme North. The Kalmuck or true Mongolian, the Tartar,
Chinese, Japanese, and Turkish types of skull are all, to a certain
extent, related, and yet are all readily distinguishable from each
*^«r. Each of these groups, again, presents several cranial va-
^Qties. 8o, among the barbarous aborigines of North America,
Notwithstanding the general osteologic assimilation of their crania,
^^portant tribal distinctions can be readily pointed out It is inte-
'^^Bting also to remark, that in the Turkish area, we are to look for
^Q traces of transition from the Mongolian to the European forms
"^a &ct singularly in keeping with the statement of Agassiz, that
^^ Caspian fauna partakes partly of the Asiatic, and partly of the
^^iTopean zoological character.
Xt is a general and very well-known &ct — first noticed by Buffon
"^ that the fistuna and flora of the old world are not specifically iden-
^<^4 with the fauna and flora of the new. Their relationship is
^^xiifested in an interesting system of representation, or as Sehonw
^^resses it, of geographical repetition according to climate. To a
^^^^tain extent, human cranial forms appear also to fall within Hb^
wkiU of this system. As far as my own opportunities for ear
CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS.
, I have not been able to find a Btngle aborigtnsl
352
nation have f
Araerican type of skull which, in all ita essential details, could be
regarded as strictly identical with any in Europe, Asia, Africa, or
AuBtralia, The closest approximation between the two hemi-
epheres, in this respect, is to be found in the Arctic region ; and
it is precisely in this region that the organic species of the two
worlds resemble each other most closely. The massive, heavy
skulls of northern temperate Asia and Europe are represented in
America by those of the Barbarous tribes — decidedly different, but
allied forms. So the comparatively small-headed Peruvians repre-
Bent the equally small-headed Hindoos, while the American Indian
type, according to Lieut. Habersham, again repeats itaelf in a moat
curious manner in the Island of Formosa,
It would thus appear, that upon the same general principles, of
which Humboldt availed himself in dividing the surface of the earth
into isotbermic zones, or that Latreille followed in laying down his «
insecWealms, or that guided Forbes in the construction ot homoiotaie'r^
belts of marine life, the ethnographer may establiah, with equal pro — ,
priety, homoiokephatic zones or realms of men, whoso limits, thouglirj
far from being sharply defined, are nevertheless sufficiently wcll-J|
marked to show that nature's idea of localization and represeiitatioc*
appertains to man, as to alt the numerous and varied forms of life.
When, at length, our traveller reaches the tropics, he there, under -
the calorific and luminous influence of a powerful sun, beholds anima' ~m
and vegetable life revelling in a multiplicity of forma. IIumaT"«
cranial types constitute no exception to this statement. In th(^
African and Polynesian regions of the sun, the races or tribes o^M
men, differing from each other in physical characters, are, aa w^^
have already seen, quite numerous. The same appears to be trn^s
also, though in a less marked degree, in northern South America.
Finally, then, in view of all these leading facts, whose details wonld
here be obviously misplaced, may we not conclude that cranial formff
are definitely related to geographical locality, and its attendant climatic
conditions ; and may wo not, furthermore, suspect that the unity of aucli
forms should be sought neither in a uniformity of structural plan, uor
in the successive development of higher from lower types, nor even
in the organic cell, the primordial expression of the animal and the
plant, but in that pervading physical principle whoso plastic energy
attains its maximum in the regions overlying the thormoraetric equa-
tor, and under whose controlling influence all matter — both organic
and inorganic — assumes a regular and definite form?
J.A.1
PlItLADiCPHiA, yo. 59T Lontbaril Si.
I and inor
^^^^ PlItLADII
ACCLIMATION, ETC. 353
CHAPTER IV.
^^^COLDiATIOIX ; OB, THE GOMPARATiyE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, ENDEMIC
AND EPIDEMIC DISEASES, ON THE RACES OF MAN.
BT J. 0. HOTT, ILD.
In the preceding chapters, man has been viewed £rom opposite
fitand-points ; and each new group of &cts would seem to lead more
jmd more directly to the conclusion, that certain distinct types
4>f the human family are as ancient and as permanent as the Faunas
joid Floras which surround them.
We propose, in the present chapter, to investigate the subject of
JLeelimation ; that is to say, of Baces, in their relations to Climate,
IBfidemic and Epidemic Diseases ; and if it should be made to appear
tliat each type of mankind, like a 9pecie% of animals or plants, has
itB appropriate climate or station, and that it cannot by any process,
Ao^wever gradual, or in any number of generations, become fiilly
A^Htuated to those of opposite character, another strong confirma-
6'c^ii will be added to the conclusion above alluded to.
The study of the physical history of man is beset by numerous
Lculties, such as embarrass no other department of Zoology. Man
not only a physical^ but a moral nature ; the latter forming an
Lportant element in the investigation, and exerting a powerfal
luence over his physical structure. Inasmuch as we are now
iking to ascertain all those agencies which can in any way modify
physical condition of individuals or races, we shall, for conve-
^nce, include, under the general term of Climatey^ geographical
This U ft loose definition, but we hare no word in our language snfficientlj comprehen-
< to answer oar purpose. The French employ the term milieu^ which covers the ground
. The miUeu (middle) in which an animal or plant is placed, includes eyery modifying
L^lneace belonging to the locality. The reader will therefore excuse me for using an old
ord in a new and arbitrary sense.
23
354 ACCLIMATION; OK, TUE INKLTJENCE OF
positioD, habits, eooial condition, moral influences; in abort, e^^^^^
coiiibiuation of circumatanceB that can change the conetitatioi^^ '
niau.
The Hubject of Climate may be divided, and treated under ^
distinct heads, viz, — Phytioal Climate and Medical Climate. ^i
oonaiduration of the former appertains more particnlariy to ^^^
naturalist, whose province it is to treat of botanical and zoolo^^yj
geography, or the geographical distribution of animals and pltiuco-
FoUowed out in all its bearings, this department baa been made, V^y
Prichard and others, to include the whole physical histoiy of mm- "'
and to explain all the diverBitiee of tj-pe seen in the human faini^ — ^5'
The latter, or Medical Climate, refers to climate in ita effects ou t^^*?
body, whether in preventing, cauBiug, or curing diseases; andil *
this branch of the subject which witl mainly engage our attention c^^ *
present, although we shall be obliged incidentally to trench upo -^^
the other.
Our limits forbid the examination in detail, to any extent, of th- -*^*
effects of Physical Climate ; but, fortunately, knowledge in thi S^ "
department has so greatly advanced of late years, as to permit us t^ ^p
pasB over, as well settled among naturalists, certain jwinta whicl^^^
formerly consumed a large share of time. It was long taught, foL ^*>r
example, that types were constantly changing and new ones form _^C3—
ing, under the influence of existing causes; but we may now assume -^^^a
without the fear of contradiction irom a naturalUtt that, within hiu w^^ -
torical times, no example can be adduced of the tniuaformation oM^ "" ^
one typo of man into another, or of the origination of a new type ^ — ■'
Writers still living have boldly attributed to climate almost illimi — ^^*
tabic influence on man. Numerous citations have been given, fronrr"^^^*
credulous ti-avellers, showing examples of white men tra n sform etkiH^ — -■
by a tropical sun into negroes ; of negroes blanched into Caucasians ■ ^^^
of Jews changed into Hindoos, Africans, American Indiana, anc
what not. In short, the whole human iamily has been derived (a^
well as all the animals of the earth) from Noah's ark, which landed
on Mount Ararat some 4000 years ago.
Such crude ideas obstinately maintained their ground, in apite of
science, until it was proven beyond dispute, from the vetieraWe
monuments of Egypt, that the races of men, of all colors, now eecn
around the Mediterranean, inhabited the same countries, with their
present pliynical characteristics, fully 5000 years ago ; that is, long
before tlio birth of either Moses, Noah, or even Adam — were we to
believe in the chronology of Archbishop Usher. Nor did these
various races exist merely as scattered individuals in those early
limes, but as nattont, warring with each other. Sinoe these diacore-
'climate and diseases on HAN.
355
rlea, we hear, among the well informed, no more about the influenue
of existing climates in transforming races."
No one who has studied tho natural history of man will be dis-
posed to deny the great modifying influence of both physical and
moral causes ; but tlie questions arise ae to the nature and extent of
the changes produced. Has any one type been transformed into
another ? or has a new one originated since the living ty^ea of the
animal kingdom were called into existence ?
That the modifying influence of climate is great, nay, quit* as
great, on man, as on many of the inferior animals, we possess the
evidence around us every day in our cities. By way of illustration,
the Jewish race might be cited, being the one most widely spread,
the longest and most generally known. Whenever the word Jew is
pronounced, a peculiar type is at once called up to the mind's eye;
and wherever, in the four quarters of the globe, sun-ounded by other
races, the descendants of Abraham are encountered, this tj-pe at
once stands out in bold relief. In each one of tlie synagogues of
oar large cities {in tho United States), may be seen congregated,
every Saturday, Israelites from various nationalities of the earth.
S"everthele3S, although they differ notably in stature, form, com-
plexion, hair, shape and size of head, presenting in &ct infinite
varieties, yet, when of pure Hebrew blood, they all revolve arouad a
common type, which identifies their race.
It should be remarked, in passing, that the Jewish, though com-
f>aratively a pure race, is notwithstanding much adulterated by
1. nter-marriages with Gentiles during all ages, from the time of
-Abraham to the present. It is true that we often see individuals
-worshipping at their shrines who are wanting in the true lineaments
<i>f * the race ; but this may be always explained by the admixture of
foreign blood, or through conversions of other types to Judaism.*
3tt has been clearly shown that the Jewish type can be followed up
"fchroagh the stream of time backward from the present day to the
IMV. Dynasty of Egypt (a period of more than 5000 years), where it
stands face to face with that of the Egyptian and other races. This
-fc:ype, too, is abundantly and beautifully delineated amid the ruins
«nf Nineveh and Babylon, back to ages coetaneous with the Hebrew
:^monarcliy.'
■ The imily part; have boen obliged, sinec these diHioTeries in Egypt, to mbAndan all
cienti£o dEduclioDB, or reSiaoning rrom facte, and to fitll back upon n miraeutout tmnsfor-
nition of ODt race into man; ; which metamorphosiB iB tappottd to liavs occaiTed prior to
iht roondaUoD of the Egyptian. Chinese, and Hindoo ampirrs.
'8w ■' Tspn of Maakind." Chap, IV., ■■ Phv-iiml HieU.ry of ibe Jews."
*IUd. Alio, Layabd's Nimvtk.
M
3o6 acclimation; or, the influevge op
All races of men, like aninxaU, possess a certain degree of coDBti-
tiitional pliability, which enables them to bear great changes of
temperature or latitude ; and those races that are indigenotu to
temperate cliinates, having a wide thermometrical range, support
best the extrernes of other latitudes, whether hot or cold. Hence
^uch raoos nii^lit be regarded almost as cosmopolites. In accordance
with this idea, the Jews, who were originally scattered between 30^
aiul 40"'' nortl\ latitude (where they were subjected to considerable
hoat iu suiumor and cold in winter), were already well prepared to
Ihwiuo av.vlimated to far greater extremes of temperature in other
latitudo:>. The inhabitants of the Arctic, also, as well as those of
tho Trv^pio^ have a certain pliancy of constitution ; but, while the
J ow auvl other inhabitants of the middle latitudes may migrate 30
d<:crw^ $outh* or SO degrees north, with comparative impunity, the
Ksi^v-uaxi vHi the one extreme, or the Negro, Hindoo, and Malay
oil tho v^thor^ have no power to withstand the vicissitudes of climate
cv.vVUutorvHl in traveling the 70 degrees of latitude between Green-
lAixd aiivl tho is|uator. Each race has its prescribed salubrious limits.
Vho 6ur races of Xorthem Europe, below the Arctic zone, of which
•ho Auirlv^axons are impure descendants, will serve as another
il\u5itr^tii>u. Thoiso races are now scattered over most parts of the
hAMi^W^' 4:U^Ih> : and, in many instances, they have undergone fer
-AWtor vV.vsical ohangos than the Jews. The climates, for instance,
.-«; *^au;aU;u l.ouisiaiuv, and India, are to them much more extreme
;*vi^i 'o :hc Jowish race. The Israelite may be recognized any-
^ v^..y ; Vx;; not ^^ with the Scandinavian and his descendants in the
•.VK^i--^ Tho lattor becomes tanned, emaciated, debilitated; his
VL^* yV.AXuv^ ouorg)\ everything undergoes a change: and were we
sv.::/.ur. tVvMU dailv observation, with these effects of climate
..-s.^-. vor^-oru raooft, wo should not suspect the original ancestiy of
K^r^..^ o:;:' t^sO prv^ont inhabitants of hot climates. In these cases we
X*:i>^-vU ^^^'* 5^in\ply a healthful modijSca^on of the physical and
-tv'svt'sU^l tuan» but a positively morbid degradation. The pure
^v^MC nuu oarrioil into the tropic deteriorates both in mind and
Nsl> . tho Avomgo duration of his life is lessened; and, without
i\\x^ lUnvrtatiouA, his race would in time become extinct. When,
^v^^^o^oi\ his vlosoondants are taken back to their native climes, they
»v\v'M A* iho hoaltUful standard of their ori^nal types: the latter
•lui^ h,4\c Kon di!*torted, but can never be lost, except in death.
■ TMc* UKi tuav Ih) familiarly exemplified by the habits of English
^sv^uu»om \y^imi%i9 they cannot be termed) now scattered through-
kJ;, ^InulivitAn iiiul the Indian Archipelago, on both sides of Africa
^<^^ 'taudiwl miles north of the Gape, along the southern shores
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 357
of the Mediterranean, in the West Indies, South America, and else-
"virhere. Buch emigrants are, moreover, out of all proportion, athletic
adults before quitting their birth-place; who set forth with the
intention, and are ever cheered by the hope, of returning home the
moment their ambition is realized. Few, notwithstanding, come
back to their native land with constitutions unimpaired ; but, in no
cases do those English whose means are not absolutely insignificant,
attempt to rear up their children in any of the above tropical
regions. If they do so, parents mourn over the graves of lost
offipring, or sigh on beholding the sickly appearance of the sur-
^ving: of the latter, an adult generation, especially amongst the
females, suffering under hourly-increasing morbific influence, is
destined to succumb far within the average limits of longevity that
"^vould have been accorded to them by a life-insurance actuary, had
tihej grown up in Europe. On the contrary, every sacrifice is made,
ooderthe name of ^'education," to send them homeward, in order
tbsit they may become constitutionally retemperedy before they are
once more exposed to such deleterious intertropical influences. So
**Tie is this rule, that, on the authority of a friend of Mr. Gliddon's,
^«fajor General Bagnold, of the Hon. East India Company's Service
^ — ^ veteran who now, with his family, in Londonj practically carries
^'^'to effect half a century of Oriental experiences — ^we know that the
eldest purely-English regiment in India, the "Bombay Tufts," not-
^^tliatanding that marriages with British females are encouraged,
'^^^ never been able, from the time of Charles 11. to the present
*^oxu-^ to rear, fix)m births in the corps, boys enough to supply its
^^^xmmers and fifers.
The same rule holds good with the Dutch in Batavia and other
^dian islands. Their children, when of pure blood, in health are
'^^akly; when half-cautej worse. Where, however, as frequentiy
*^ppen8 in our Gulf States, such half-caste is produced by the union
^^ South {dark) Europeans with negresses or squaws, a hardier
^uimal appears to be the result Hear Desjobert :
**Za Fran^mM i^aceUmat^Hlf tea errant iiEkvaU-iU en AlgirUf We speak of Frenchmen,
^^ sot of those Spanish, Itslian, and Maltese popnlations "which, coming from a country
^^^*^ analogous in climate [and being in type dark races, also], bear better than oar fellow-
^^^^Bx^trymen the influenoe of the AfHcan climate.
** Algerian eolonlstB haye always eonfonnded, under the same name of eotony, erery
**^%liliihment of Europeans oat of Earope. They haye not reflected that, in climates
^«mt from those of Earope, he [the European] labors bat little in body. He more
^^^ently eoamanda, administrates, or follows mercantile parsaits in the dtia [not fai the
•••aify].
** Franeh and En^ish raeei labor in Canada, in the northern parts of the United OUIm^
*^ in New HoUand ; bat, in the Soathem SUtes of the Union, at the Antilles, GnayaMit
358 A.:CLIMATION; OR, THE INFLUENCE OF
&nd tho isles of Manritine bhiI BoarboD, it is the [exotic] blaeki iibo work ; in Ini
thaflmrioa. ""
"Spsniuila, it is tniB, do labor It little at Cabft and at Porto Itioo. But Uibt hail ■ "--^i
bited. in Europs, a holtor climate than tho Froncb and English, [Fur Ihe twnia t*^^^^
joined to IheJr dark race, our white fiahernjen, in the bajoua froui Charleaton, 8. C^^
OalTOTton, TeXM, oro the onlj men who, with comparatiTe Boonrity. ply their TO«ati«»^ ^,
whole year roand: and they aro Spaniardt, FoTluguttt, Mallat, or else mufalMt.] *3^^
work ako a little in AmDrica, especially when the altitude of the toii makM Dp ttr *^*
latitude of the country, M in Moiico and Pern; or when the climate is far more toDiper»- '^
an in Buenos Ayres ; and eron then, this labor oannot be compared to tho work perforur ''
in Franco and in England [and north of " Mason ajid Diion'a line"]. At the Philipp/o^n
it is the natiTB that tibora.
■■The Dulobman works not oat of Europe: at Java, ft ts ths Malay; atOnyaaa, it .
U* biftck who labors. ^ ,
" Tho Portugueae neTcr labors in India. In Braiil and at Guyana H Is the bUok wk- *
wurkn for him ;'' [in Central America, it is tbe Carib, tlia TtUtcan Imlian, OF tb* b.
In Egypt, no European nor Turk riska hie own person as air*-*"
agriculturist: tbe labor is performed there, aa in Mesopotamia, bj^^'"J'
the indigenous Felldh. At Madagascar the Prenehman, as in Sierrs^c^^s
Leone the Englishman, dies off if he attempta it. In Algeria, th(^^-4
French are heginning to find out that, unless the Arab or tlie Eahyl^w
will plough the fields for them, colonization ia hopeless." And, lasUy^^
were not this fact of the n on -acclimation of white races, a fei^s-
degrees north and south of the equinoctial lino, now recognized by-
experience, why should Cooling from India and Malayana, as «-c!l a«
Chinese "apprentices," bo eagerly contracted for at Bourbon, th# J
Mauritius, the "West Indies, and in Southern America?
The truth of these propositions will be investigated hereinafter.]
Tho negro, too, obeys the law of climate. Unlike the white mva^ 1
*Dksmbeiit, L'Alghit, Paris, 1B47, pp. 6, T, and 26, notes.
" Nous ne comptons ici los honuoes morts dans les bflpitaax [i. e. TI ptr 1000, in 1M
alone!], et nous no parlooH pas de ceu« <jiii, riforrois, i
Nous ne parlone pss nan plus de ceoi tu4s par le fen de Penneml : ils sont pen nombmKn I
Nous perdons pur an, en Afrii|tie, enriron 200 honimca.
"Nous aTona perdu en 1848 _ 116 '■
« A la prise de Consbuiltee. ^ 100 ■■
■' A U bataille d'lslj 27 «
" i la Bmalah _ 8 ■<
"'Tout bnmme fbible qu'on envnie en AfVique est tun homme perda.' — MimECMtl
BDOBkDD, diseours da 10 f^vrler, 1838."
■ See DiteouTs pranottct par M. Dksiobrut (Repre^cntntire in the AutnbUt Nali
Puis, 1660; Idim, Doeummit Statiiliquei tvr CAlgirii, 1861 ; Bonniii, BulBtre Staa
dt U CuUmitalion tl dt la Population >d Algfrii. Paris, 1853, pauin.
It is with much disappointment that I am oompetled to go t» press with theae v
of the non-aeolimation of raoes, without ba-ring receiTed a copy of tbe work which I
BouDiH has in press ( Traili de Olographit et d» Slalitligut Midicalti, 2 Tols. 8»i)., al E
iftre's, Paris). Mr. Oliddon tells me tbat he penued eomeof its proof-tbeeta at tbe anUm^LJ
house, in Got., 1856.
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 359
bis complexion undergoes no change by climate. While the white
coau IS darkened by the tropical sun, the negro is never blanched in
bbe slightest degree by a residence in northern latitudes. Like the
q|uadrumana of the tropics, he is inevitably killed by cold ; but it
tx^ver changes his hair, complexion, skeleton, nor size and shape of
brain.'' We do not propose, however, to enter into this discussion
here. Our object is simply to. call attention to the independence of
existing types, of all climatic causes now in operation.
While naturalists have been accumulating so much useful infor-
mation concerniug the history, durability, &c., of species in the
sknimal kingdom, they leave us still in utter darkness as to the time
or manner of their origin. Our actual Flora and Fauna extend, it
is now ascertained, many thousand years beyond the chronologies
taught in our schools to children ; but whether man and his asso-
ciates have existed ten or one hundred thousand years, we have no
<Iata for determining. Lepsius tells us that he regards even the
I'ecords of the early (IHd and IVth) dynasties of Egypt, as a part
of the modem history of man.
That organized beings have existed on earth (in the language of
the great geologist Lyell) ^^ millions of ages^' no naturalist of our
^y will doubt; and although our knowledge is not suiBciently
<^mplete to enable us to follow Nature's great chain, link by link,
y^t it appears probable that there has been an ascending series,
commencing with the simplest forms and ending with man. Geolo-
gists have arranged the materials which compose the crust of the
^rth into igneous and sedimentary. The first, as the name implies,
^re formed by the action of heat under superincumbent pressure,
and are composed of an aggregate of crystalline particles, without
^iy order or stratification. Sedimentary rocks are composed of the
fragments of older rocks, worn down by the action of the elements,
aiid deposited in the ocean, whence, by pressure, heat, and chemical
^ncy, they are re-formed into new masses, assuming a stratified and
^ore or less slaty structure.
To say nothing of subdivisions, the whole series have been divided
into igneous rocks, primary stratified formations, secondary forma-
^ons, tertiary formations, and diluvial formations. In the first two
^visions we find no traces of life, animal or vegetable ; in the se-
condaiy we find numerous plants, mollusks, reptiles, and fishes ; and,
^ negro nces ire peeofiarly liable to consumption ont of the tropics, or cTen within
^^^ They are nerer agrieultorists, either in Egypt or in Barbary : ncTerthelees, in both
^^^Btviei, negroes are the shortest liyed of the population. Monkeys suffer to a gnil
^^'^ vith the same disease, in the Garden of Plants, at Paris. Nowhere in North Europt
^^ ^ ear HOTth«ni States, can the Oranff-uUm Hyo.
:^60 acclimation; or, the influence or
when we reach the tertiary, we find the shell animals approacluDg
nearer, in specific fonnB, to existing species, than those of pre^-ioos
formations; and along with these are ekelotous of birds and tnam-
malia, iuclndbig quadrupeds and quadrumana. The geological "^
epoch of man has yet to be determined ; it is certain that the invusli- ^
gations of each succeeding year t«nd to throw it further back in '^'^
time ; nor are there wanting good authorities who would not he *'
surprised to find his remains in the tertiary, where the quadrmnana __ **
have heen recently, and for the first time, discovered. ^*''
A discussion of such difficulty and magnitude as the theory of ^—^^
progressive development, would be out of place here ; hut this ides
seems to have taken possession of many of our leading authoritiee. «
Nor, at first sight, would it seem that the long-mooted que«tion ofc-^
the origin of species could properly find a place in an essay ow^;~-ji,
Medical Olimate; yet all these subjects have points of contact, whicr^::^^
render it difficult to isolate them. Our object being to study tb ,^tz3e
influence of climates and their diseases on racet, we assuredly, ^
priori, should expect species and mere varieties to be influenced i jn
difi'ereut degrees. Natural history teaches us that the whit© an _^d
black races, for example, are distinct species. We should, therefor^^B«:,
regard their origin as independent 0/ climate; and if we can uho vu
that these races are not afiected in like manner by diseases, wo fortiHMF^'
the conclusion to which natural history has led us. "Well-ascertaine^^stW
varieties of a given species, however widely scattered, may exchsng
habitations with comparative impunity ; while, on the contrary, :
general rule, each species of a genus has its prescribed geographic
range. The species, for example, of the reindeer and tiie white I
' in the Arctic, can no more exchange places with the deer and bei
of the Tropics, than can the Esquimau with the tropical Negi
Such facts as these, then, clearly show how deeply our snbj&
implicates the investigation of apeciea and varieties.
A great diversity of opinion has existed with regard to the orig ^n
of species, but wo shall allude only to two of the more promineE:~r^^Mt
Of the first school, Cu^-ier may be regarded as the most diadnguish^^^^^
authority. He contends that the geological history of the ear— ^Kh
should be divided into distinct periods, each of which is complete ^^Su
it«elf ; that there has been, since the dawn of life, a succession < >f
distinct creations and destructions; and that the organized beings < — if
one epoch have no direct connection, by way of descent, with tho^^e
of the preceding. According to this theoiy, the species of aniniSM^M
and plants now scattered over the fitce of the earth are primordt~
forma, the result of a special creation; which have endured witho-"
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON HAN. 361
oaterial change to the present, and which wiU endure unchajiged
intil their allotted term of existence has expired.
The opposing school may he represented by Geoflfroy St. Hilaire,
he contemporary of Cuvier. It is contended by his followers that
there has been but one creation, and no cessation of life, since the
iiBt organized beings were brought into existence ; that, by a law
)f progressive development or evolution, in accordance with new
climatic influences, brought into action, from time to time, by
changes in the physical condition of the globe, the living beings of
one period have given origin to those which follow ; and so on /
through the whole chain, from the earliest and simplest forms to the |
last and most complex. Moreover, that what we term specieM remains '
permanent as long as the physical conditions which produced them
remain unchanged. Some of this school go so far as to assert that
no such thing as ^^ species" exists; that !N'ature creates only indivi"
'«m2i, no two animals or plants being exactly alike, and the species
of each genus running together so closely as to leave their bounda-
ties difficult, and often impossible, to define. They ftirther contend,
^^t transformations of species are incessantly going on around us,
bongh so slowly as not to be easily recognized, in the atom of time
^hich has been consumed so far by the human family.
Those who contend that all the races of men are of common
rtgin, must, in spite of themselves, fell into these heterodox opinions
^ Xamarck, Oken, and St Hilaire ; because the races of men differ
^te as much, anatomically and physiologically, as do the species
^ other genera in the animal kingdom — the Equidse, the XJrsines,
alines, &c. Professor Owen himself cannot point out greater
Terences between the lion, tiger, and panther, or the dog, fox,
ol^ and jackal, than those between the White Man, !N'egro, and
to
•ongoL
-According to the above doctrine, not only are the individuals of
ir present Fauna and Flora direct descendants of the fossil world,
It they are probably destined to be the ancestry of others still
Lore perfect. The climatic influences now at work, it is supposed,
ill be changed, and development take up its line of march and carry
El the great plan of the Creator. Thus, man himself is to be the
it^enitor of beings far more perfect than himself; and it must be
onfessed that there is no small room for improvement But there
* no good reason why we should enter the lists with these dispu-
A&tB, as the two schools unite at a point which meets all the requi-
iitiong of our present investigation. The term epeeiee is, at best,
Wt a conventional one, without a fixed definition ; and is used by
^^ parties to designate certain groups of forms closely reseiubliDg
362 acclimation; or, the inplubncb op
each other, that have been permanent as far back as our means of
investigation reach, and which will endure as long as the FauMS
and Floras of which they form a part
Our declared object is to ascertain what influence the elimaUi of
our day exert over existing forms, and especially over those of the
human family. It should be borne in mind that each species has its
ovm physiological and pathological laws, which give it its spedfic
character ; and each species must, therefore, be made a special study.
Too much reliance has been placed upon analogies; since no one
animal should be taken as an analogue for another. Not only are
they variously affected by climate, food, &c., but also by morbific
influences. These remarks apply with their greatest force to man,
who is widely separated from the lower animals in many things, and
more particularly his diseases. The ^^SociStS Zoohgique JCAeelimar
tion" of Paris, is composed of some of the most scientific men of
France, with I. Geoflfroy St. Hilaire at its head ; and to them each
new species is a new study : they look to time and observation alone
for their knowledge. "When a new quadruped, bird, or plant, i§
brought to France, no one pretends to foretell the exact influence
of the new climate upon it ; and it has been ascertained that two
species, brought from the same habitat, may be very differently
affected. One may become habituated to a wide geographical range,
while another only to a very limited one.
So it is with the species of man — each must be made a separate
study, in connection with both Physical and Medical Climate. It doee
not at all advance our knowledge of man to tell us that pigs, poultryi
horses, cattle, sheep, goats, dogs, &c., may be carried all over the
world, may become habituated to all climates, and everywhere
change their forms or colors. A race of men does not anywhere,
in a few generations, like pigs, become white, brown, black, gray,
or spotted; nor do the pigs, when they accompany man to the
Tropics, become affected with dyspepsia, intermittent and yellow
fever. It has been the fashion, for want of argument, to obscure
the natural history of man, not by a few, but by volumes of theee
analogies. Let us ask, on the other hand, when and where have
the people of the north become habituated to the climate of the
Tropics, or those of the Tropics been able to live in the north? We
have no records to show that a race of one extreme has ever beai
acclimated to the opposite ; and as long as a race preserves its
peculiar physiological structure and laws, it must to some extent be
peculiarly affected by morbific infiuences.®
* It is far from being proYed that our dogs, horses, cattle, tnd other domeelie
are of common origin. The reader is referred to ** 7\fpeg rfM^mkmd*' ftud t^ ipp*"^
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 363
In considering the climates of the Tropics and the adjacent warm
climates, it is necessary to divide Medical Climate into non'fnalarial
and malarial. By a non-malarial climate, we wish to designate
one which is characterized by temperature, moisture or dryness,
greater or less changeableness, &c. ; in short, i^l the characteristicB
of what is understood by the word "climate,** independently of local
morbific influences. By malarial climates, we mean those in which
malarial emanations are superadded to the above conditions. The
two climates are £Etmiliar to every one, and often exist within a mile
of each other. In our Southern States, we have our high healthy
"pine or sand-hills,*' bordering the rich alluvial lands of our rivers.
On the low lands, in many places, the most deadly malarial fevers
prevail in summer and autumn, while in the sandy lands there is an
entire exemption from all diseases of this class; and our cotton
planters every summer seek these retreats for health. Not only in
these more temperate regions of the United States is this proximity
of the two climates observed, but also in Bengal and other parts of
India, in the islands of the Indian Ocean, at Cape Colony, the West
India islands, &c. Mobile and its vicinity aflTord as good an illus-
tration of these climates as can be desired. This town is situated
at the mouth of the Mobile river, in latitude 30° 40'' north, on the
inarpn of a plain, that extends five miles to the foot of the sand-
WUb, and which is interspersed with ravines and marshes. The
sand-hills rise to the height of from one to three hundred feet, and
extend many miles. Now the thermometer, barometer, and hygro-
meter, indicate no appreciable difierence in the climates of the hills
and the plain, except that the latter is rather more damp ; and yet
4e two localities differ immensely in point of salubrity. Let us
suppose that a thousand inhabitants of Great Britain or Germany
skould be landed at Mobile about the month of May, and one-third
placed on the hills, one-third in the town, and the remainder in the
fenny lands around the latter, and ask what would be the result at
flie end of six months. The first third would complain much of
k^t, would perspire enormously, become enervated; but no one
Would perhaps be seriously sick, and probably none would die from
flie effects of the climate. The second third, or those in the city,
jf it happened to be a year of epidemic yellow fever, would, to say
4« least, be decimated, or even one-half might die, while the resi-
dent acclimated population were enjoying perfect health. The re-
^"^^ning portion, or those in the fenny district, would escape yellow
fever, but would, most of them, be attacked with intermittent and
^ **irofa/ and InteUeetual Dmtrtity of Raee9'*—m HoTz's tranaUtion of Db OoBnnAV»
(^^^^■uUlphiay 1855) — ^for a fiill ez&miaation of this point
364 ACCLIMATION; OR, THE INFLUENCE OP
renLittjent fevers, bowel affection b, and all forms of malarial or
diBcasee: fewer would die than of those in the city, but ft
proportion would come out with broken-down constitutions. T
fever Bonietimee extends for two or three miles aroand the city ;
if-itdoes, it always commences in the latter. Here, tbcD, we hftv^
three distinct medical climates actually within sight of each otli*^„^
This is by no meaue a peculiarity of one locality, but tboiisBRd« C::::^-'
similar examples may be cited in warm ciimates. Charieston, Son*""- .
Carolina, its suburbs, and Sullivan's Island, in the harbor near t^^^
city, give ua another example quite aa pertinent as that of Mob^ ^
Jji our cotton-growiug States, tlie malarial climate is by no me^^^
confined to the low and marshy districts ; on the contrary, in ^^J,-
high, undulating lands throughout this extensive region, whera-^—
there is fertility of soil, the population is subjected more or less j^j
malarial diseases. These remarks apply, as will be seen further ©a,
more particularly to tlie white population, the negroes being com-
i paratively exempt from all the endemic diseases of the SoutJi.* The
tropical climate of Africa, so far as known to us, differs widely &onri
the same parallels in other parts of the globe : it has no flon-malaiu»&
climate. Dr, Livingstone "has been struck down by African fer^^ '
upwarda of thirty times," in sixteen years."'
But let us go a little more into details, and examine a few of fii^^^
races of man, in connection with non-malarial climates. The Anglo ^
Saxon is the moat migrating and colonizing race of the present day, ■^-
and may he selected for illustration. Place an Englishman in the
most healthful part of Bengal or Jamaica, whore malarial fevere are *
unknown, and although be may be subjected to no attack of acnte
dineaae, may, as we are told, become aneHmated, and may live with a
tolerable degree of health his threescore and ten years ; yet, he soon
, ceases to be the same individual, and his descendants degenerate.
He complains bitteriy of the heat, becomes tanned ; his plump,
plethoric trame is attenuated ; his blood loses fibrine and red globules;
both body and mind become sluggish ; gray hairs and other marks
of premature age appear — a man of 40 looks fifty years old — the
average duration of life is shortened (as shown by lifo-insurance '
tables); and the race in time would be exterminated, if cut off from j
fresh supplies of immigrants. The same facts hold in our Southern -M
* A medioal Tricnil (Dk, Ookdon) who Iim had much eipsrisDOB In th« ilii-»iiii« of tlt*^^
inurior of Alabunn, South CBroliua, nnd LouiBianK, has been bo kind u to look o*«r ihtt^^ma
dhccta for me, luid aasurea me tli&t I haTe nsvd language mcch loo strong with regarf la
the etomptioD of negroes. He says thej are quite as liable as the whites, a«oordi»g lajT
obNriationB, to intermittents and d^ienlAr;,
" "London Chronicle," Dhu. 15, 1858.
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 3C5
States, though in a leas degree ; and the effect is in proportion to the
liigli range of temperature. We here have short tcintern, which do
not exist in the Tropics ; and the wear and tear of long summers
•re by ihem, to a great extent, counterbalanced. The English army
SQigeons tell us that Englishmen do not become acclimated in India :
length of residence affords no immunity, but, on the contrary, the
mortality among officers and troops is greatest among those who
remain longest in the climate.^^
There is no reason to believe that the Anglo-Saxon can ever be
transformed into a Hindoo. We have abeady given reasons why
Jews become acclimated, in hot latitudes, with more facility than
races jEurther north ; but even these cannot be changed from their
original type by ages of residence in foreign climes. There is a
little colony of Jews at Cranganor, in Malabar, near Cochin, who
have resided there more than 1000 years, and who have preserved
the Jewish type unchanged. There is in the same neighborhood a
settlement of what are called black Jews, but who are of Hindoo
blood.'' There are also in India the Parsees, who have been almost
« long in the country as the Jews, and still do not approximate to
the Hindoos in type. Nay, more, in India itself we see, in the
different castes, the most opposite compleidons, which have remained
independent of climate several thousand years. Unlike the Anglo-
Saxons, the Jews seem to bear up well against that climate.
The colonists of warm countries nowhere present the same vigoi
rf constitution as the population of Great Britain or Germany ; and
Hlthongh they may escape attacks of fever, they are annoyed by
naany minor ills, which make them a physic-taking and shorter-lived
people. Knox asserts that the Germanic races would die out in
America if left alone ; and though I am not disposed to go to his
extremes, I do not believe that even our New England States are so
Weil adapted to those races as the temperate zone of Europe, from
^ch history derives them.
There is, unquestionably, an acclimation, though imperfect, against
nu)derately high temperature; and it is equally true, that persons
who have gone through this process, and more especially their
^dreuy when grown up, are less liable to violent attacks of our
ii'Utrdi fevers, when exposed to them, than fresh immigrants from
^ north. The latter are more plethoric, their systems more in-
AsQunable; and although not more liable to be attached by these
^demies than natives, they experience them, when attacked, in a
'^Jonisox on Trcpieal OUmatet, London, 1S41, p. 56.
''See, for detaib, **J)fpm of Mankind,** by Non & Qliddon, oluipter "Fhyrical Histoiy
k
3Cfi ACCLIMATION; OR, THE INFLDENCE Of ^^^
rnoro violent and dangerous fonn. The latter fact holds gooJ ^f
yellow, us well as of remittent fever.
Dr. Boodin, in hie " Lettrea lur I'AlgSrie" after establishing the
persistent influence of marsh malaria on Frenchiand EDgliah colo-
nists, continues thus :
" Rente i ciBminor rinflucacs eierctie rur 1b ohiffra dee dic^B par le >4<inr dui Iw
lockliUa do rAlgJrie. ion lujiilti aux tmanaliont paludimnei. iDuiB Be diatmgiunt di li
Fntiice uniqaomcnl pur one tenipiraturo JIctiSb. A JSfiiat de docamcnU mbbbi ndubinii
recncitlia en Algdrie nifimi!. nous mToqtieronB log fnits rclnlifa A deai posaeBiioDt ui{ttiM
kyknt la plus ([nnde aoslogie tbennomStriqiio area notro poBBOBBiaa afrieaiDe; nolu •gvlgni
pnrter: 1°, du Cup de Bonne-Eepdraaoe; 2°, de Malttii I'lui el I'aotre proiarbUliMU
exstnpti* do I'tSl^mept piilad4eii.
" Au Cap de BaDiia-Eitp4riinDe, la mortaUM de troia r^gimonta anglais, da IStl t ISH,
K tti rsprfstnUo par lea Dombroa aiuTaDta;
En 1831 _ 2Sd<cfa.
•■ 18S2 _ 20 ■■
" isaa _ S6 "
" 1834 „ _„....„..„.._.;. „..™.... .. 38 "
" 1836 - „ „..,„ 84 "
" 1888 „ „ S3 ■'
"A Matte, nt Van pout coniiiMrer les honnnOB les pliu joDoea oomma !•> plni i^mmmI
MTitJB d'Angloten-0, U propoHJon del iicbB s Buivi la marohe ei-aprki.
Au-doBxoqa do 18 aoi » 10 djois but 1000 hommca.
De 18 4 26 „ 1B.7
•■ 25 188 28.6
" 88 1*0 29.5 "
" 40160 84.4
"En T(mxm6, lea nnalogies paia^ea, non aeiilement dana les localiUa palnd^MUM, Ml*
«naarB daca lea contr£oB non marioagouBeB. ajant udo ptoa grande aoalogia f't^WllgJl"*
avee rAlgdrie, so montrent poa faTorablo i t'li;potb(ie de racclImalmenL"
Ho then goes on to give statistioB both of the civil and militatf^
population of Algeria, which show still more deadly effects t^^
climate. ^
If we tarn now to the physical history of the Negro, we shall finc^^ ^
the picture completely reversed. He is the native of the hottedT *"**./
region on the globe, where he goes naked in the scorching rays oi^^^
the eiin, and can lie down and sleep on the ground in a teraperature^^'^ .
of at least 150° of Fahrenheit, where the white man would die in a^* .
few hours, And while the degenerate tropical descendants of the^^ .
whites are regenerated by transportation to cold parallels of thc^^"^
temperate zone, experience abundantly proves that, in America, the^''^
Negro steadily deteriorates, and becomes exterminated north of abonl^-*^
40" north latitude. Tlie statistics of New England, New York, aaiE^-^
Philadelphia, abundantly prove this. The mortality of blacks \r~^ -*"
our Nortlicrn States averages about double that of the whites ; anc^ '^'
although their natural improvidence and social condition may, aa^ -^"
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. ' 367
.ve ao influence on this result, still, no one conversant with
the facts will deny the baneful influence of cold upon the race.
It is evident, then, that the white and blaclc races differ, at the
present day, aa much in their physiological as they do in their phy-
sical characters ; and until their actual characteristics are changed,
it cannot be expected that their normal geographical range will be
enlarged. The respective types which they now present, antfldat«
all human, written, or monumental records, and will only disappear
wnth the other typical forms of our Fauna.
"We may here refer to another curious train of facts, in connection
with the adaptability of the above races to eliraat*. We allude to
tbo results of crossing or breeding them together, which seem best
explained by the laws of hybridity. The mulattoes, no matter
where bora, north or south, possess characteristics, in reference tn
medical climate, intermediate between the pure races. The mnlat-
toes brought from Maryland or Virginia to Mobile or New Orleans,
suffer infinitely less from the diseases of these localities, than do the
pure whites of the same States, In fact, the smallest admixture of
negro blood, as in the Quarteroon or Quinteroon, is a great, though
not absolute, protection against yellow fever. "We have, in the
course of twenty years' professional obsen-ations, in Mobile, seen
this fact fully tested; and it is conceded, on all hands, throughout
the South. Previously to the memorable yellow fever epidemic of
1853, we never saw more than two or three exceptions; and although
there were more examples in that year, still, the mortality was
trifling compared with that of the pure whites. I hazard nothing in
the assertion, that one-fourth negro blood is a more perfect protec-
tion against yellow fever, than is vaccine against small-pox.
The subject of hybridity has been very imperfectly understood
ntil the last few years ; and to the late Dr. Morton are we mainly
idebted for the advance actually made. He has shown that there
I a regular gradation, in hybridity among species, from that of
erfect sterility to perfect prolificacy. The mulatto would seem to
til into that condition of hybrids, where they continue to be mnre
r lees prolific for a few generations, but with a constant tendency
> ran out. The idea ie prevalent with us, that mulattoes are less
rotific than either pure race; suffer much from tubercular affec-
ona ; their children die young : and that their average duration of
fe 18 very low. That all this is tnie of the cross of the pure whites
nd blacks, I have no doubt ; hut these remarks apply with less force
o the cross of Spaniards, Portuguvtt, and other dark races, with the
legro: these afHliate much better. If we could select the pure-
)looded races, put them together, and continue crossing them
368 acclimation; or, ths ikfluence of
several generations, we might come to more definite concInaoQi
wltli regard to the specific proximUy of races; but this we are unable
to control ; nor has snfiicient use been made even of Hie mateiials
vre have at command. Only a few years ago, the origin of the
domestic dog was a subject of dispute, and many naturalists sop-
posed it to be derived from the wolf; but M. Flourens has been
malsing a series of experiments, in the Gkurden of Plants, at Fans,
iTV'Iiicb settles this part of the discussion. He ascertained that the
progeny becomes Bterile after the third generation; while that of the
dog and jackal run as fio* as the fourth generation, and then in like
ni&imer become sterile. These are important discoveries in the
liistory of hyhridityy and show how erroneous have been conclnfflons
as to identity of species, based upon prolifieacy of offipring.
There is reason, as above stated, to believe that this law of h^-
bridity applies to the species of man ; and that there are degrees 9^
fertility in the ofl&pring of different types, in proportion as they
similar or dissimilar.^"*
Our limits, if we desired to do so, would not permit a moi
extended examination of races, in connection with mm-malari^^
climates ; and we shall therefore pass on to another division of tfa^^
subject. The whites and blacks have sufficiently served to illustiaU^
the point; and the other races would show similar effects, in vario
degrees. Many &cts bearing on other races will be brought out
we progress.
Malarial Climatee. — Under this head, we shall introduce fitcts to
prove that races are influenced differently, not only by the tempera-
ture of various latitudes, but by morbific agentSj which, to a certain
extent, are independent of mere temperature — viz., the causes of
niarsh or yellow fevers, typhoid fever, cholera, plague, Ac. Our
illustrations will be again taken mostly from the white and black
races, because they afford the fiiUest statistics, and because the
writer has been professionally engaged with these races for more
than thirty years, and is familiar with the peculiarities of both.
Wo should here call attention to a striking physiological difference
bi^twccn the two races. It was a remark ann^Uy made by the
(liHtinguiHhed Dr. Chapman, Professor of Practice in the Pennsyl-
vania University : ^' That the negro i$ much leee wijeet to infiammatofjf
diumues^ with high vascular aetionj than the whitee^ and rarefy heart
lilmid-letting^ or depletion in any form; and even in pleurisy, pneu-
fiirynia, &c., he often requires stimulants instead of depletants.*'
(* For II full diMcnflsion of the qnertion of bjbridity, see Nor & QuiiDO]i*t ■■ f^ipm ^
Mmkind:' |i{>. 87:^-410:^ and also the Appendiz, liy J. a Nor, to Honfs QMmm^ jff
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 309
rhe remark is unquestionably true; and will be vouched for by
Bvery experienced physician North and South. I have had under
mjr charge, for some years, a private infirmary, devoted to negroes ;
in which are annually received a large number of negro laborers,
and most of them from our city cotton-presses and steamboats,
where none but the most athletic are employed. When seized with
pneumonia, pleurisy, and other acute diseases of winter (to say
nothing of summer aflfections), they almost invariably come in with
feeble pulse, cool skin, unstrung muscles, and all the symptoms of
prostration ; and require to be treated mainly with revulsives, qui-
nine, and stimulants. This I remarked also in Philadelphia, when
a resident student at the Almshouse ; and all the medical writers of
the South sustain me. The negro, too, always suffers more than
whites fix)m cholera, typhoid fever," plague, small-pox, and all those
diseases arising from morbid poisons, that have a tendency to de- j
press the powers of life, with the exception of marsh and yellow •
fevers — ^to which, we shall see, he is infinitely less liable. The
planters of the South look with terror to the appearance of cholera
or typhoid diseases among their negroes; and whether these be
natives of the extreme South, or recently brought from the colder
aad more salubrious regions of Maryland and Virginia, it matters
ii.ot: the susceptibility belongs to the race, and is little influenced by
place of birth.
The strictly white races reach their highest physical and intellec-
to»l development, as well as most perfect health and greatest average
loration of life, above latitude 40° in the Western, and 45° in the
CAstem Hemisphere; and whenever they migrate many degrees
lelow these lines, they begin to deteriorate from increased tempera-
are, either alone, or combined with morbific influences incident to
liraate. On the continent of Europe, there has been, for several
bousand years, such a constant flux and reflux of peoples, from
^ars and migrations, that races have become so mingled, fmm the
Mediterranean to the Arctic, as to render it impossible now to
Liiravel this human maze, and to give its proper value to each
ndigenous race, of which we believe there were many. We must,
herefore, take them in masses or groups ; and, in speaking of wJiite
"aces, we shall draw our illustrations mostly from Anglo-Saxons,
Celts, and Germans, which are so nearly allied, and so like in tem-
perament, as to answer sufficiently well our present wants. They,
too, have been widely scattered through foreign climates; and.
** Be. Boudin, in his ^^Pathohgie Comparie," gives abundant proof of tho liability of
ikoS^M to typhoid foyer, consumption, and cholera, in the Tropics and in the Old World.
24
370
ACCLIMATION; OH, THE INFLUENCE OF
thatika to tlieir intelligence, liavc furnished us with reliable t
tics. There ai-o niuny racea in Europe that, aeeordiiig to our view,
oannot Btrictly bo included with the above clasa, viz., the flark
skinned IberianB, the Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians, and o'hera.
Let us next inquire what real progress has been made towards tJi<
aeelimation of white rat^ea in tropical climatea. Although we bav<
writings in abundance on the suhject, they are inoslly vague an«
till satisfactory ; and even a precise definition of the term is wanting
All we can hope, within our limits, is to lay out some land-mark::
which may stimulate others to greater detail.
Dr. Rochoux has attempted a somowliat precise definition of tl
term aeelimation; and perhaps a better one cannot be ^ven in C^.
present state of knowledge. He says: "Acclimation is a profou-a
change in the organism, produced by a prolonged sojourn in a pt^
whose climate is widely difl'orent from that to which one is acc\3
tomed; and which has the effect of rendering the individual w,-A,
has been subjected to it similar, in many respects, to the uutivoi
{indiginet) of the country which he has adopted."
This dcfiuition strikes at once a leading difficulty in this dtecus-
sion, and one which should, as far as possible, be cleared awny,
before we can fully estimate tlie influence of climate on mankind.
Who are tliese "indigenes" of whom Rochoux speaks? Are they,
in all cases, really descendants of the same original stock as thoM
who come to seek acclimation? Hero, I repeat, are questions tha
have not been fully nor fairly examined, even by rrichard, the grea
champion of the unity of the human race ; and which embamw
our progress at every step,
Dr. Priehard remarks: "It is well known that the proportions
number of individuals who attain a given age, differs in differen
climates; and tliat the warmer the climate, other circmnstance
being equal, bo much the shorter is the average duration of humai
life. Even within the limits of Europe, the difference is very great
In some instances, according to the calculations of M. Moreau d
Jonnes, the rate of mortality, and inversely the duration of life
differ by nearly one-half from the proportions discovered in othe
examples. The following is a brief extract fix)m a table preaentet
by this celebrated calculator of the Institute :
1819
1826
1821 to 1824
1826 to 1880
1824
1800 to 1804
1826 to 1827
1824
••••••
1827 to 1828 -^
1820
1821
••••••
41
46
<l
46
«<
89
tt
43
«
40
4<
47
<4
89.6
«4
47
tt
81
tt
28
tt
60
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON HAN. 371
^^ABLR EXHIBITINa THE ANNUAL MORTALITY IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES IN
EUROPE.
In Sweden from 1821 to 1826 1 death in 46
Denmark <*
Oermany «
Prossia "
Anstrian Empire. «
Holland ««
Great Britain **
France '*
Canton deVand «<
Lombardy **
Roman States.... '*
Scotland «. •*
«« The difference of twenty-eight and fifty is considerable ; but eyen the latter rate of
aox'tality is oonsiderAbly greater than that 'which the data collected by M. Morean de
Joxuite attribute to Iceland, Norway, and the northern parts of Scotland.
** In approaching the equator, we find the mortality increase, and the average duration
or life consequently diminish. The following calculation, obtained by the same writer,
•oflSoiently illustrates this remark :
LATITVDI. PLAOBS. ONI DEATH IK
fio 10^ BataYia 26 inhabiUnts.
10<»10^ Trinidad 27 "
18<*64^ Sainte Lucie 27 "
14® 44^ Martinique 28
16<* 69^ Guadaloupe 27
18® Z^ Bombay 20
22® 33' Calcutta 20
28® 11' Havana 83 "
" Xt has been observed that, in some of these instances, the rate of mortality appears
^re^ik^er than that which properly belongs to the climate ; as some of the countries men-
tloEB^^^i include cities and districts known to be, by local situation, extremely unhealthy. >*
>me, the mortality belongs, in great part, to strangers, principally Europeans, who,
.Tig from a di£ferent climate, suffer in great numbers. The separate division from
wrlil^csh the collective numbers above given are deduced, will sufficiently indicate these
^rcswimstances.
InBatavia, 1806 Europeans died 1 in 11
" Slaves 1 «' 13
«« Chinese 1 " 29
" Javanese, viz.. Natives 1 " 40
Calcutta, 1817 to 1836 Europeans and Eurasians 1 ** 28
" Portuguese and French 1 " 8
1822 to 1836 Western Mahommedansi
" Bengal "
" Moguls
" Arabs
tt
tt
tt
tt
1 " 86
^ A striking proof of the difference between a malarial and non-malarial climate, in
«lo«© proximity.— J. C. N.
372 acclimation; or, the influence op
r
li&ie
Caloutta, 1822 to 1886 Western Hindus died....'
** Bengal Hindus. ,
" Low Castes ,
" Mugs
Bombay, 1816 Europeans ^... 1 «< 18.5
** Mussulmans I ** 175
" Parsees ^ 1 " 40
Guadaloupe, 1811 to 1824 Whites * 1 " 22
" Free men of color - 1 " 85
Martinique, 1826 - Whites 1 *♦ 24
" Free men of color 1 " 28
Qranada, 1816 Slayes 1 •< 22
In Saint Lucia, 1802 Slaves 1 «* 20
<*The oomparatiyely low degree of mortality among the free men of color, in the West
Indies, and the Jayanese and Parsees, in countries where those races are either the origiiud
Inhabitants, or haye become naturalized by an abode of some centuries, is remarkable, is
the preceding table. It would seem that such persons are exempted, in a great meason,
firom the influence of morbific causes, which destroy Europeans and other foreignert
That the rate of mortality should be lower among them than m the eouthem parts of £urcp«, u
a fact which, in the present state of our knowledge, it is difficuli to explain."^
It appears, from these tables, which are corroborated by all
subsequent statistics of the above-named couutries, as well as those
of the United States, that the whites show the greatest average
duration of life in temperate latitudes. Russia, it seems, gives a
higher rate of mortality than any cold climate short of the Arctic
(of which we want stiitistics) ; and why the great difference of Ino^
tality in several of these countries, differing apparently so little in
climate, it is impossible, in the present state of knowledge, to deter-
mine. It is, probably, in many instances, attributable to habits and
social condition. In Russia, where the mortality is so great, it
perhaps may be explained by a combination of causes — such as the
extreme rigor of the climate, the oppressed condition of the serfs,
their bad habits and improvidence, and last, though not least, the
immigration and interblending of races foreign to the climate. ^
Norway, the mortality is put down at 1 in 64, or one-half that of
Russia.
The Germanic races we know to be among the most hardy and
robust of the human family, by nature ; and yet, as we see them
(mostly of the poorer classes), in our Southern States, they are, in
general, a squalid-looking people. I can assign no other cause than
their mode of life — ^with which, in Germany, I am not familiar. Their
mode of sleeping, in America, is very destructive of health : they live
in confined rooms, and lie at night between two feather-beds, even in
our mild climate. It is impossible that any people can be healthy
with such customs ; and if a strict scrutiny were made into the habits
" '* Physical History of Mankind, I, pp. 116-17-18.
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 373
of maikj of the populations above-named, it is not improbable that
much of the discrepancy in their vital statistics would be explained
by condition and habits, skill of the medical profession, &c."
When we come down to the Roman States, the mortality rises to
1 in 28, which is easily explained: there begin the malarial climates:
and we shall see that the mortality among whites increases onwards
to the Tropics. But Prichard makes one fundamental mistake : he
never stops to ask a question about the adaptation of race to climate,
but follows out his foregone conclusion, and goes on to show that,
"in approaching the equator, the mortality increases, and the ave-
rage duration of life consequently diminishes;" illustrating it by
the second table, beginning with Batavia. He is much embar-
rassed to account for the "low degree of mortality among the free
men of color in the West Indies, the Javanese and Parsees ;" and
for a reason why "the rate of mortality should be lower among
them, than in the southern parts of Europe" ?
Now, the reason is obvious: the blacks, Parsees, and Javanese,
are all autochthons of hot climates, and were created to suit the
conditions in which they have been placed, as well as all similar
ones. The Parsees, like the Jews, were from a warm latitude ori-
ginally, and soon become acclimated; but the Anglo-Saxon, and
3:^ndred races, never thrive and never will prosper in such climates.
JBven in Italy, the white races die, when a negro might live, or a
coolie would flourish. The same remarks apply to the Chinese, the
lAIahomedans, Moguls, and Arabs, in the last table : all are from hot
^^limates, and prosper in Calcutta.
The greater mortality among the Hindus, compared with the
^3iussulmans, is accounted for by the fact that Hindus of Calcutta
<x>n8ist of families including a large proportion of infant life. The
eame circumstance explains the mortality of the Portuguese, who
^re also a wretched and suffering class.^® The French (but 160) are
included with 3181 Portuguese ; and the statement is worth nothing,
so far as the former are concerned.
"The native troops on the Bengal estahliphment," says Captain Henderson [Atiaiic
Reseetrchea, Yol. 20, part I.), ** are particularly healthy, under ordinary circumstances.
** It has been found, by a late inquiry, embracing a period of five years, that only one
man is reported to have died per annum, out of every hundred and thirty-one of the actual
^ While writing this, I meet with a very intelligent Prussian gentleman, who informs me
that this mode of sleeping between feather-beds is common throughout the Germanic States,
as weU as in Russia, among the peasantry, and middle and lower classes generally. Such
manner of sleeping precludes the possibility of regulating the covering to temperature.
The system must be often greatly and injuriously overheated, and rendered more suBoept*
ible to the intense cold of their own climates, when exposed.
» JoHKBOir & Maetiiv'8 ** Influence of Tropical CUmatet,** London, 1841, p. 60.
374 acclimation; or, the influence op
strength of the army. So injorions, howeyer, is Bengal proper to this class of natiTO, h
oomporiBon with the upper proTinces, that, although only one-fourth of the troops exiubited
are stationed in Bengal, the deaths of that fourth are more than a moietj of the vhok
mortality reported."
Now, according to this statement, the native troops in the interior
show a degree of healthfalness (1- death in 131) unknovm to any
troops in Europe; and even in Bengal, the mortality, as stated above,
would only be about 16 to the 1000, or about 1 in 60 ! ! !
The most minute and reliable statistics we possess, touching the
influence of tropical climates on the European races, are drawn from
the reports of the British army surgeons, which give a truly melan-
choly picture of the sacrifice of human life. We shall use freely
one of these reports, made by Major TuUoch, in 1840 — an abstract
of which may be found in the April No. of the Medico-Chirurgical
Review of that year. This report includes the stations of Western
Africa, St. Helena, the Cape of Good Hope, and the Mauritiufl.
The following statement refers to Sierra Leone :
« From a table furnished by Major TnUoch, it appears that, during so long a period u
eighteen years, the admissions haye averaged 2978, and the deaths 483 per thousand of
the strength ; in other words, every soldier was thrice under medical treatment, and neiriy
half the force perished annually: indeed, in 1825, and again in 1826, when the mortality
was at its height, three-fourths of the force was cut off. Yet this estimate excludes tooi-
dents, violence, &c.
** A considerable portion of the deaths in 1825-6 took place at the Oambia, which prorcd
the grave of almost every European sent there. Had the mortality of each station beeo
kept distinct, that of the European troops at Sierra Leone would not probably have exceeded
850 per thousand, or rather more than a third of the garrison, annually.
'* However much the vice and intemperance, not only of the troops, but the other cUs'M
of white population, may have aggravated the mortality, a more regulated life and purer
morals brought no safety to them. For, among the Missionaries, we find that:
Of 89 who arrived between March, 1804, and August, 1825, all men in the prime
of life, there died ^ 54
Returned to England, in bad health ^ ^ 14
" good health 7
Remained on the coast 14
Total ^ 89
If
During the year 1825, about 300 white troops were landed ^
diflferent times, and in detachments : nearly every one died, or wW
shattered in constitution; and, what is remarkable, ^^ During tJ«
whole of this dreadful mortality^ a detachment of from 40 to 60 hhtfi^
soldiers of the 2d West-India Regiment only lost one man^ and hdi
seldom any in the hospital.*' These black soldiers, too, had been born
and brought up in the West Indies ; and, according to the commonly
received theory of acclimation, should not have enjoyed this exemp*
tion. No length of residence acclimates the whites in Africa; oo
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 375
be contrary, it exterminates them. The history of the whole coast
\ the same.
The Major's report goes on to speak of the black troops, recruited
X)m among the negroes captured from slavers, and liberated at
ierra Leone. It is remarkable that these black troops, recruited
■om native Afiicans, give a mortality, during eighteen years, of an
verage of 30 per 1000 — ^twice as high as the mortality of other
*oop8 serving in their native country. This rate of mortality is
bout the same as that of the black troops in Jamaica and Hondu-
as. * * * /^ M noty howevevj from fever {the disease of the climate)
iiU the black soldier suffers. From this the attacks have been fewer^
nd the deaths have not materially exceeded the proportion among an
'fual number of white troops in the United Kingdom, or other tempe-
ate climates. The black troops suffer much more from fever in the
Vest Indies. Small-pox killed many, dracunculus^ &c.
The Cape Colony possesses a milder climate, is free from malarial
dfluences ; and the troops, both white and native, enjoy remarkable
zemption fi^m disease and mortality. Fevers are rare and mild.
lie Hottentots, like other black races, show a strong tendency to
hthisis — ^fiw greater than the white troops.
The Mauritius, though in the same latitude as Jamaica, is more
emperate, and far more salubrious. The British troops are as
xempt from disease here as in Great Britain. This island has a
opulation of about 90,000, two-thirds of whom are colored ; and
rhile the white population are remarkably healthy, both military
nd civil, the negroes die in as great a proportion as in the West
ndies, says Major Tulloch. A prolonged residence here, from heat
f the climate, is unfavorable to longevity of whites.
SeyehelUt, — " A group of small islands, in the Indian Ocean, between 4^ and 6^ sonth
ttitade. They are fifteen in number ; but the principal one, named Mah6, in which a
etachment of British troops is stationed, is sixteen miles long, and from three to four
road, with a steep, ragged, granite mountain intersecting it longitudinally. The soil of
lab^ is principally a reddish clay, mixed with sand ; and is watered by an abundance of
man rimlets. The weather in these islands is described as being clear, dry, and extremely
gr«eable. There is little difference in the seasons, except during November, December,
ad January, when much rain falls, with occasional light squalls. The equality of the
emperature may be inferred, when we state that the maximum of temperature throughout
lie ytoT was 8S^, and the minimum 78^. We cannot, therefore, be surprised when we are
M>ld that the total population of the principal islands in the group amounted, in 1825, to
(82 whites, 823 free people of color, and 6058 slaves — all of whom are said to enjoy
mnarkably good health, and an exemption from the languor and debility so much experi-
enced in other tropical climates. Extreme longevity is very common : and affections of the
lumg9 almost th$ only ditetue, of a ieriouM character^ to which the mhabitante are aubj'eet,**
m
The British troops proved very sickly here; hut Major Tulloch
tttribntes this to bad diet and intemperance.
376 acclimation; or, the influence op
The fact is bo glaring, and so universally admitted, that I am
really at a loss how to select evidence to show that there is no mH-
mation against the endemic fevers of our r^ral districts. Is it not
the constant theme of the population of the South, how they can
preserve health ? and do not all prudent persons, who can afford to
do so, remove in the summer to some salubrious locality, in the
pine-lauds or the mountains? Those of the tenth generation are
just as solicitous on the subject as those of the first. Books written
at the !N'orth talk much about acclimation at the South ; but we here
never hear it alluded to out of the yellotthfever cities. On the con-
trary, we know that those who live from generation to generation in
malarial districts become thoroughly poisoned, and exhibit the
thousand Protean forms of disease which spring from this insidious
poison.
I have been the examining physician to several life-insurance
companies for many years, and one of the questions now asked in-
many of the policies is, "7« the party acclimated f*' If the subject
lives in one of our southern seaports, where yellow fever prevails,
and has been bom and reared there, or has had an attack of yellow
fever, I answer, "Fe«." If, on the other hand, he lives in the coim-
try, I answer, "iVb;** because there is no acclimation against infer-
mittent and bilious feveVj and other marsh diseases. Kow, I ask if
there is an experienced and observing physician at the South who
will answer differently? An attack of yellow fever does not protect
against marsh fevers, nor vice versd.
The acclimation of negroes, even, according to my observation,
has been put in too strong a light. Being originally natives of hot
climates, they require no acclimation to temperature^ are less liable
to the more inflammatory forms of malarial fevers, and suffer infi-
nitely less than whites from yellow fever: they never, however, as
far as my observation extends, become proof against intermittents
and their sequelte. The cotton planters throughout the South will
bear witness, that, wherever the whites are attacked with intermit-
tents, the blacks are also susceptible, though not in so great a
degree. My observations apply to the region of country removed
from the rice country. We shall see, further on, that the negroes
of the rice-field region do undergo a higher degree of acclimation
than those of the hilly lands of the interior. I know many planta-
tions in the interior of Alabama, South Carolina, Georgia, Missis-
sippi, and Louisiana, on which negroes of the second and third
generation continue to suffer from these malarial diseases, and where
gangs of negroes do not increase.
Dr. Samuel Foriy, in his valuable work on the climate of the
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 377
United States, has investigated fully the influence of our southern
climates on our population, and uses the following decided language
in relation to the whites :
«« In these looalitiw, m is often obserred in the tide-water region of oar Southern States,
tbe bmnan frame is weakly eonstitnted, or imperfectly developed: the mortality among
children is Tery great, and the mean duration of life is comparatiycly short. Along the
ftronti«r8 of Florida and the southern borders of Georgia, as witnessed by the author, as
trcU AS in the low lands of the Southern States generally, may be seen deplorable examples
of the physical, and perhaps mental, deterioration induced by endemic influences. In
0»iiie8t infaneyf the complexion becomes sallow, and the eye assumes a bilious tint:
^idvaneing towards the years of maturity, the growth is arrested, the limbs become atte-
saoated, the Tiacera engorged, &o." — P. 866.
But, leaving our own country, let us look abroad and see what the
history of other nations teaches.
The best-authenticated examples, perhaps, anywhere to be found
oo record, of the enduring influence of marsh malaria on a race, are
io the Campagna, Maremma, Pontines, and other insalubrious locali-
ties in classic Italy. The following account is given by Dr. James
tTolnson, in his work on Change of Air; and every traveller through
Italy can vouch for its fidelity :
««
It 18 from the monntain of Viterbo that we have the first glimpse of the wide-spread
^'^^pogna di Roma. The beautiful little lake of Vico lies under our feet, its sloping banks
^^tiTated like a garden, but destitute of habitations, on account of the deadly malaria,
^«Uch no culture can annihilate. From this spot, till we reach the desert, the features of
I^^erty and wretchedness in the inhabitants themselves, as well as in everythiDg around
^^*i^ grow rapidly more marked. We descend from Monti Rose upon the Campagna, and,
^ ^^oeano, we are in the midst of it."
After describing the beauty of the scenery, and its luxuriant
^^getation, he continues:
** But no human form meets the eye, except the gaunt figure of the herdsman, muffled
^P to the chin in his dark mantle, with his gun and his spear ; his broad hat slouched over
^^ ferocious and scowling countenance of a brigand : the buffalo which he guards is less
'^^I^^Snant than he. As for the shepherd, Arcadia forbid that I should attempt his descrip-
uoi^l t^Y^^ saTage of the wigwam has health to recommend him. As we approach within
'^ Utiles of Rome, some specks of cultivation appear, and with them the dire effects of
^^^%Ha on the human frame. Bloated bellies, distorted features, dark yellow complexions,
^<t eyes and Hps ; in short, all the symptoms of dropsy, jaundice, and ague, united in
^^ persons. That this deleterious miasma did exist in the Campagna from the very first
ion of Rome down to the present moment, there can be little doubt"
Se then goes on to prove the fact, from the writings of Cicero,
*^ivy, and others ; and makes it clear that the population of Italy
^^ no nearer being acclimated against this poison, than they were
^o thousand years ago.
6ir James Johnson makes the following just remarks, which
^l^ly equally to the malarious districts of our country :
378 acclimation; or, the influence op
<* A glance at the inhabitants of malarionB conntriee or districts, mast eonTince eren &«
most superficial obseryer, that the range of disorders produced by the poison of maliria ib
Tery eztensiye. The jaundiced complexion, the tumid abdomen, the stunted growth, tb«
stupid countenance, the shortened life, attest that habitual exposure to malaria saps tlie
energy of every mental and bodily function, and drags its Tictims to an early grtYS. A
moment's reflection must Show us, that fwtr and a^ti«, two of the most prominent featam
of malarious influence, are as a drop of water in the ooean, when compared with the otber
less obtrusiye, but more dangerous, maladies that silently, but elFeotually, disorganixe tii«
yital structures of the human fabric, under the operation of the deleterious and iniiobli
poison.
<*What are the consequences? Malarious fevers; or, if these are eeoaped, thefoimdi-
tion of chronic malarious disorders is laid, in ample provision for future misery and suffo^
ing. These are not speculations, but facts. Compare the range of human existence, n
founded on the decrement of human life in Italy and England. In Rome, a twenty-fifth
part of the population pays the debt of nature annually. In Naples, a twenty-eij^th put
dies. In London, only one in forty ; and in England generally, only one in sixty £ills
before the scythe of time, or the ravages of disease."
As is the case with all of our southern seaports, "the suhurbs of
Rome are more exposed to malaria than the city; and the open
squares and streets, than the narrow lanes in the centre of the me-
tropolis." "The low, crowded, and abominably filthy quarter af
the Jews, on the banks of the Tiber, near the foot of the capital^
probably owes its acknowledged freedom fi^m the fittal malaria t>o
its sheltered site and inconceivably dense population." This immca-
nity may arise, at least in part, from their position at the foot of tk^
hill ; for there is no exception to the rule, at the South, that a resi-
dence on the bank of a river, or jn low land, is less affected \>y
malaria than the hill that overlooks it At present, the feet i«
inexplicable, although universally admitted.
We will here add some interesting facts, from the writings of the
distinguished military physician, M. le Docteur Boudin, derived from
personal observation, during long residence in Algeria, and from
official government documents.
"On the 3lBt of December, 1861, the indigenous city population (of Algeria) amounted
to 105,865 inhabitants, of whom there were:
Mnssnlmans ^ 81,829
Negroes 8,488
Jews 21,048
"If we compare this census with that of the year 1849, the following facts appear:
"1. By a comparison of births and deaths in the official tables, the Mussulman pqrali'
tion is decreasing.
** 2. The negroes haye decreased, in two years, 689.
** 8. The Jews, daring the same time, have increased 2020.
" The mortality among the European population, in Algeria, from 1842 to 1851, bM
varied from 44 to 105 out of every 1000; and, instead of diminishing from year to jtsfi
under acclimation, tht morialiiy hat tteadify inertaud.
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 379
Moriality according to Nationality,
** Heretofore we haTe giTen the mortality of the European popnlation taken in mass. It
^ understood that this mortality must be greatly influenced by the origin of the different
foments of the population. We have shown that the half of the European population is
composed of strangers (other than French), and numbers over 41,000 Spaniards, and
15,000 Italians and Maltese. The official tables giye the following mortality, from 1847 to
S851, for the French and strangers (Spaniards, Italians, and Maltese) :
Deatht for each 1000.
, » *
Strtngert. French.
1847 48.4 60.8
184a 41.8 41.7
1849 84.3 101.6
1850. ^ 48.4 70.6
1851 89.8 64.6"
rrhus, on the one side, we see that the mortality of the French
gi-^satly exceeds that of the other European population ; while, on
tfci.^ other, in 1850 and 1851, the mortality of the former rises to a
fi^-^ure three times greater than the normal mortality of France.
JewUih Population.
The official tables give the following rSsumS of the mortality of
Jewish population, during the years from 1844 to 1849 :
1844 ^ 21.6 deaths per 1,000.
1846 « 86.1 ««
1847 81.6 "
1848 28.4 "
1849 66.9 "
LIS mortality is greatly below that of both the European and
lwd:i.esulman population, and shows the difference of acclimation in
Jo^ws and Frenchmen : "NuUe part le Juif ne nait, ne vit, ne meurt,
coxxime les autres hommes au milieu desquels il habite. C'est Ik un
point d'anthropologie compar6e que nous avons mis hors de contes-
tia-fcion, dans plusieurs publications."
** According to the last tables of the French establishments in
;eria, the total number of births, from 1830 to 1851, have been
,«00, and that of the deaths 62,768" ! ! ! This fact applies to all
tikk^ provinces, and shows that the climate tends to the extermination
of Europeans.
The official statistics also show that the Mussulman (Moorish)
population is steadily decreasing, in the cities. Dr. Boudin asks :
** Ib this diminution the effect of want, or of demoralization ? is it
to be explained by the cessation of unions between the native women
and the Turkish soldiers ? or, finally, is it explained by that myste-
rious law, in virtue of which inferior races seem destined to disap-
through contact with superior races ?"
380 ACCLIMATION; OR, THE INFLUENCE OP
As thiB flubjeet of home acclimation ia one of too mucli'import.
ance to be allowed to rest on the opinion of any one indiviilual, {
have taken the lihcrty of writing to several of my profcMional
inends, for the roanlts of their obaervations in different localitja
and Stjvtea. All the answers received confirm fully my assortioo,
that the Anglo-Saxon race can never be acclimated against marsh
malaria. I should remark, that the following letters were writk-n
with the haste of private correapondence, and not with the idea of
publication. The first letter ia from Dr. Dickson, the distinguifihed
Professor of Practice in the Charleston Medical College.
■'CHAnLBnTOH, May 10. ISSt,
"Ml DXAK DooToB. — I huten to repl; to ;oiua of tlio Btb but., tMoiTod bj jreiUnUfi
"1. 'Tha Anglo-Siiion raoa aan nerer become aeeUmaltid Hgikinit the i
Internultout and bilioai foTars, 'periodical,' or 'ranlnrioaa forpro.' On the
people liTing in our low couatry grow more linble to atMok jenr after ;ou-, anil
I •Iter generation.
" We get rid of Uio poiBon in eome plncoB, anil llius oitsDd onr Umiti of rcBlclsnecj
in no other wnj. Droinago, the formation of an artificial eurfnce on the graond.
inciienla of densit; of population — Knoll aa culinar; fires, railroad smokes,
Md to preTont the formation of malaria, or oorrect it.
■■BoDuin [Btiiiik and Foreign Stv., Oot. Ift49) argues against the poMtibilitj
Bcclimation, dwotliog upon tho little sucooss and great mortality altondiug the <
of Algeria, the Europoan and Bngliah intruiion into Egypt and into Hindoxtaii.
"The French, he lells us. cannot keep up their namber in CorHica. In tlio West Initiu***^
the white soldier is twioe as likely to die as the black; in Sierra Leone, lixleen tima mor-~*^
likely; and this continuon permanently.
"In Ditson's Rrparli on the Climalt and Principal Dinata of tkt African Statimi, il la^
•Rirmed (p, 83) that, on board the Athvll (a voasel kept some timo on the alatioD), the tttam'"'^'
of fever have rcooTorod mnoli more slowly than formerly ; bo that, instead of its being *i
adTantage to be acclimated, It is apprehended that it will be ([uite the reTene, ai
becomes relaxed and dehilitatod by the enervating intinence of the olimale.
"■a. Do negrau in this country (rice-field) ever lose their ansceptibilitj to tbaM die— ^
eases I' Tcs, in very great measure, if not absolately. If thoy remain in the wine Inn — *■"";
I lity, they are scarcely subjects of atlaok. I use cautious language — too cauUuus. tl i^K-*
my full belief that they become imuietpiible of the impreeaion of the cause of periodical^ S-^* '
I or what we call malarioos, fevers. Who ever saw a negro with an ngue-eakeT I oerlsinly^C .
never did. Change of residence bogete a certain but very moderate degree of ensoeptibi — f'"'
lit/. If a bouse ne^ be sent to a riee>field, he may be attacked. 6o. in ehiftiog alnn^^'* *
the African coast from place to plaos, the naLites of one locality will be seised bj fever » «* "**
■ometimes at another. Brvson (ells n!i that Fernando Po is so terribly insalnbrions. that* ^ '^
npgroes brnnght from any part of the African continent aro always aickly thoro. ' though Ui^ «•***
nativoB of the island itself appear to be a healthy and athletio race of people.*
"Tho same author tells us of the general inau»ceplibilily of tho particular race oaHedta •* *^
Kroo-mcn, all along the coast This class of people are therefore very aaeTDl and avail— X? ^ "
able, being bired in preference to others on bortrd the cnii»cr«.
■' 3. Negroes increase in number on onr rice plantations ; nay, It is my impreasiiiB thar^v cC3hl
tlie rate of increase is greater than on the lees malarial cotton plantations. The majoritjc** *
of deaths that do ocour, happen in winter and I^om winter diseases — few dying of fever^B^ -^rrfl
pressioa lA B*^^
mirary, tk« ^^^
: gennntifwv ^V
idenec; b^o^ S
I, anil utk -« V
Id the UtaS^ V
itjofs«e^ 1
Bolooiistif^;:^*' 1
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 381
loiM or ftlmott none from biHons, intermitientB, or remittents, some from typhos or typhoidf
cr ^^Tphoos* ferer.
ft • • • « « «'«
« I remain, &c.,
** Samuel Hbnbt DroKsoN.**
There is an interesting feet in the above letter to me, as I have no
experience in the rice-field country. I allude to the acclimation of
negroes in these flat swamp-lands, and their increase. As far as my
observation goes, the Ai7Zy, rich clay-lands of the interior are, with
few exceptions, more liable to malarial fevers than the swamp-lands
on the water-courses. The hills in the neighborhood of our swamp-
lands are always more sickly than the residences which are on tht
river banks. Professor Dickson says that the rice-field negroes
increase more than those on the cotton plantations. Certainly,
negroes do suflfer greatly on many cotton plantations in the middle
l>^lt of the Southern States ; and I have seen no evidence to prove
^at negroes can, in this region, become accustomed to the marsh
poison ; and my observation has been extensive in four States. A
Question here arises: Is there any difference in types of those
^*^ahuial fevers which originate in the flat tide-water rice-lands, and
^ose of the clay-hills, or marsh fevers of the interior? I am inclined
*o think there is.
The following letter is from my friend Dr. Wm. M. Boling, of
••^lontgoraery, Alabama, who has had much experience in this region,
^^^d who is well known as one of our best medical writers.
" MoNTOOMERY, Ala., May 17, 1856.
* ^ DiAB DocTOB. — Judging from my own observation, I am inclined to bclieye that there
*^ xio Boch thing m aoclimation to miasmatio localities ; in other words, that neither resi-
^^^ce in a miasmatic locality, nor an attack, nor even repeated attacks, of any of the
^'^^nons shades or forms of miasmatic fevers, confer any power of resistance to what we
^^^^erstand by the miasmatic poison — ^not regarding yellow fever, however, as belonging to
^^« cUms of disease. On the contrary, one attack, it seems to me, instead of afTording an
^^mnnity from, rather increases the tendency or predisposition to another. It would be no
^Qieolt matter, I think, to obtain histories of cases of persons bom. and continuing to live,
^ miaamatic localities, who have been subject to repeated attacks of miasmatic fevers,
^^^casionally, during the entire coarse of their lives — say fh)m a few days after birth to »
Moderate old age— **Arom the cradle to the grave." We do, to be sure, meet with persons
^lio have resided for a considerable time in miasmatic localities, without ever having had
^ attack of any of the forms of the fever in question. Such instances are more common,
^ I mistake not, among persons who have removed from a healthy into a miasmatic looa-
Bty, than among such as may have been bom and reared in the latter. But it is a rare
thing, indeed, aceording to my observation, to meet with a person, residing in a place
Where miaamatic diseaaea are rife, who has had one attack and no more.
"Yours, Ac,
•*Wm. M. Bolino."
It were an easy task to multiply evidence to the same effect ; but
what has already been said should be sufficient to satisfy any think-
382 acclimation; or, the influence op
ing mind.^ We shall, therefore, leave this point, and turn 1
again tq the Report of Major TuUoch, where we find some inte
ing facts, respecting the negro race, in the Mauritius, which wil
bear curtailment.
Black Pioneeri, — "These militaiy laborers hare been enlisted for the purpose of re
tbe European soldiers from the performance of fatigue and other daties, which sal
them to much exposure. They are all negroes, who haye either been bom in the Ifai
or brought from Madagascar and Mozambique, on the eastern coast of Africa. Tl
described as being a more robust and athletic race than those composing the W«
regiments.
** A table exhibits the admissions into hospital and deaths among these troops sine
As regards both, the ratio is almost exactly the same as among the black troops and p
in the Windward and Leeward command : the former being as S39 to 820, and the h
87 to 40 per 1000, of mean strength annually ; to thai the Mauritiua and Wett Jndi
alike utuuited to the eorutUution of the negro. This shows how vain is the expectatio:
under the most fayorable circumstances, of that race ever keeping up or perpetuatii
number in either of these colonies, when men in the prime of life, selected for their s
and capability for labor, subject to no physical defect at enlistment, and secured by i
regulations from all harsh treatment, die nearly foxir timet at rapidly at the aboripint
bitantt of the Capet or other healthy eountrietf at the tame age; and at leatt thriee at ra^
the white population of the Mauritiut, Indeed, to fatt it the negro race deer eating thei
in five years, the dealht have exceeded the birtht by upwards o/'6000, in a population o/6i
** However difficult it may be to assign an efficient cause, it is certain that the inhi
of different countries have different susceptibilities for particular diseases. FeT*
instance, have little influence on the negro race, in the Mauritius ; for no death has o<
from them, and the admissions have been in much the same proportion as among ai
number of persons in the United Kingdom ; but here, as in all other colonies in wl
haye been able to trace tbe fatal diseases of the negro, the great source of morta
been that of the lungs ; indeed, more die from that class alone, than of Hottentot
at the Cape, from all diseases together; but the latter are serring in their natural c
the former in one to which their constitution has never adapted, and probably nv
adapt itself.
** Major Tulloch compares the mortality of the negro, f^om diseases of the hi
Tarious colonies. There died annually of these affections, per 1000 of mean strengi
West coast of Africa 6.8
Honduras 8.1
Bahamas . 9.7
Jamaica 10.8
Mauritius 12.9
Windward and Leeward Command » 16.5
Gibraltar 88.6
*' Thus, in his native country, the negro appears to suffer from these diseases u
the same proportion as British troops in their native country: but, so soon as 1
beyond it, the mortality increases, till, in some colonies, it attains to such a he
seemingly to preclude the possibility of his race ever forming a healthy or inc
population.
** It is in vain that we look for the cause of this remarkable difference, either in
*• See the distinction between "bilious and yellow fever," in the Etsay by Pbof. R
n. Arnold, M. D., of Savannah, read before the Medical Society of the State of G
Augusta, Qa., 1856.
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 383
imtore, moistare, or any of those appreciable atmospheric agoDcies by which the human
frame is likely to be affected in some climates more than others ; and it is consequently
impossible, from any other data than that which the experience of medical records* fur-
nishes, to say where this class of troops can be employed with adTant&ge. Nearly two-
thirds of the mortality from diseases of the lungs, among negroes, arises from pulmonary
eonsmnption ; and it is worthy of remark, as showing how little that disease affects the
natiyes of some tropical climates, though it proves so fatal to those of others, that, among
71,850 natiTe troops serving in the Madras Presidency, the deaths by every description of
diseaae of the longs, did not, on the average of five years, exceed 1 per 1000 of the strength
•aniially.'' ^
In the ^* Journal of the Statistical Society of London^** will be found
another exceedingly interesting paper by the same writer, now
Lieut-Colonel Tulloch, F.S.S., in continuation of the same subject,
and giving later statistics.^ He says :
*' The preceding tables apply entirely to European troops serving abroad. It may now
po^To interesting to extend a similar course of observations to the influence of the same
dimates on the mortality of native or black troops, during the same periods. Of these, I
■baU first advert to the Malta Fencibles, composed of persons bom in the island.
** The strength of this corps, and the deaths antecedent to the 81st March, 1846, were as
follows:
STRENGTH. DSATHS.
Tear ending 81st March, 1845 676 6
•« 1846 574 5
*^iig at the rate of Sj*^ per thousand, on the average of these two years ; while the average
ft^m 1825, when this corps was raised, till 1886, a period of eleven years, was 9 per 1000
^i^mially. Thus, this corps proved one of the healthiest in the service ; and, as in the case
^f other troops serving in the colonies, its health and efficiency seem to be on the increase.
** The Cape corps, composed of Hottentots, shows, however, a still lower degree of mor-
^^t,y during the same period : the strength and deaths for these two years having been
'^•Pectively as follows :
STBENGTH. DKATHS.
Tear ending 81st Biarch, 1846 420 8
" 1846 448 8
Average of these two years....... 434 8
t>«iti^ at the rate of 7 per 1000 annually ; while the mortality in the same corps, on the
^^^i^ge of the thirteen years antecedent to 1836, was 12 per 1000 annually — thus showing
^ Si^at reduction of late years.
**The ratio of mortality in both those corps has been much below what is usual, even
^motig the most select lives in this country (England) ; and shows the great advantage,
'^kei^ver it is practicable, of employing the native inhabitants of our colonies, as a defen-
i&^e force, in preference to regular troops sent from this country.
** On comparing the diet and habits of men composing these two corps (which exhibit so
'"^ * degree of mortality during a long series of years), they will be found diametrically
^PPo^te: the Maltese soldier liring principally on vegetable diet, and rarely indulging in
^^ 'Qse of fermented or spirituous liquors, while the Hottentot soldier, like otbors of his
^'^^v lives principally on animal food, and that of the coarsest description. Owing to the
^**^t of rain and the uncertainty of the crops, grain is often very scarce on the eastern
XllUT.-CoL. A. M. TuLLOOH, F. S. S., " On the Mortality among Her Majetly't troopM
iginihe Coionie$ during the yeart 1844-6." Bead before the Statistical Society, Jan.
*^ 1847.
384 acclimation; or, the ikflvekgb of
frontier of the Cape, where this class of troops is principally employed ; and Uej m
occasionally without yegetable or farinaceous food for sereral weeks, at which tisMS they
often consume from two to three poinds of meat daily ; and their usual meat-ratioB ii it
all times as great as that of the European soldier. Intoxication, withimlent and fennentsi
spirits, or by smoking large quantities of a coarse description of hemp, is also by no neua
uncommon among them ; yet has this corps prored as healthy as the Maltese Feneiblee, lad
still more so than the native army of the East Indies, whoso eomparatiTe exeraptton ftm
disease has by some been attributed to the simplicity of their diet, and their gnenl
abstinence from every species of intoxication. Facts like these show with what csntioB
deductions should be drawn, when the returns of only one class of men are before as; lad
how necessary it is in this, as in every other species of statistical inquiry, to extend the
sphere of observation, with a view to accurate results.
<* I shall next advert to a class of troops who, though bom within the Tropics, uA
serving in tropical colonies, are not natives of the climate in whieh they are ststioiiei
First of these, in number and importance, are the three West India corps, recruited prin-
cipally from negroes captured in slave-ships, or inhabitants of the west coast of Afriea.
These men are distributed throughout Jamaica and the West Ihdia islands ; and ttk« tb
duty of those stations which long experience has shown to be inimical to the hesltli of
Europeans.
** The strength and mortality of this class, for the same two years as were before rsfonl
to, have been as follows:
Jamaica,
STRXHOTS. DBATH8.
Year ending Slst March, 1846 770 17
1846 912 86
Average of these two years ^... 841 26}
West Indies.
STRXHOTS. DIATH8.
Year ending Slst March, 1845 904 23
" 1846 1175 82
Average of these two years 1084 21\
•* These troops being frequently removed from island to ishind, there would be no utility
in stating the separate mortality in each, as, in most instances, the calculation woak^
involve broken periods of a year : but, on the whole, it appears that, in Jamaica, the mor^
tality has been at the rate of about 31, and in the West Indies 26 per 1000 of the force
annually ; while the mortality of the same class of troops, at the same stations, during the
twenty years antecedent to 1836, was respectively 30 per 1000 in Jamaica, and 40 per 1000
in the West Indies — thus showing a marked reduction in the mortality at the latter, duiiag
the last two years.
*'0n referring to the preceding results, a very material difference will be found between
the mortality of this class of troops, and that of the Cape corps and Maltese Fencibles,
who are serving in their native climate : the former being nearly four times as high as
either of the latter. Though the climate of the West Indies is probably as warm as that
of the interior of Africa" [in which the author is mistaken], "whence the negroes are
generally drawn, yet their constitutions never have, and probably never will, become asii-
milated to it. The high rate of mortality among them can, in no respeet, be attributed
either to the habits or the duties of the negro soldier; for others of the same race, who
are not in the army, suffer in a corresponding proportion" [as we shall take oceasloB ts
show, on a largo scale. — J. C. N.]
** By a very extensive investigation, into which I entered when engaged in the ptepara-
tion of the West-India Statistical Report, about seven years ago" [already reftrred to], "I
found that the mortality among the negro slave-population, even incloding
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 385
had been for MTvnJ generations in these colonies, amonnted to abont 80 per 1000 annnallj,
•f all ais^e. Very little of this mortality occnrred among infant Hfe : it fell principally on
of mature age ; among which class it was nearly double the proportion nsnally
among the oiTil population in this conntry. That, nnder snch a mortality, the ^
negro raoe can CTor increase, or eyen keep up their numbers, in the West Indies, appears a
phjaloal impossibility ; and there is good reason to belieye, that the want of labor, so much
eomplained of, and the demand for immigration from other countries, so much insisted on,
•riaaa more from the waste of life, than from the increasing cultivation of the soil ; and
thai a eareftil inTestigation into the mortality of the negro population, at different ages,
would show that the period is not far distant, at which that race would become entirely
extinct in the West Indies, but for the occasional accession to their numbers by fresh
importations. '
**The results on which these obserrations, as to the mortality of the negro population,
weve founded, extended, it is true, oyer a period when slavery prevailed in the island ; *^ and
it would be interesting to those philanthropists who then attributed the high rate of mor-
tality to that cause, now to trace, from the returns of each island, whether any diminution
has taken place since freedom was established among our sablo brethren ; but when it is
shown, by these results, that negro soldiers, in the prime of life, with every advantage, in
point of income, clothing, comfort, and medical attendance, which the British soldier enjoys
— vith precisely the same diet (if that can be considered an advantage), and with much
greater regularity of habits than he can boast of, are subject to an annual mortality of from
2) to 8} per cent, there is little reason to hope that^ whether bond or free, the negro race
win erer thrive or increase in the West Indies.
"The same remarks, as regards the unsuitableness of the climate, will, in a great mea-
nre, apply to the next class of troops to which I have to advert, viz., the Ceylon Rifle
Regiment, composed of Malaya^ brought principally from the Straits of Malacca, for the
P^u^ose of serving in Ceylon ; where the climate, though equally warm, does not appear by
Mv means congenial to their constitution, as must be apparent from the following results
regarding the mortally :
BTRVKGTH. DEATHS.
Tear endmg Slst March, 1846 ^ ^ 1952 46
" 1846 1930 86
Average of these two years 1941 41
B^ng tn annual mortality of 21 per 1000 ; while the ratio among the same class of troops,
^^ the twen^ years antecedent to 1886, was 27 per 1000 annually.
** Though this mortality is considerably lower than that of the negro troops in the West
"^itt, it is nearly twice as high as that which occurs among the native troops serving on
^^ oontinent of India adjacent — a sufficient proof that the Malay race is never likely to
"^^^^Mne assimilated to the climate of Ceylon: indeed, it has long been a subject of remark,
^"^ though their children have been encouraged to enter the service at a very early age,
^ Older to recruit the force, that expedient has proved insufficient, without the constant
^Portation of recruits from the Malay coast.
"The mortality among this class of troops, as among every other to which I have adverted,
"** tmdergone a considerable reduction within the last two years, as compared with the
^^'"■^ years antecedent to 1886— owing, no doubt, to late improvements and ameliorations
^ ftt condition of the soldier ; but there is little hope, either in the case of the Malay or
^ ^^'"gro, that this reduction will be sufficiently progressive to hold out a reasonable pros-
V^ of these races becoming thoroughly assimilated to the climate of Ceylon, in the one
^ or the West Indies, in the other.
* It wHl be made to appear, fmrther on, that tlavery has nothing to do with this result
Ob ^ eontrary, emancipation invariab^ (in America) has increased the ratio of mortality.
25
386 acclimation; or, the influence op
" To ascertain the races of men best fitted to inhabit and deTelop the Tesonicei of
different colonies, is a most important inquiry, and one which has hitherto attracted too
little attention, both in this and other oonntiies. Had the goyemment of Frtnee, (or
instance, adverted to the absolute impossibility of any population increasing or keeping vp
its numbers under an annual mortality of 7 per oent. (being that to which their settlers ut
exposed in Algiers), it would never have entered on the wild speculation of cultivating tbe
soil of Africa by Europeans, nor have wasted one hundred millions sterling, with no other
result than the loss of 100,000 men, who have fallen victims to the climate of that country-
In such questions, military returns, properly organised and properly digested, afford od^
of the most useful guides to direct the policy of the colonial legislation : they point out tl»^
limits intended by nature for particular races ; and within which alone they can thrive iP^
increase. They serve to indicate, to the restless wanderers of our race, the boundaries
which neither the pursuit of wealth nor the dreams of ambition should induce them %^
pass ; and proclaim, in forcible language, that man, like the elements, is controlled by ^
Power which hath said : * Hither shalt thou come, but no further.' "
"We have thus gone through with the statistics of Colonel TuUoclv
which are remarkable for their fulness and the unprejudiced tone m
which they are given. They would seem to show, very strongly,
that certain races cannot become assimilated to certain climates,
though they may to other climates fer removed fh)m their ori^al
birth-place. The British soldiers and civilians enjoy even better
health at the Cape Colony than in Great Britain ; wMle the negro,
in most regions out of Africa, whether within the Tropics — as in
the Antilles, or out of them — ^as at Gibraltar, is gradually exter-
minated. We shall now turn our attention to statistics which
confirm, in a remarkable manner, the conclusions of Col. Tulloch,
respecting the influence of foreign tropical climates on negroes ; and,
on the other hand, exhibit an increase, in the same class of popula-
tion, in the United States, almost without a parallel, and certainly
unprecedented in any laboring class, taken separately; for the
negroes in this country are almost exclusively of that denomi-
nation.
The following extract is taken from page 83 of the " Compendium
of the seventh Census'' of the United States, by the able superinten-
dent, J. B. D. DeBow, Esq.
** Slavery, which had existed in all the nations of antiquity, and thrdughont Europe
during the Middle Ages, was introduced at an early day into the Colonies. The fint
introduction of African slaves was in 1620, by a Dutch vessel from AfHca to Virginia. Mi.
Oarkt,' of Pennsylvania, in his work upon the slave-trade, says: 'The trade in slaves, to
the American colonies, was too smaU, before 1768, to attract attention.' In that year,
Macphbrson {Annalt of Commerce) says 611 were imported into Charleston; and, in 1765-61»
the number of those imported into Georgia (from their valuation) could not have exceeded
1482. From 1783 to 1787, the Bntish West Indies exported to the Colonies 1892— nearly
300 per annum. These West Indies were then the entrepot of the trade ; and though Uiey
received nearly 20,000 (Macphbrson) in the period above-named, they sent to theColoniec
but that small number — proving the demand could not hav« been my large. After a dose
CLIMATE AKD DISEASES ON MAN. 387
•rg«meni» from the ratio of inorease nnce the first eensus, Mb. Caret is enabled to recnr
Wek, and compate the popalation at earlier periods, separating the natire-bom from thow
deriTod flrom importations. Setting ont with the fact that the slavet (blacks) numbered
66,850 in 1714, he finds that 80,000 of the^e were brought from Africa.
Importations preidous to 1716 80,000
** between 1716 and 1760 ^ 90,000
•« " 1761 " 1760 86,000
" " 1761 " 1770 ^ 74,000
u u 1771 « 1790 84,000
a " 1790 " 1808 « 70,000
Total number imported. 883,000
"The number sinoe 1790 is eTidentljr too smaU. Charleston alone, in the four jears,
1 80i-5-6-7, 4mported 89,075. Making, therefore, a correction for such under-estimate,
ikKs<i s Tery liberal inprease to Mb. Cabby's figures, the whole number of Africans, at all
imported into the United States, would not exceed 875,000 to 400,000.
'^''Thus, in the United States, the number of Africans and their descendants is nearly
;ht or ten to one of those who were imported ; vhiltt, in the Britith Wat Indiet, there are
Mog t9o ptrwrna remaining^ for every five of the imported and their deteendantt. This is seen
the following: Imported into Jamaica preyiously to 1817, 700,000 negroes — of whom
their descendants but 811,000 remained, after 178 years, to be emancipated in 1833.
In the whole British West Indies, imported 1,700,000— of whom and their descendants
^^50,000 remained for emancipation.' — Cabbt." *>
Here, then, we have reliable statistics, establishing the astounding
&cta, that while the blacks in the United States have increased ten-
foldj those of the British West Indies have decreased in the propor-
tion of five to two. Of the whole 1,700,000 and their progeny, but
660,000 remained at the time of emancipation. I have not the data
at hand to speak with precision ; but the fact is notorious, that the
diminution in the number of blacks, in the British West Indies, has
^en going on more rapidly since than before their emancipation.
To what causes is all this to be attributed ? This is a difficult ques-
tion, at present, to answer. Certainly, no one will contend that the
subjects of Great Britain were less humane to their slaves than those
<^f the United States ; or that the negroes in the British West Indies
^^re not in as good a physical condition, in former years, as those
of the United States." Climate, then, with the present lights before
^8) seems to have been the leading cause. There is another, which
I bave not seen alluded to in these statistics ; and which may or
** At the time I am writing, the oolored popnlation, slare and free, in the United States,
*^ be at least ten to one greater than the importations. This population, in 1860^
^*<^ted to 8,638,808; and, at the present moment, October, 1856, exceeds 4,000,000.
* The eondition, both moral and physical, has been steadily improring, in the United
°^^; and is now muoh better than that of slares half a century ago, either here or i^
^ W«it Indies. [See ample oorroboratlons of present fk'ee-negro mortality, at JamaJca^
^ ^ ** Memorial of the West Indian merchants and others to Mr. Labouehere," Just p«k*
BM (London iVK, Dee. 26, 1856).— 0. R. 0.]
888 acclimation; or, the influekce or
may not have its weight, viz., the mixture of raee$ and the hw of
hybridity. That the mulattoes have a tendency towards extermiBa-
tion, is believed by many ; but whether the white and black tacea
have been mingled in a greater proportion in the British West
Indies than in the United States, I have no means now of deter*
mining.
The actual ratio of mortality in the slave-population of the United
States, I do not think can be arrived at, with certainty, from any
statistics yet published. The census of the United States, published
by the Government, is perfectly reliable in respect to the actual
number of negroes at each decennial period, and the rate of increaao
in this population ; but, I am satisfied that the ratio of mortality^
tiiken from the same volume, should be received with great caution,
boeauso I have reason to believe that the planters, fit)m negligence,
are greatly wanting in accuracy on this point. The average mor-
t^ilitVf tor the whole slave-population, is put down in the census at
Olio in sixt}'. This sounds as though it were below the mark ; but,
whoii we reflect on the rapid increase of this population, it may not
bo so. AVe have positive data for the mortality of the free negroes
ill Xortliern States, where the climate, as well as social condition, is
\iiifiivon\ble to this class ; and the ratio is fix)m one death in twenty,
to Olio in thirty annually, of the entire number. In Boston, the
most northern point, the mortality is highest; and rather less in
Now York and Philadelphia. I can procure no statistics from
Canada, whore the blacks must sufier terribly fix)m that climate.
•* Thf blacks imported firom AfHoa, eYerywhere beyond the limits of the SUre States of
North Amonoa, tend to extinction. The Liberian experiment, the most farorable erer
madt\ !!« no exception to this general tendency. According to the Report of the Colonin-
tion 8i>oiety, for thirty-two years, ending in 1862, the number of colored persons sent to
Liberia amounted to 7592 — of which number only dOOO or 7000 remained. The slaTe-hoMing
Suteii «ent out as immigrants 6792 — the most of whom were emancipated slayes : the dob-
slaYc-hoMing States sent out 457 persons.
**The Mack race is doomed to extinction in the West Indies, as well as in the Northera
States of this republic, if the past be a true index of the future, unless the deterioration
niul wttKte of life shall be continually supplied by importations from Africa, or by fiigitite
ami manumitted slares from Southern States.
*• M. Ifi'MROLPT {Personal Narrative) has, with his usual accuracy, compiled, from official
NOurt'oM, the Tital statistics of the West India slares, to near the close of the first quarter
ttf the (treMent century (one decennium before the abolition act of Parliament). He esti*
iiiNteM the HlaTes in these islands at 1,090,000; free negroes, including Hayti, at 870,000;
tuliil, I.VHlO.tKK). Mr. Macobxoob, in his huge rolumes on the progress of America, giTcs
|h«t tdtal HKgregate of blacks at 1,800,000 in the year 1847 — showing a deefine, in the
|ii0oui|iiiK quarter of a century, of 660,000.
*• M lh>MHoi.nT says that *the slares would haTe diminished, rinoe 1820^ with grcal
raitidil.v. hut (i\r the fraudulent continuation of the slaTe-trade.*
*• h^ aiuilhtir oaloulation, it appears that» in the whole West-IndiMi mUpdmgo, the frft
GLIMATB AND DISEASES ON MAN. 389
colored nmnbered 1,212,900; the slftTes, 1,147,600; total, 2,860,500~8howing a decline,
in less than fire yean, of 400,600, notwithstanding the accession bj the slare-trade. * * *
*' M. Humboldt says : * The whole archipelago of the West Indies, which now comprises
2, -100,000 negroes and mulattoes, free and slaves, receiyed, from 1670 to 1825, nearly
6,000,000 Africans.'
These extracts are taken from an article by Dr. Bennet Dowler,
editor of the "New Orleans Medical Joumar* (Sept. 1856), wherein
& ^reat many other interesting facts will be found, from the writings
of Tumbull, Long, Porter, and Tucker, as well as fi-om his own
observations. "We commend this article strongly to the attention
of the reader.
^e however, fortunately, have some statistics which are perfectly
reliable, at the South; and which will aflfbrd important light on the
v«^lae of life among the blacks. "We allude to those of the city of
Cluarleston, South Carolina,
!By the United States' census of 1850, the entire population of
CTlxarleston, white and colored, was 42,985 — of which 20,012 were
^liite ; 19,532 slaves ; free colored, 3441 ; total colored, 22,793.
Some years ago, in several articles in the "Charleston Medical
Joiumal," and the "New Orleans Commercial Review," I worked up
the vital statistics of Charleston, from 1828 to 1845, in connection
with the subject of life-assurance. The ratio of mortality among
tlie blacks, for those eighteen years, gave an average of deaths per
a^inum of 1 in 42; and that ratio of mortality was much increased
l>y a severe epidemic of cholera, in 1836, which bore almost exclu-
sively on the colored population.
"We now propose to commence where we left off; and to give the
stfittistics published by the city authorities, which have been kept
^^th great fidelity, as we have good reason to know. These tables,
fox* ten years, extend from 1846 to 1855, both inclusive; and the
census of population being taken only in the year 1850, we must
i^ciake this the basis of calculation. As this year is about the middle
otxe of the ten above referred to, the population of this year may be
assumed as the average of the whole ; and if the whole number
^f colored population, of 1850, be divided by the average number
^f the deaths from 1846 to 1855, it will give the average mortality
fof the ten years, and the result must approximate very nearly to the
truth.
[The JfTiw York Heraid (Jan. 20, 1S57) repablishes, from the London New (Deo. 80), a
'"Gorioiu History of the Liberian Repablic,'* ooufirmatory of the ethnological opinions
Expressed by us in Typm of Mankind (pp. 403-4, 455-6), concerning the absolote unfitness
^ Begro-popnlations for self-goTemment. The Newt pledges itself, moreorer, to bring ont
ftUberiaii dooament, oontuning *'a painful disclosure of a state of vice and misery (at
^roTia), whieh it might make the kind-hearted old Madison turn in his grare to hi^fii
CMBtcnanced or helped to create.*'— G. B. O.]
ACLl IHATIOir: OB THE INFLUBNCB OF
TABLE BHOWIse THB XTMBKB OP DKATHS, FOB BACH TKAB, AHOKO THl
COLOBED FOPin^TIOS OF CHABLBSTOa, WITH BOMB OF THE CAUSES OF
DEATH, A5D THBIB LOSOETITT.
^
^
i^
1,
1
1
11
111
■8|
^1
tam.
1
"5
i
1
s
§
S
f
IM6.._
Ml
u
R4
r»
15
1B47 _
WW
1
SH
w
21
1848.
XIII
s
Vi)
M
Wi
1M9.
fim
17
v»
7ft
'11
IT*
487
40
ft1
1851
KW
n
4t
118
26
Mi
vai
IWR
30
?0
l»
1
ma
lltR
?fi
T^
toi
1853
1854.
7.1B
A"
\h
6fi
14(1
40
in
(111
1866.
(Me
*'
69
1I»
84
IS
Among the causes of death, we have selected onlj those which
beloQg particularly to the climate, and those which press meet on
the hlacks. It appears that very few died from howel complunta ot
marsh fevers ; nor do the whites here suffer much more from any of
these, except yellow fever. Pifteen of the colored people died oM
year from yellow fever; but, doubtless, they were mostly mtdattoei-
A good many die from marasmui — most of which caaes are
scrofula ; but the term is often used without a very definite mean-
ing; and we have, therefore, not put it in the above table. Trimm
nagcentium and tetanui fonn a very large item — an average of 42
per annum; being about 7 to 1, compared to the whites. The great
est outlet of life will be found in the organs of respiration. The
ratio of these, to deaths from all causes, is, among the colored popa-
lation, 19.3 per cent. ; and, among the whites, the deaths from di^
eases of the resjiiratory organs give a ratio of 17.8 per cent It
should be remarked, that the mortality from this class of disease*,
among whites, in the tables of Charleston, is really greater than it
shouM be ; for many persons come from the Nortii to Charleaton,
to remain either permanently or for a short time, on account of weak
lungs or actual phthisis, and die there — thus giving a percentage of
deaths, from this cause, larger than would be accounted for by local
causes. The colored population, on the contrary, is a native and
fixed class. This colored population, too, suffers more than the
whites from typhus and all epidemic diseases, except yellow fever.
But one of the most remarkable features in this table, is the great
longevity of the blacks. While the whites, in a nearly equal aggre-
gate of population, give but 15 deaths between 90 and lOO^ and but
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 391
1 death above 100 years, the blacks, for the same period of ten
years, give 101 deaths between 90 and 100 years of age, and 38
deaths over 100 years !
There have been many disputes about the comparative longevity
of races ; but all the statistics of our Southern States would seem to
prove, that the negroes are the longest-lived race in the world ; and
if a longevity of any other race can be shown, equal to the blacks
of Charleston, we have been unable to find the statistics.
On a review of the tables of mortality from Charleston, it will be
seen that the average mortality of the colored population, for the
last ten years, is 1 in 43.6 — ^about the same ratio as the eighteen
previous years. When it is remembered that this is exclusively a
laboring class, and including a considerable proportion of free
colored population, it cannot but excite our wouder. It proves two
points : 1. That the black races assimilate readily to our climate ; 2.
That they are here in a more favorable condition than any laboring
class in the world. It should, perhaps, be remarked, that, in a warm
climate, a pauper population and laboring class do not suffer from
the want of protection against cold and its diseases ; which, at the
North, cause, among these classes, a large proportion of their mor-
tality. Even in the sickliest parts of our Southern States, there are
more examples of longevity, among the whites, than are seen in cold
climates ; for the reason, I presume, that the feebleness of age offers
little resistance to the rigor of northern climates. This, however,
does not prove that the average duration of life is greater South
than North.^
We have, thus far, called attention almost exclusively to two
extremes of the human family, viz., the white and black races ; and,
except incidentally, have said little about the intermediate races, and
the influence of the climate and diseases of America upon them.
We now propose to take a glance at these points ; and must express
our regret, at the outset, that our statistics and other means of in-
formation here become much less satisfactory. We are not, how-
ever, wanting in facts to show, that the element of race here, as
elsewhere, plays a conspicuous part. We have already alluded to
the fact, that the negroes are almost entirely exempt from the
influence of yellow fever; and, at one time, supposed that the
susceptibility to this disease was nearly in direct ratio to the fairness
of complexion ; but this idea, as we shall see, requires modification,
^ If the eitjr of Charleston gires so low a rate of mortality as 1 in 43.6 for the blacks
and mulattoes, it is presamable that the rural districts throaghout the Soath will give a
muflh lower rate than in towns. Negroes soflfer much less from oonsnmption in the countiy
than in towns.
392 ACCLIMATION; OR, THE INFLUENCE OF
It is perfectly true, as respects the mixed progeny of the blacks
and whites ; for it is admitted ever3rwhere, at the South, that the
susceptibility of this class is in direct ratio to the infusion of white
blood ; but the American Indians of the table-lands, as the Mexi-
cans, and the mixed bloods of Spaniards and Mexicans, are infinitely
more liable to yellow fever, than mulattoes of any grade. This law
of color would seem to apply to African and Asiatic races, but not
to the aboriginal races of America.
The following extract, from a document of the highest authority,
will, I am sure, be read with peculiar interest, in this connection.*
** Of all protections, that of complexion was paramonnt Wh^n the ships' orem were
disabled by sickness (and that was in the minority of instances), their places were supplied
by negro sailors and laborers. On board many vessels, black labor alone was to be seen
employed : yet, among these laborers and stcTedores, a case of yellow feper wom newer hol
If to the table of thirteen months' admissions to the hospital, already given, be added i
classified census of the popalation of the colony, information is given which enables u to
arrive at something like precise knowledge on this subject (See table, tn/ra, page 894.)
** From this table, it would appear that the liability of the white races to yeUow feTer, ii
compared with the dark, is as 18.19 per cent, to '00004. Bnt this would be rather an 0Te^
estimate of the rislLs of the whites ; for, although the calculation is correct for one day, it
is not for the whole thirteen months. During the year 1852, 7670 seamen, the crews of
vessels, arrived at the port of Georgetown. If we add one-twelfth to this sum, it will maks
a total of 8309, estimated all as white, who, for a longer or shorter period, were exposed to
the endemic influence. This number should be added to that of the white population
exposed, and the percentage of liability will be as follows : whitee, 8-436 ; Jarib, KMXKM.
This computation is irreHpective of the effects of residence on the constitution. But tiie
numbers afforded by the census returns are sufficiently great and detailed to authoriie a
purer and more ultimate analysis of the effects of complexion, or, in other words, eutanesm
organization, on the liability to yellow fever among the population of the colony. We find
that, of 7890 African (black) immigrants, none contracted yellow fever.
** Of 9278 West India islanders (black and mulatto), 15, or *16 per cent, contracted yellow
fever; of 10,978 Madrae and Calcutta coolies (black, but fine-haired), 42, or *38 per cent.
contracted yellow fever; 10,291 Portuguese immigrants (white), 698, or 6-2 per cent
contracted yellow fever.
" From the foregoing, the importance of the skin, or that oonstitudon of the body which
is associated with varieties of the dermal covering, in the etiology of yeUow fever, is at
once apparent."
The proportion of white to the dark races, according to our author,
was 14,726 to 127,276; while the admissions to the public hospitals,
for yellow fever, were 1947 of the former to 59 of the latter. He
puts down the Portuguese as whites — ^whereas, they are by no means
a fair-ski uned race, compared with the Anglo-Saxons and other
white races ; and their mortality corresponded with their complexion:
it was intermediate between the two extremes.
« Danirl Blair, M. D., Surgeon-General of British Guiana, Report on the frst eighteen
months of the fourth YeUow Fecer Epidemic of the British Ouiana, See British emd Forti^
Med, Chir, Rev., January and April Nos., 1855.
GLIMATB AND DISEASES ON MAN. 303
Dr. J. Mendizabel writes me: "The coolies are, in this place
(Vera Cruz), as well as in the West Indies, exempt from yellow
fev^er."
From all the information we are able to procure, it seems clear
that the Chinese, in Cuba, are much less liable to fever than Euro-
peans ; but there are no statistics on this point which will enable us
to deal in figures.
The same difficulty exists with regard to statistics for the Mexican
races ; but it is certainly the impression of the best-informed physi-
cians in that country, with whom we have corresponded, that the
j>ure-blooded Mexicans suffer more from yellow fever than either the
j>ure-blood Spaniards, or the mixed bloods. It is asserted, also, that
-the cross-breeds of negroes and Mexicans are liable to this disease
^nst in proportion to the blood of the latter race — as is the case with
-the cross-breeds of whites and negroes.
Yellow fever, with perhaps few exceptions, has a preference for
-fihe races of men in proportion to the lightness of complexion —
^liowing its greatest affinity for the pure white, and least for the jet
-t:rlack.* It is remarkable that the plague prefers the reverse course
^ — as the following extract, from the best of all authorities on the
^xibject, will prove.
'*Tbe plagne, in Egypt, attacks the different races of men; but all are not equally
^«2^ceptible. Thus, m all the epidemic*, the negro race suffers most; after these, the
or Nubians; then the Arabs of Hedj^ and Yemen; then the Europeans; and,
tong these, espeoiallj the Maltese, Greeks, and Turks, and generally the inhabitants of
£(aii.«Ji Europe" i "
reference to Dr. De la Roches* ample statistics of mortality
yellow fever, will show, beyond dispute, that, of the number
sttrt-scked, the highest ratio of mortality is almost invariably among
tlx^ pure white races — as the Germans, Anglo-Saxons, &c. This has
:^n accounted for by the fact, that they come from cold latitudes ;
<3 it has grown into an axiom, that the further north the race, the
xixore liable it is to yellow fever. Now, it is easily shown that this
-position is not tenable : the contrary is proven, by observations on
t-lxe Mexican races. There is scarcely any part of the country of
exico, which is, to any extent, populated, that can be called cold ;
d yet the Mexicans from the table-lands are, perhaps, little less
liable to yellow fever than Germans ; and their own writers assert
"tliat they are quite as much so.
** As far as we can obtain facts, the dark European, Asiatic, and African races, all show
l^sa susceptibility to yellow fever than the strictly white ; and the red man of America, if
Ax^ exception, we believe is the only one. It is as vain to attempt to explain his suscepti-
Dility, as it is the exemption of negroes and raulattoes : it is a phytiologieal law of rac4,
** A. B. Clot-B«y, De la Peele, 1840, p. 7; and Coup d'(Ea tur la Pute, 1851.
394 acclimation; or, the influence of
*< Mexico is divided, as respects climate, into the tUrrat ealientM, or hot regions, tK^
Hgrrat iempladat, or temperate regions, and the iierrat friat^ or cold regions. The ftnr^^,,3^''^tb«
inolade the low grounds, or those under 2000 feet of elevation. The mean temperature
the first region, between the Tropics, is about 77® Fahr. ; being 14^ to lO^ above the mi
temperature of Naples. The tierrat templadat, which are of comparatively limited exi
occupy the slope of the mountain chains, and extend fVom 2500 to 6000 feet of elevati<
The mean hont of the year is fVom 68® to 70® Fahr. : and the extremes of heat and
are here equally unknown. The tierrat friaty or cold regions, include all the vast pla^^
elevated 5000 feet and upwards above the level of the sea. In the city of Mexico, at
elevation of 7400 feet, the thermometer has sometimes fallen below the freezing po*
This, however, is of rare occurrence; and the winters there are usually as mild
Naples. In the coldest season, the mean heat of the day varies from 55® to 70®. The
temperature of the city is about 64o, and that of the table-lands generally about 62®;
nearly equal tq that of Rome.'*"
"With regard to the great susceptibility of Mexicans of the taT^-^^
lands, and even those of Metamoras, and other places in the I
lands, when for the first time exposed, we need only refer the i^^k.^^^
to the ^^ Report of the Sanitary Commission of New Orleans om ^j^
Epidemic Yellow Fever of 1853," where ample testimony will •\^
found.
The report of Dr. Mc William, on the celebrated epidemic of
yellow fever at Boa Vista^ in 1845, will be found interesting, in ti^B^^^
connection ; and is remarkable for its minute detail and accuracr::^^^"
He says :
'<The inhabitants consist chiefly of dark mulattoes, of various grades of
intermixture; free and enslaved negroes; with a small proportion of Europeans, prison
pally Portuguese and English.
•• Rate of Mortality from Yellow Fever in Porto Sal Ray,
lUBOPlANS.
Portuguete. — Number exposed to the fever 58
«« *• attacked with fever 47
" " died «« 25
" Katio of deaths in the population 1 in 21
" " number attacked 1 «« 1-8
EngUshy including two AmericHns, exposed to the fever 11
** Number attacked.... 8
«« " died 7
<* Ratio of deaths in population 1 in 1-6
" *< number attacked 1 ** l-l
French. — Number exposed to fever ^... 2
«« *« attacked by fever 2
Spaniardt. — Number exposed, and not attacked 2
^ McCulloch*s Geographical Dictionary.
CLIMATE AND DISEASES OK MAN. 395
HATIYI POPULATION.
Tr«e 666
SUtm 249
Total 915
Died, 65 free and 8 slares 68
Batio of deaths in native population 1 in 13*4
»i
In this table, it will be seen that the ratio of deaths increased as
the complexion darkened. Most of the deaths among the native
population were among the mulattoesy and not blacks.
The Spanish and Portuguese population, who are dark compared
with Anglo-S(^xons, suffer severely from yellow fever ; but do not, it
seems, of those attacked, die in as great a ratio as the fairer races.
They are very generally attacked in their towns, in consequence of
crowded population, bad ventilation, and filthy habits.
One of the ablest statisticians of the day shows, by figures, that
yellow fever, in the Antilles (where English and French are the
piincipal fiiir races), does not attack so large a portion of the popu-
lation ; but is much more fatal there than in Spain. In the latter
country, on the other hand, he says, almost the whole population of
towns are attacked ; but the mortality is much less, in proportion to
the number of cases. He attributes this universality of attack to
the crowded population and filth of the Spanish towns, and to
there being no acclimated population where the disease has been most
fatal. Yellow fever is endemic in the Antilles, and only occasional
in Spain.*
It is remarkable that these circumstances make no difference in
the susceptibility of the negro : he always sleeps in badly ventilated
apartments; is always filthy; and, in the hottest weather, will lie
down and sleep, with a tropical sun pouring down upon his bare
* MoRBAU DX JoNNis, Motiographe de la Fihwre Jaune, &o. pp. 812-13.
In these new questions of the liability to, or exemption from, local morbific influence, of
distinct types of man, we possess as yet but few statistics. Every authentic example,
therefore, becomes interesting. I find the following in Dumont D'Ubvillx ( Voyage de la
Coreette L'Atirolabe, exeeutie pendant lee annSet 1S26-9, Paris, 1S30, '' Hietoire du Voyage"
v., pp. 120 seqq.). The island of Vanikoro, "Archipel de la P^rouse," where this great
navigator perished, is inhabited exclusively by black Oceanians, who there enjoy perfect
health. Tet, so deadly is the climate, that the natives of the adjacent island of Tikopia,
who belong to the cinnamon-colored and distinct Polynesian race, taken thither as inter-
preters by D'Urville, never ventured to sleep ashore, in dread of the malarial poison which
ever proved fatal to themselves, however congenial to the blaeke. Capt. Dillon's crew,
previously, as well as D'Urville's French crew, suffered terribly from the effects of their
short anchorage there. This pathological fact is another to the many proofs, collected in
our vohune, that the black race of Oceanica is absolutely unconnected by blood with the
PofynetianM proper. See portraits of " Vanikoro-islander** and ** Tikopia-islander" (Nos.
39, 40, of oar JBtknographie Tableau, infra), for evidence of their absolute differenoe of tgrp*.
396 ACCLIMATION; OB, THE INFLOENCE OF
head, duriug the day; and, in the hottest night, will sleep with hi«
head enveloped in a filthy blanket, to koop ths inusi^iuitoua froii»:» «
annoying liim ; and yet ia exempt from yelluw fever, while it li ■'
raging around him.
Kio Janeiro has a population of 100,000 whiteB, and 200,00r7^)
blacks and mixed bloods. The former are mostly Portuguese; au_ ^
it ia dilhcult to explain their exemption from yellow fever, in iho
epidemic of 1849-50 (which haa continued its march norlhwarda, *
and ao ravaged the seaports and other towns of the United Stutw
Biuco) — I Bay it is diflScult to explain tlie exemption, on any otLer
ground than that of race. Not more than 3 or 4 per cent, of tVit*
Brazilians attacked, died ; while 29 per cent, of the seamen ^
(foreigners) died. ^^M
It has been repeatedly asserted, that yellow fever never appeared ^^M
in Rio previously to this date; but it ia exceedingly questionable ^^|
whether it has not oucurred there in a mild form, but with flo little |
mortality as not to create alarm. Yellow fever does unijueationably ^
occur in all grades. We published, some years ago, in the "Charles-
ton Medical Journal," a sketch of the epidemic which prevailed in
Mobile in 1847 — of so mild a grade as not to prove fatal probably ,^
in more than 2 per cent, of those attacked. A reference to the ^^
*'Tleport of the New Orleans Sanitary Commission," will ghow that, ^^
according to the concurrent testimony of the leading physicians of ^^
Rio, the fevers of that city had assumed an extrnordinar)- type for — ^
several years previously to the epidemic of 1849-50 ; and Uint many -.^,
of the cases ditiered in no way from yellow fever: even black vomit ^^
was seen in some cases. It is presumable, therefore, that the popu- -__
lation had been undergoing acclimation against this disease, for —
several years, without knowing it. Our observation haa satisfied us,
that the dark-skinned Spaniards, Portuguoao, and other south Ea-
ropeana, as well as the Jews, are more easily and thorouglUy acdi
mated against yellow fever, than the fairer races."
It has been stoutly maintained, by many writers, that intermittent, ^
remittent, and yellow fever, are but gi-ades of the same disease; and -■
as tlie first two forms are endemic, at Rio, the escape of tlie inhabi- — ^—
tants from yellow fever, in the late epidemic, has been accounted for- -~ra
by acclimation through those marsh levers. I will not, however, .^
stop to argue with any one who contends for the idciility of marsh- -*
and yellow fevora, in our present day: if their non-identity be not- -^
now proven, it is vain to attempt to establish the non-identity of
any two diseases. That very epidemic continued ita march, during-
w Orttant Sanitary C- 'n
muck. ^^^^1
CLIMATE AlfD DISEASES ON MAN. 397
five years, from Rio to New York; and ravaged hundreds of places
where remittent fevers were more common and more violent than in
Rio. To say nothing of countries further south, all the region from
New Orleans to Norfolk is dotted with malarial towns, in which
yellow fever has prevailed with terrible fatality.
The following extract is from one of the most competent authori-
ties, on this subject, in the United States ;
*' The immimity of the AfHcan race from yellow feTer is a problem tineolTed ; but of the
highest import in physiology and etiology. Whether this immunity be owing to color, or
Id an unknown transmissible and indestructible modification of the constitution, originally
derived Arom the climate of Afriea, or from anatomical conformation or physiological law,
peculiar to the race, is not easy to determine. It does not appear that yellow fever prevails
under an African sun; although the epidemic of New Orleans, in 1858, came well nigh
getting the name 'African yellow fever,' 'African plague:' it was for weeks so called.
Although non-creolized negroes are not exempt from yellow fever, yet they suffer little
from it, and rarely die. On the other hand, they are the most liable to suffer from cholera"
[and typhoid fever. — J. C. N.] «As an example of the susceptibiHty of this race, take
the year 1S41 : among 1800 deaths from yellow fever, there were but three deaths among
the blacks, two having been children; or 1 in 600, or 1 in 14,000 of the whole population."*^
The Doctor goes on to show "that the same immunity from death,
in this disease, is eiyoyed by the black race throughout the yellow-
fever zone."
The investigations of Dr. Dowler (and there is no one more com-
petent to examine a historical point of this kind) lead him to the
conclusion, that yellow fever is not an African disease. K this be
true, it is a very strong argument in favor of specific distinctness of
the negro race. We have abundant evidence, in the United States,
that no exposure to high temperature or marsh effluvia can protect
an individual against the cause of yellow fever. The white races
who have been exposed to a tropical sun, and lost much of their
primitive plethora and vigor, are, as a general rule, less violently
attacked by yellow fever ; but the negro gains his fullest vigor under
a tropical sun, and is everywhere exempt from this disease.^
*> BiNNrr DowLEB, M. D., ** Tableau of the TeUow Fever of 1853, with topographiealy
fknmologitiUf and hittorieal sketches of the Epidemics of New Orleans, since their origin m
1796."
» The works of M. le Dr. Boudin — ^now M^edn en chef de l*H6pita] Militaire du Koule,
Paris, so well known as a distinguished army physician, at home, in Greece, and in Algeria,
are the first, so far as we know, in any langrnage, that approach this question of races, in
relation to climate, with a truly philosophical spirit He kindly sent us, sereral years ago,
the following essays, the titles of which will show the range of his inyestigations: — "Etudes
deG^logie M^dicales, &o.*' — <* Etudes de Pathologic Compar^e, &c." — "Etudes de Geo-
graphic M edicales, &c.'' — « Lettres sur rAlg^rie** — *' Statistique de la population et de 1&
eolonisation en Alg<Srie" — " Statistique de la mortality des Armies."
We have, in our essay, made frequent use of thef e Yolumea, from notet *
while reading them; and should have made move direct iMmuom It tf
398 acclimation; or, the influence or
But it is time to bring this chapter to a close. It was stated, at
the beginning, that our leading object was to study man in his rela-
tions to what we defined Medical Olimate; and we have adhered as
the originals at hand ; but some of them, nnfortimateljr, had been loaned out, and did not
reach ns in time.
In these essays, the reader will find a mass of very important statistioal matter, beanog
on the influence of climates on races, &o. He confirms all our assertions with regard to
the comparatiye exemption of negroes ftrom malarial diseases, and their greater fiibility
to typhoid and lung diseases, as well as cholera. He further shows the interesting fiet,
that the Jews exhibit a peculiar physiology and pathology; with other singular data, from
which my space and subject only permit me to condense a few Tital statistics illnstntifo
of the present enormous increase of the ** chosen people."
In 1840, the Jews in Prussia numbered 190,000. They had increased by 50,000 (86 per
cent.) since the census of 1822 The Christians, in the same kingdom, in 1822, were.
11,519,000: and, in 1840, 14,784,000 (only 18 per cent of augmentation). During then
eighteen years, births among the Jews exceeded deaths by 29 per 100; and, among tbo
Christians, only 21. *'The increase of the Jewish population is the more remarkiblfi
because, between 1822 and 1840, some 22,000 Prussian Jews embraced Christianity, wbilit
there was no instance wherein a Christian had accepted Judaism.*'
In Prussia, *< out of 100,000 individuals, are reckoned :
OHBXSTIAK. JSWT8S.
Marriages 898 719
Births 4001 8546
DeatSis, still-bom comprised 2961 2161"
the increase being due to excess of births over deaths, among the Jews. Besides, the Jew^
are longer lived : — their women do not work in factories, nor labor whilst nursing ; so that*
upon 100,000 infants, we find
<* OHSISTIAHS. JEWS.
Still-bom 8,669 2,524
Died in the first year 17,418 12,935"
Again, the men are rarely sailors, miners, &c. They are sober. They marry yoxrag.
Upon 100,000, the Christians bring forth 280 illegitimate children ; the Jews only 67. The
proportion of hoy* is greater among the Israelites. They are subject to cutaneous and
ophthalmic diseases, since the times of Tacitus, and of Moses ; but are wonderfully exempt
fh>m heavier scourges — from plague^ in 1836; from typhtu, in 1505 and 1824; from
intermittent feverif at Rome, in 1691; fW>m dytentenfy at Nim^gpie, in 1736. Crovp is rare
among their children ; and, at Posen, where Shlaves have the pUea PoUmiea as 1 in 33, and
Germans as 1 in 65, the Jews only suffer as 1 in 88.
They have more old men and more children than Christians ; and their health is every-
where better— owing, in part, to race preserving itself pure through intermarriage; and
especially to the hygihie enjoined upon them by their religion.
Tacitus, when the Jews were exiled to Sardinia, wrote **£t si ob gravitatem cceli inte.
riissent, rile damnum!" — and again, **Profana illis omnia quss apud noe sana; rursma
concessa apud illos qusB nobis incesta." On which Dr. Boudin observes:* **This saying
of the great historian is at least as true at the physical as at the moral-order point of
view. The more one studies the Jewish race, the more one perceives it subjected to patlio>
logical laws which, in the double aspect of aptitude and immunities, establish a broad
line of demarcation between it and the populations amid which it happens to dweU.*
"llMdM itatMigMet mr to loft dc ki /t|Nl{a«ol^ Par^ 1M9, p^
••
^^^F CLIMATE AND DISEASES OS MAN. 399
closely to the plan oa tlie complex nature of the suLject wouUi
permit.
After the train of facta adduced, it will hardly be denied thiit the
historical races — those whose inigrationa have brought them within
tte range of investigation — have their appropriate gcogmphical
fiinges, beyond which they cannot go with impunity; and there is
^mplo ground for the beHef, that the same general law applies
^<5Qally to all other races that have not yet been eubjected to atatis-
fical scrutiny. Nor could any other result have been rationally
7t>oiied for, by one who reflects on the wonderful harmony that per-
^^<lea the infinite works of Nature; and which is nowhere more
jy^i^ "Pitifully illustrated, than in the adaptation of animals and plants
*^-, *:limate, as exhibited in the innumerable Faunas and Floras of
tb^ earth.
^^T'iewed anatomically and zoologically, man ia but an animal; and
_^-^-^r"eraed by the same organic laws as other animals. He has more
j^jj-t^ligence than others ; corabinea a moral with hia phyaical nature ;
0,,^<1 is, more impressible than others by surrouuding influences.
_A-1 "though boasting of reaton, as the prerogative that distinguiahes
IjiTn, he ia, in many respects, the most unreasonable of all animals.
"WTiiile civilization, in its progress, represses the groaa vices of bar-
barism, and brings the refinements of music, poetry, the fine arts,
together with the precepts of a purer religion, it almost balancea the
account by luxury, inaincerity, political, social, and trading vicea,
wliich follow its march everj-where. K the ancient Britons and
Kelts be fairly balanced againat the moderu Anglo-Saxons, Yankees,
and Gauls, it will be hard to say in which scale the most true virtno
will "be found. Fashion, in our day, has substituted moral for phy-
Bica.1 cruelty. The ancient barbarians plundered, and cut each others'
throats. Civilized man now paaaes bis life in scandal and the tricks
of trade. Look around, now-a-daya, at the so-called civilized uafiona
of tlae earth, and ask what they have been doing for the last half
century? We see man everywhere, not only warring against laws,
volixntarily imposed upon himself for his own good, but bidding
defiance to the laws of God, both natural and revealed. He ia the
most destructive of all aniraala. Not satisfied with wantonly destroy-
'"S. for amusement, the animals and plants around him, his greatest
glor-j lies in blowing out the brains of his fellow-man ; nay, more, his
phief delight is to destroy his own soul and body by vice and luxury.
^or does his rebellioua and restless spirit sutfer him to he content
witli a limited field of action ; he forsakea the land of his birth, with
all its associations, and all the comforts which earth can
colonize foreign lands — where he knowa full well that a
I give, to I
thousand m
400 acclimation; or, the influence op
hardships must await him, and with the certainiy of risking his Bfe
in climates that nature never intended him for. One generation never
profits by the experience of another, nor the child by that of its
parents. Who will undertake to estimate the amount of hnman
life -sacrificed, since the discovery of Columbus, by attempts to
colonize tropical climates?
Naturalists have divided the earth into zoological realmfr-eacli
possessing an infinite variety of animals and plants, peculiar to it;
but this is not the place for details on this head* To the reader who
is not familiar with researches of this kind, we may venture a few
plain remarks. When the continent of America was discovered
(with a few exceptions in the Arctic Circle, where the continents
nearly touch), its quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, plants,
all were different species from those found in the Old World. Hence
the conclusion, that the whole Fauna and Flora of America were
here created. If we go on to compare other great divisions of the
world, such as Asia, Europe, Africa, Australia, Polynesia, the same
general law holds throughout: each division possesses its peculiar
animals and plants, having no connection by descent with others;
and each group forming a grand and harmonious zoological province.
The question naturally arises — Does man farm an exception to thi^
universal latot Can he, by any evidence, human or otherwise, be thu^
separated from the organic world ? We think not. In each one oC^
these natural realms, we find a type of man, whose history is los
in antiquity ; and whose physical characters, language, habits, an
instincts, are peculiar ; — ^whose organization is in harmony with th
station in which he is placed, and who cannot be transferred to aD —
opposite climate without destruction.
Recent researches enable us to trace back many of those types of
man, with the same characteristics that mark them now, at least
4000 years. In Egypt alone, as proven by her monuments, were
seen, in tliose early times, through the agency of wars and com-
merce, Egj'ptians, Berbers, Nubians, Abyssinians, Negroes, lonians,
Jews, Assyrians, Tartars, and others, — with the same lineaments
they now present, and obeying, no doubt, the same physiological and
pathological laws. In fact, so well defined were the races in the
time of the early Pharaohs, that the Egyptians had already classified
tliem into red, white^ yelloWy and black ; and each of the types, then
as now, formed a link in a distinct Fauna.^
Let us now ask the reader to reflect on the long chain of facts
presented in this and the preceding chapters, and calmly decide
whether we are justified in drawing the following conclusions:
•* See Typei of Mankind; and M. Pulsskt's chiip. 11, infra.
GLIICATB AND DISEASES ON MAN. 401
1. That the earth is naturally divided into zoological realms —
each possessing a climate, Fauna, and Flora, exclusively its own.
2. That the Fauna of each realm originated in that realm, and
tliat it has i^ consanguinity with other Faunas.
3. That each realm possesses a group of human races, which,
chough not identical in physical and intellectual characters, are
closely allied with one another, and are disconnected from all other
^*aces. We may cite, as examples, the white races of Europe, the
;Jiloiigols of Asia, the blacks of Africa, and the aborigines of America.
4. That the types of man, belonging to these realms, antedate all
^mnan records, by thousands of years ; and are as ancient as the
:^aunas of which each forms an original element
5. That the types of man are separated by specific characters, as
ell marked and as permanent as those which designate the species
/ other genera.
6. That the climates of the earth may be divided into physical
nd MEDICAL ; and that each species of man, having its own physio-
cal and pathological laws, is peculiarly aflfected by both climates.
7. That no race of man can be regarded as cosmopolite ; but that
races which are indigenous to latitudes intermediate between
equator and poles, approach nearer to cosmopolitism than those
the Arctic or the Torrid Zone.
8. That the assertion, that any one race ever has, or ever can be,
imilated to all physical or all medical climates, is a hypothesis
ixxisxistained by a single historical fect> and opposed to the teachings
of natural history.
J. C. N.
26
402 THE MOKOGENISTS AND
CHAPTER V.
THE MONOOENISTS and the FOLTOENISTB :
BBISO AH KXP08ITI0H OF THB DOOTBinS 01 SCHOOLS PBOFKSSDfQ TO SUSTAOT DOOMATlOiUI
THB XnnTT OR Tu DITEBSITT
or
HUMAN RACES;
WITH AN INQUIRY INTO THE ANTIQIHTT OF MANKIND UPON XABTH, TIEW»
CilKONOLOQlCALLY, HIBTOKIOALLTy AND PAIuEONTOLOQIOALLT.
BT GEO. B. aLIDDON.
*' He is the freeman whom the Troth mskes fm,
And all' are slayes beside.*'
Cowpn.
INTRODUCTORY.
" Les recherches g^ographiques sur le si^ge primordial, ou, comme
on dit, sur le berceau de Tespfece humaine, ont dans le fait un carao-
tere purement mythique. * Nous ne connaissons/ dit Quillaume de
Ilumboldt, dans un travail encore in^dit sur la diversity des langues
et des peuples, ' nous ne connaissons ni historiquement, ni par ancune
tradition certaine, un moment oil I'espfece humaine n'ait pas ite
separee en groupes de peuples. Si cet 6tat de choses a exists des
I'origine, ou s'il s'est produit plus tard, c'est ce qu'on ne eaurtit
decider par Thistoire. Des 16gendes Isoldes se retrouvant eur dea
points tres-divers du globe, sans communication apparente, sent en
contradiction avec la premiere hypothfese, et font descendre le genre
humain tout entier d'un couple unique. Cette tradition est si
repandue, qu'on Ta quelquefois regardee comme un antique souvenir
des hommes. Mais cette circonstance meme prouverait plutot qu'il
n*y a \k aucune transmission r^elle d*un fait, aucun fondement vrai-
ment historique, et que c'est tout simplement I'identit^ de la concep-
L^?]
THE P0LYQENI8TS. 403
tion humaine, qui partout a conduit lea hommes k nne explication
Bemblable d'un ph^nom^ne identique. Un grand nombre de mythes.
Bans liaison historique les uns avec les autres, doivent ainsi leur
ressemblance et leur origine k la parity des imaginations ou des
reflexions de Tesprit humain. Ce qui montre encore dans la tradi*
tion dont il s'agit le caract^re manifeste de la fiction, c'est qu'elle
pretend expliquer un ph^nom^ne en dehors de toute experience,
celui de la premiere origine de Tesp^ce humaine, d*une mani^re
conforme k I'exp^rience de noe jours ; la manii>re, par exemple, dont,
k une epoque oii le genre humain tout entier comptait d^jsl des
milliers d'ann^es d*existence, une tie deserte ou un vallon isolS dans
les montagnes pent avoir ^t^ peupl6. En vain la pens^e se plonge-
rait dans la meditation du problfeme de cette premiere origine:
rhomme est si ^troitement 116 h son esp^ce et au temps, que Ton ne
saurait concevoir un Stre humain venant au monde sans une famille
dkji existante, et sans un pass^. Cette question done ne pouvaot
6tre r6solue ni par la voie du raisonnement ni par celle de Texperi-
ence, faut-il penser que Tetat primitif, tel que nous le d6crit une
pretendue tradition, est r^ellement historique, ou bien que Tespfece
humaine, d^ son principe, couvrit la terre en forme de peuplades ?
Cast ce que la science des langues ne saurait decider par elle-mfeme,
eomme elle ne doit point non plus chercher une solution ailleurs
pour en tirer des eclaircissements sur les probl^mes qui I'occupent' " ^
Such is the language, and these are the mature opinions, of two
brothers, than whom the world's history presents none more illus-
trious. Here the ultimate results of Wilhelm von Humboldt, among
the most acute philologists of his generation, stand endorsed by that
"Nestor of science," Alexander von Humboldt, whose immortal
labors in physical investigation stretch over nearly three cycles of
ordinary human vitality.
I subscribe unreservedly to every syllable contained in the above
citation. According to my individual view, this paragraph condenses
the ** ne-plus-ultra" of human ratiocination upon mankind's origine$.
With this conviction, I proceed to set forth the accident through
which it pre&ces my contribution to our new work upon anthro-
pology.
My excellent and learned friend M. Gustave d'Eichthal — so long
Secretary of the parental SoeiitS Ethnologique de Parisy and author
1 Alsxavdrb d« Humboldt, *' COSMOS. Essai d'une Description Physique du Monde** —
tndnit par H. Fatb. !'•. partie, Paris, Gide & C'«., 1846, in 8vo., pp 425-7. I refer
to tlie ftret French edition : the copy now used haying been obtained by no at Paris, on its
im week's issue.— 0. R. O.
404 THE MONOGENISTS AND
of many erudite papers — amidst all kinds of scientific fiicilitiea for
which I feel proud to acknowledge myself debtor to himself and
many of his colleagues (MM. D'Avezac and Alfred Maury espe-
cially), favored me, during my fourth sojourn in France, 1854-5,
with a set of their Society's " Bulletins."
Reperusing lately their instructive debate on the problem — " Wkd^-
are the distinctive characteristics of the white and black races f Wh^^
are the conditions of association between these races f"^ I was led t^
open an antecedent No.;^ wherein, after alluding to Cosmos — "i^
Vivien (de Saint-Martin) observes how, in the extract quoted frot^
M. de Humboldt, that which this illustrious writer terms the natir^^
unity of the human specieSy does not seem to imply, as might ^^
thought, the idea of descent from a single pair. M. de Humbol<
hiiAself, it is true, does not declare himself as respects this, in
manner altogether explicit But the opinion of those eminent me'
l^)on whose authority he relies, and of whom he cites the words, ii
on the contrary, expressed in the most formal manner.
"* Human races, says Johannes Miiller,* in his * Physiology o:r:^
Man,' are the (diverse) forms of ^ single species, whose union-a^
remain fruitful, and which perpetuate themselves through genera- —
tion. They are not species of one genus ; because, if they were-r-
upon crossing* they would become sterile. But, to know whether
existing races of man descend from one or from many primitive^
men — this is that which cannot be discovered by experience.* "
M. Vivien continues with extracts fi'om the paragraph that heada^
my essay. Certain typographical lacuncBj however, induced a refer- -
ence to Humboldt's complete work ; and the readiest accessible at
the moment happened to be Otto's English translation, "from the
German."®
_
> Bulletin de 1^ Soc. Elhnol de Parity Tome V., ftnn^e 1847 ; *< Stances da 23 arril ma 9
juillet,*' p. 69 seqq. — (Vide ante, Pulszkt's chapter, pp. 188-192)
» Id., ann^e 1846, pp. 74-6.
* Physiol, det Memchen, Bd. II, S. 768, 772-4:— and Kotmot, Ft. ed., I. p. 425. and p.
578, note 88. Compare Sabinb'b translation of this passage (I, p. 852-8) with Orri^t
(I. p. 354).
^ This doctrine now seems to be a non-Meguitur, after Morton's researches apon hybrtditj.
Conf., as the first document, ** ffybridity in animals and plants, considered in reference to
the question of the Unity of the Human Species" — Amer. Jour, of Science and Artt, toI.
Ill, 2d series, 1847. The substance of Morton's later publications, in the **Ckarle$tom
Medical Journal" may be consulted in "Types of Mankind/' 1864, pp. 872, 410: and tbey
have since been enlarged, by Dr. Nott, in Hotz*s translation {Moral and Jntelleetuel
Diversity of Race*, Philadelphia, 12mo., 1856: Appendix B, pp. 478-604) of part of the
first Tolume of De Gobiniau.
• Cotmot: a Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe Harpera* Amtricaa td.,
New York, 1850, I, pp. 864-6
PpLTOENISTS. 406
To my Burpriae, several passages (soraetimea lu the letter, bnt
oftener in the spirit) did not correspond with the extmcta quoted by
M. Vivien de Saint-Martin, from the French edition of "Cosmos."
To the latter I turned, A glance changed eurprise into suspicion,
which further collation soon confirmed. Having thereby become
considerably enlightened, myself, upon the animut and the literafy
fidelity with which foreign scientific works are "done into English,"
for the book-trade of Groat Britain and tho United States of Ame-
rica ; and inasmuch as sundry theological naturalists, in this country,
have latterly been making veiy free with Humboldt's honored name,
— estimated as their authority "par excellence" on the descent of all
the diversified types of mankind from "Adam and Eve;" it may be
gratifying to their finer feelings, no less than to their nice apprecia-
tion of critical probity, to demonstrate the singular orthodoxy of
the tavajtt whom we all venerate in common.
Already, in 1846, when transmitting from Paris, to the late Dr.
Morton, one of the earliest copies of the Frenek edition of "Cosmos,"
I accompanied it with regrets that the twice-used expression — "la
distinction lUtolante des races snpericurs et des races iuf^rieurs"' —
should have sanctioned the irrelevant introduction of (what otliere
construe as) morbid sentimcntalism into studies which Morton and
Ilia school were striving to restrict within the positive domain of
ecience. How completely Morton disapproved of this unlucky
-term, has been happily shown by his biographer — our lamented
<3olIeague, Dr. Henry S. Patt«raon.' But, whilst fully respecting
^Saron de Humboldt's unqualified opinion — on a doctrine which
other great authorities either oppose or hold to be at least moot, viz.,
tf A« unity of mankind — I was not prepared for so much of that which
<];arlyle styles "flunkeyism" towards Anglo-Saxon popular creda-
lity (so manfully denounced by Dr. Robert Knox*), which both of
-the English translations of "Cosmos" exhibiL
In the first place, let us open that one which "was undertaken in
«ompliance with the wish of Baron von Humboldt." '* The possessor
' Coinoi, Fr. eel., p, 430; rcpeate<l p. 579. note 42.
• T^ipt* "S Himldni, " Memoir of Sninool Ge'irge Morion." p, li-lili.
» Of Edinhnrgli — Thi Raet* of Men: a Pragmenl. Thiliidelphiii odition, 12nio, 18IW), pp.
11-2, 19, 87, 65, 247-54. 292— one might my patiin. Allowuice maile for the »^. ten to
Stteen ;«n n^, when the MSS. seem to hare been written \ rud diverting his work of
maeh rmih Mwortion, hnxtj composition, and some national or pemnnat eccentricities, ill
■athor can sftfelf bout thai it contains mare imlh upon ethnology than an; l>ook of it*
tile in l)i« Bnglish tongae.
" Cetma. Jlo. "Translated under the sapi^rintendGaoe of Lient'Col. Edward Sabtiw.
B A. For. Sec. K 3,:" London, Mnrraj, 2d ed., 8vo. 1847; I, "Edilar'i Prefaee; and,
for the onitaon complained of, p. 9GR — after the word -eiperience' (488)."
406 THE HOKOOEKISTS AKD
of the German ori^nal, or of Faye's French version, will hunt to
vain for the long and noble paragraph above quoted ! It is eimpW
expunged : probably ^not to shock the conservatism of the 'Roj^
Society. Promotion might have been stopped, long ago, by tb-^
<Mords spiritual and temporal," had an officer in H. M. Bervic^^
dared even to translate such heretical opinions as those avowed br^
the brothers Humboldt: the "For. Sec." would have soon cease- ^
to be Secretary at all, to any Royal Society.
In the second, we refer to Otto's translation;^ learning from
pre&ce — " The present volumes differ from those of Mrs. Sabine ii
having all the foreign measures converted into English terms, i
being published at considerably less than one-third of the price, an<
in being a translation of the tntire work; for I have not conceive
myself justified in omitting p€u$age$j simply because they might
deemed slightly obnoxious to our national prejudices.** Fair enouj
this seems. That which routine and expectancies naturally forbade
the official to do, "into English," might, one would suppose,
honestly performed by a private individual. Nevertheless, upoc^^
verification, we discover this to be, also, as Talleyrand once observe
to Castlereagh, "t«n« tres forte supposition !** By paraphrasis an<
periphrasis, through dextrous substitutions of milder terms, and
happy adoption of equivocal interpretations, Mr. Ott6 has effiM^ed.^ — -
the precision of his author's language ; obscuring thereby both of
the Humboldts' scientific deductions so effectually, that their suppo-
sititiously-joint advocacy of "all mankind's descent from Adam
and Eve," meets everywhere vrith the gratitude and applause of
wondering theologers !
To render this evident, I have chosen the French translation,
above cited, as an appropriate epigraph and introduction to the
subjects developed in the present chapter. At foot, the reader will
find Otto's English ^^ rendering of the German text; which is like-
u £d., — " Translated from the Gorman, by £. C. Orrtf," and before cited. Harpera' New
York edition, 1850. I wonder whether it is the same, textoally, as Bomi*s; whioh doubt
inclination does not now prompt me to take some trouble in Teriiying.
" Extract from Orrfi's Cosmotf Amer. ed., pp. 854-5 : —
" Geographical inyestigations regarding the ancient uat, the so-ealled eratDi of the kmmn
raety are not deyoid of a mythical eharaetcr. <W6 do not know,* saya Wilbelm Ton Hum-
boldt, in an unpublished work On the Yariotiet of Lanffuoffot and NoHomtt * either from
history or fh)m authentic tradition, any period of time in which the human race hat not
been divided into social groups. Whether the gregarious condition was original, or of
subsequent occurrence, we have no historic eridenee to show. The separate mythical
relations found to exist independently of one another, in different parte of the earth,
appear to reftite the first hypothesis ; and concur in ascribing the generation of the whole
human race to the union of one pair. The general preTalence of thii myth hae eaaaed it
to be regarded as a traditionary record transmitted flrom the primitiTe Ban to Ue deecsnit
IE POLTGENISTS. 407
^Pise aubjomed. Unfortunately, want of familiarity with the latter
CoDgue precludes personal comparison of this translation with the
«>riginal; but, for the accuracy of its French iuterpretation, we
•nts. But this yery oircumHtBDce sesms rather to prove thnt it haa no hixloridal faunda-
tiou, bat has Kimplj arlaec from an idemicy in the mode of intellectual coDceptian, which
h«* eTerywhcro led man lo adopt the Bama concluaion regarding idendcal phenomena; ia
tha Hme muuuiT ■* maaj mythi haTS donbtleia arlien, not from aaj histonaal DunoeotJOD
existing bctveen them, but from an identit; in human thought and imaginatioB. Another
Btidenoe in faior of the purelj mythical nature of thia bolief, is afforded b; the fact that
the first origin of mankind — a phenomenon which ia wholly beyoud the sphere of ciperi-
enoe — ia explained in perfect oonformity with eiisting views, being ccnsidored on the
principle of the colonijation of some deacrt island cr remote mountainous vallej, at a
period when mankind had already existed for tliousanda of years. It is in vain that we
direct our thoughts to the eolution of the great problem of the first origin, since man is
too iutimstely associated with bis own raoe. aod with the relations of time, to conceire of
the cust«iu:e of an individual independently of a preceding generation and age. A eolutioD
•f thoaa difRcult questions, which can not bu delormined by induotive reasoning or by oipe-
ritDce — whether the belief in Ibis prasnmed traditional oouditioa be actually baaed on
historical evidence,.or whether mankind inhabited the earth in gregarious astutciationa from
tba origin of tbe race — sannot, therefore, bo determined from philological data; and 7«t
JIa elacidaljoii onght not to be sought for from other sources.' "
" IMe geographischeu Forschungen Uher den atten Siti, die sogennante Wiege del
Hensohengeschlechts haboa in der That eincD reia mythiricheu Charahter. 'Wir
^«nii«n.' eagi Wit helm von Humboldt iu «iuer noch nngodrucktoD Arbeit Qber
vlia V«TSchied«nheit der Sprachen und Volker, ' gescbichllich oder auch uur durcb irgeud
MJohan Ueberlieferung keineu ZeitpunkC, in wetchem das Menschengoschlecht nioht In
' \^ dlkerhiiiUfen getrount gowesen wtire. Ob dieser Zugtand der ursprQuglicfae war oder erst
^p&ter enlBlnnd. lasit sich daher goschichtlioh nicht entacbeiden. Einielne, an sehr
■^eraobiedeueo Punkten der Erde, ohna irgend BiGhtbareu Znsarameahang, wiederkehreods
'^Saf^en venieinen die erstere Annahme, und likseen das ganie Menschengeschlecht tod
-.^Kinam Mensohenpaare ahstammen. Die weite Terbreitung disser Sage hat sie biaweilen
.j^^r <uae Drerinnerung der Mcnschheit balten lassen. Gerade dieser Umstand aber beweitt
^^vielmebr dasi ihr koine Ueberlieferung und nichts gesehiobdiches lum Orunde lag. saaders
-^□nr die Oleichheit der m^n.^chlichen Vorstollangsweise lu deraelben Erkl^rung der gleichen
' ^^Enolieinnng mhrte; wie gewisi viele Mylhen, ohne geschichtlicfaen Znaammenhang, bloes
-^KOB der Oleichheit des menschlioben Dichtens und OriibelDB eatatandon. Jene Sage tragt
^noh ditria gans das Geprage menschlichcr Erflndung, dasi sie die ansier aller Erfahrnng
liegeodo Erscheiuung dea ersten EnUteheua dea Meoschengesohtechta aaf eine innerhalb
Iieintiger Erfahrung Uegonde Woise, and so erklarcn will, wie in Zeiten, wo das game
Henschengeschlecht schon Jahrtausende hindurch beatandsn hatte, eine niiite lusel oder
«ia abgesonderles Qebirgethul mag bevolkert worden leiu, Vergehlich wiirde sich das
Naohdenkeo in das Problem jener ersten Eutatehung verdefl haben, da der Menaoh so an
rtia Oeschlecht und an die Zeit gebunden ist, dasi nich ein Einielner ohne vorhandenes
Gasehlecht nnd ohne Tergangenheit gar nicht in menschUchem Daseia fasaen lasit. Ob
klao in dieser weder auf dem Wege der Gedauken noah der Erfahrung in entacbeidenden
Frage wirklieh jener angolilich Iraditionolle Zuatand der geschiehtltche war. oder ob dai
Manaohengesoblecht von seinom Bogiiinon an volkerweise den Erbdodon bewohnteT dorf
dia Spraohkujide weder aus sich beatimmen, noolu, die Entscheidung anderewoher nehmend,
um Erklarungagrunde fUr sich branchen wollen.' "
('■iTdimM. Entwurf einer physichen Weltheschreibung," von ALcxAmaB vo« HuM-
aeuT. Fiknfte Ueferuug Stuttgard and TiibiDg«n, pp. S81-2.)
408 THE MONOGENISTS AND
possess the highest voucher. M. Faye states:^ "Another part,
relative to the great question of human races, has been translated
by M. Guigniaut, Member of the Institute. This question was
foreign to my habitual studies : moreover, it has been treated, in
the German work, with such superiority of views and of style, that
M. de Humboldt had to seek, among his friends, the man most
capable of giving its equivalent to French readers. M. de Humboldt
naturally addressed himself to M. Guigniaut ; and this $avant has
been pleased to undertake the translation of the last ten pages of
the text, as well as of the corresponding notes." Consequently,
besides the guarantee for exactitude afforded by the name of the
erudite translator of Oreuzer'i Symbolik^ it may be taken for granted
that, whatever the German original may or may not say," Baron Ton
Humboldt, to whom the French edition was peculiarly an offipring
of love, endorses the latter without reservation.
It only remains now for me to retranslate M. Guigniaut's French
into our own language, in order that the reader may seize the MM.
de Humboldts' point of view. To £Etcilitate his appreciation, I
mark with bold type those expressions requiring particular atten-
tion; and, furthermore, insert, between brackets and in itaik^y
such deductions as appear to me legitimately to be evolved from
them.
^^ Geographical researches on the primordial seat, or, as it is saidi
upon the cradle of the human species, possess in fact a character
purely mythic. ' We do not know,* says William de Humboldt, ia
a work as yet inedited, upon the diversity of languages and of peo^
pies, *we do not know, either historically, or through any [wkai^
Boever] certain tradition, a moment when the human species was no^
already separated into groups of peoples. [Eebrew literature^
common with all others^ is thus rejectedj being equally unhistorieal
the rest.'] Whether this state of things has existed fjx)m the origin-
[^sat/y heginning\ or whether it was produced later, is what cannot^
be decided through history. Some isolated legends being re-en^
countered upon very diverse points of the globe, without apparent^
communication, stand in contradiction to the first hypothesis, and
make the entire human genus descend from a single pair [a«, /or
■ Co9mo9^ Ft. ed., " ATortissement du Tntdaotenr," p. ii.
^* Coinparatiye experience of German aathora and their translators teaches me to bt
particular. Compare, for instance, GheTT. Sanson's JEgyptmu stdU ni tUr WeUffekkkle,
with what is callod, in English, its trantlationi As is nsnal with poliUeal coapositioB in
these United States, one yersion of the same dooament isjninttdfor (he North, and aaothcr,
▼ery different, for the South ; so, in like manner, that which suits the masenlino rti>mtt^»^
of German men of science becomes dilated, until its real flayor is gone, hoforo it ii otfersd
to the more sensitive palates of the British and Angto-Amerioaik **roa4ling pobUo."
THB POLTGENISTS.
'.ampU, in the ancient book called " GenetU."'] This tradition is so
-«ridely epread, that it has soraetimea been regarded as an autique
^^mcmbrance of men. But tliis circuraatance itself would rather
yrove that there is not therein any real transmission of a fact, any-
fioever truly-historical foundation; and that it ia simply the iden-
"tity of human conoeption, which everywhere leads mankind to a
aimilar explanation of an identical phenomenon. A great number
of rnyths, without historical link [»ai/, connection] between the onea
and tiie others, owe in this manner their resemblance and their
origin to the parity of the imaginations or of the reflections of the
human mind. That which shows still more, in the tradition of
which we are treating, the manifest character of fiction {_Old and
New Tettament narratives included, of coursel is, that it claimB to
explain a phenomenon beyond, all human experience, that of the
first origin of the human species, in a manner conformable to the
experience of our own day ; the nnanner, for instance, in which, at
an epoch when the whole human genus counted already thousands
of years of existence, a desert island, or a valley isolated amid
laouutains, may have been peopled. Vainly would thought dive
into the meditation of this first origin: man is so closely bound to
iiifl species and to time, that one cannot conceive [«Mt.7i a thing a»]
ui human being coming into the world without a family already
existing, and without a past [^antecedent, i. «. to such man's advenf],
Tbia question, therefore, not being resolvable either by a process of
reasoning or through that of experience, must it be considered that
the primitive state, such as a pretended {alluding to the Biblical,
n^ctfBtitrily] tradition describes to us, is really historical — or else, that
the liunian species, from ite commencement, covered the earth in the
form of peoples?"^ This is that which the science of languages
Caixmot decide [a« theohgert »uppoge.'2 by itself, aa [hi like manner]
it ought not either to seek for a solution elsewhere,'* in order to
dra-s^ thence elucidatious of those problems which occupy it."
** •■peuplides" oorreBpundB, Iherefors, at the HuniboliitJi' nnileci point of Tiew, with
P«or. A0ASsii'RdaetHua(<7Arufian Ji'iaminn-, Boalon, Jul;, 1860) thai— Men must baTa
"^ p;i nmted in ' nadotu.'" adopted and enlargad upon by Dr. Nolt and mjaalf in "Typw of
M&calimd," pp. T3-9. Tiro ;ears of eubscquent and exclusive derotion to this study, in
^**i^ace, Engliuid, aud this cniuitTy, haTe Batiafi^d my OOD miad upon ita absolute truth.
" Something of tbe aiimc nature, tIi., tbnt cumparntiTe philolegy should oonflne it!
'I'v^stigationa within its legitimate sphere, has been sot forth aa a precept, if riolated in
P^'TMstice, in that eilraordinary chapter, ontilied " Ethnology ». Phonology," oontributed bj
^'rof. Uax-MUller to Chot'. Bonsen's stilt mora extraordinary and most ponderons work
( C^Arvliani^ and Mankind: thtir btginningi and proiptcU: in 7 TOlnmes! See vol. iii.,
** Outlines of the Philosophy of Dnivcrsal History, applied to Language and Religion, pp.
8S2, ^80. Ao.) There was really no need that the erudite ChsTilier should warn his readers
<p. SSIJ thai "Comle'sPoaitiTiiunhafl no place in the philosophy of history," understood i la
410 THE XOKOGEXISTS AND
We can now appreciate the philoeopliic tone in which the Hum-
boldu use such terms as mytiMy ficdomj and pretended tradition^ in
reference to every accoont purporting to give ns the origin of man-
land — Semitic narrations indosive. On the real anthoritjr of the
latter, thev doobUesa held the same views as their great countiy
man, Ideler:
<^ Traditiones semiticse, qn» in libiis Yeteris Testamenti deporite
snnt et conservatse, hand qnaqnam snfficinnt, quippe qnia recentioriB
sunt originis, omni fabolamm genere refertse et nimis arcto terramm
tractu circomscriptae, prsetereaque tarn indoles Hebr»orum natiom
propria qaam diversorum, qni singulos libros compoenemnt, aacto-
ram manifestom consilium doctrinam theocratise a saoerdotum co^
pore quasi repnesentatse condendi effecerunt, ut verse historic prind-
pia multis in locis aperte negligerentur." "
In common with their equally-renowned German contempoTaijf
Lepsius, each, in his inquiries into the origin of humanity, '^leavee
aside the theological point of view, which has nothing to do with
science." ** "The paradisiacal myth," observes Pro£ Tuch,** **h»
been generally more profoundly understood by philosophers than by
theolo^ans. Kant*^ and Schiller^ have employed the Scripture
document in elucidating physiological inquiries on the progressive
development of mankind: both of these philosophers correctly
remark, that the myth does not represent a debasement or sinking
down from original perfection to imperfection — ^not a victory of
sensuality over reason; but, on the contrary, it manifests the ad-
— — - — . _ _ -^
BuNSEx : nor could one hare credited A priori that his learned contributor is the same penoA
who wrote that excellent work, ** The Langaages of the Seat of War" (London, 2d ed., ISoS.)
I am not eingalar either in this opinion. A philologist of far seTerer and profonndir
training than the aboTc-named scholars, M. Erhbst Rbman, of the Biblioth^ne Impfriali*
has already remarked : ** As for the ideas recently put forth by M. Max-Milller (dans le^
Outlines de M. Bansen, t I, p. 268 et suiy. 478 et suiT.) upon the dirision of tongues inV^
three families, Semitic, Arian, Touranian — ^this last containing cTerything which is neithi^
Arian nor Semitic ! — and about the original unity of these three families, it is difficult Uf
see in them anything else thjin an act of complaisance towards Tiews that are not his own ^
and one likes to believe that the learned editor of the Rig-Yeda would regret that a weri^
so little worthy of him should be too seriously discussed" {Hittoire et Syttime eompari 4t0
Langnti S^mitiquesy "OuTrage couronn^ par Tlnstitut," 1« partie, Paris, 1866, p. 466).
^f Hebmapion, iive Rudimenta Hieroglyphiem VeUnsm JSgypUorum lAUrmiurm, PiiV
prior, LipsioB, 4to, 1841; p. 8 of Introduction.
w Typtt of Mankind, p. 238.
^ Komruntar uber die Oenetit, p. 61 : cited in "Introduction to the Book of Genesis, fte.*
fW>m the German of Db. Pbtbr toh Bohlbr; edited by Jamis Hbtwood, M.P., F. R.&;
London, 1855; II, p. 78.
» ** Muthmaeslieher Anfang dee MentehengeeehleeU (Probable Beginning of tiio HnsMB
Race): Berliner Monatschrift, 1786, 8*. 1."— iW.
n ^^Eiwat Uber die ertte MenechmgeeelUekaft (On the Pint Homaa Sodtty): Blmmtlicko
Werke, 1825, Band 16— iTcytPOMTf Von JBoMlen."
THE POLTGENISTS. 411
ancement of man from a state of comparative rudeness to freedom
nd civilization. The hUtorical individuality of Adam is no longer
laintained ; he becomes the general representative of humanity."
"It is strange," continues Dohm, "that such pains have been
aken to trace to the Jews not only the origin of all the ideas of
cience and religion which are found among eastern nations, but
ven the commencement of every possible variety of usage, custom,
.nd ceremony. The small and circumscribed people of the Hebrews,
fho w^ere generally despised, and who never maintained any inter-
ourse with other nations, by trade or by conquest, by religious
aissionaries or by philosophical travellers, are supposed, according
o the dreams of certain learned men, to have supplied all Asia, and
rom thence the whole world, with religion, philosophy, and laws,
knd even with manners and morals" — not to mention Ethnography!
But, in Lutheran Germany, where thorough Hebraical scholarship
las liberated the public mind from the thraldom of ignorant priest-
craft, these reasonings are familiar to every reader of a ^^Ko$mo$ for
lie People :"»
'* Nothing remains but to embrace the opinion, that the distinct
sharacteristics of the human race were imprinted at all times; or
that, in general, mankind does not descend from one man and one
woman, from Adam and Eve, but from several human pairs ; and to
answer this question was already our purpose in the present chapter.
But many of my readers will now say, that God, in the Bible, has
created only one human pair. Perfectly correct. I reply to this only,
tliat God did not write the Bible, but that Moses may have written
the Pentateuch ; and that whether he actually did write (these five
l>ooks), scholars do not know themselves. But we know, quite eer-
ily, that plants and animals were created at the same time, and
^ot in several days of creation. We know, very positively, that,
^thout the sun, no day or night interchanges; and that the sun
^'^e not created on the fourth, but on the first day. As certainly
^^ 'Vre know, that neither plants nor animals could have lived pre-
^otisly to that creation of the sun ; that the beasts, the worms, and
^^ reptiles, were not created later than the birds ; and that Adam
Wid Eve were not alone the first human beings upon earth."
*' The Semitic race," holds the latest and ablest historian of their
l*«iguage, Renan,® " is recognized almost uniquely through its nega-
tive characteristics : it has neither mythology [of its own] nor epopee,
Neither science nor philosophy, neither fiction nor plastic arts, nor
"Gnan., OetekkhU da WdtalU dir Erde und ihrtr Bewohner; Bin Kotmoi /Ur§ Voik$i
^»»if, 1861.
" Ekloin da Lmgma SimMqua (supra, note 16), p. 16, 25-6.
412 TUEMONOGENISTSAND
oivil life." " Tlie Semitic tonguea appear to iis, from ante-hUtorical
times, cantonned in the same rcgious where we see tliem apokun
even at this day, and whence they have never issued, except through
FhoDuiciau colonies and the Mussulman invasion: I mean id tbit
peninsular space shut in at the north by the raouotaiae of Arraeiiiii,
and at the east by the mountains which bound the basin of ito
Tigris. No family of tongues has travelled less, nor radiated Itw
exteriorly : one would scai-ch in vain, beyond the southwest of Am,
for a well-marked trace of an ante-historical sojourn of the Slionill«,
The antique memoriula of geography and of history, contained in
the firet pages of Genesis — pages that we have a right to regard «
Hie common archives of the Shemific race — can only furiiish tu
with some conjectures about the migrations that preceded the entij
of the Shemitea into the region in which one would feel tempted, »
first glance, to believe them to be autochthones.
" The Hhemites, in fact, are, without contradiction, the race which
has preserved the most distinct recollection of its origins. Nobility
among them consisting uniquely in descent by straight line from th«
patriarch or chief of the tribe, nowhere are genealogies so muctk
prized, — nowhere are possessed of these any so long and so authenti^^
Genealogy is the essential form of all primitive histories among th'
Shemites (nTlSlfl)- '^^'^ ToUdoth of the Ilebrews, notwithstao^a^
their gaps, their contradictions, and the different re-handlings whicS
they have suffered, are certainly those historical documents th^
cause us to approach nearest to the origin of humanity. Whenc-"
the remarkable fact, that other races, having lost their own primitive
remembrances {louvenin), have discovered notliing better to do thftM
to hitch themselves on to Semitic recollections; so that the origio-
recounted in Genesis have become, in general opinion, the origin
of mankind (at large !].
" These particular recollections of the Semitic race, which abot^B ^
the £rst eleven chapters of Genesis inclose, divide themselves inl;.^n
two very distinct parta. During the antediluvian phase, it is m
£&huloua geography, to which it is very difficult to attach apo6iti«^«
meaning: they are Active genealogies, of which the degrees a3*e
filled, either by the names of ancient heroes, and perhaps by some
divinities that arc to be found among the other Semitic populations ;
I or by words expressive of ideas, and of which the signification waa
» no longer perceived. They are fragment* of confused recoIteclioDa, i
L wherein dreams are mixed up with realities, very nearly as in ths I
k remembrances of early infancy. [It is impossible to display ropf^ J
^^^^ penetration than M. Ewald has towards interpreting these anti^n^^^l
^^^1 pages. {Geichichte del VoUcei lirael; I, p. 309 et luiv.) I miutfon^^^l
\
THE POLYGENISTS. 41S
however, that, in my opinion, M. Ewald yields a great deal too much
to the temptation of comparing the HebrsBO-Semitic ortgine$ with
Indo-Ariau cosmogonies.]"
Certainly the most philosophic of Semitic historians, the sage Ebw
KBALDiVy^ has remarked, on national characteristics: "It is a curious
circumstance, that the majority of the learned among the Muslims
belonged to a foreign race: — very few persons of Arabian descent
having obtained distinction in the sciences connected with the Law,
or in those based upon human reason ; and yet the promulgator of
&e Law was an Arab, and the Kur'^n, that source of so many
Bciences, an Arabic book."
But perhaps the best-qualified living historiographer of Palestine,
no less than the one most versed in the literature of his co-religionists,
li. Munk, declares, in respect to the first chapter of Genesis : "This
cosmogony is of an infantile simplicity. One must not see in it
anything but a poem, — containing, indeed, some germs of science,
but wherein imagination outbalances reflection ; and which it would
be erroneous to judge from a scientific point of view."^
Finally, the most rigorous amongst archreologists whom this gene-
lation has admired, viz., Letronne, registered his sentiments on
popular misconceptions of Hebrew literature, in the subjoined
language:
" There was a time, and this time is not yet very far from ourselves,
in which all the sciences were compelled to find their origin in the
Bible. It was the unique basis upon which they were permitted to
rise; and narrow limits had been fixed to their expansion. The
•^tronomer, indeed, was allowed to observe the stars and to make
•kiianacs ; but under the condition that the earth should remain at
'^e centre of the universe, and that the sky should continue to be a
^lid vault, interspersed with luminous points : the cosmographer
™^ght draw up charts ; but he was obliged to lay down the principle.
'^Uit the earth was a plane surface, miraculously suspended in space,
^tid held up by the will of God. If some theologers, less ignorant
(ftan the majority), permitted the earth to assume a round form, it
^^ under express stipulation that there should be no antipodes. The
tiatural history of animals was bound to speak of the reproduction
of those which had been saved in the Ark : history and ethnography
* Prolegomena; cited bj MaoGuckin di Slake in the Introd. of his translation of Ebh
KeallikXh's Kiidb Wa/eedt el-AAyedn (Biographical Dictionary) — Oriental Translation
fond, London, 1848 ; II, p. i.
^Palathu, UniT. Pittor., Paris, 1846; p. 426: — compare Typu of Mankind, pp. 561-6;
and alio Pott (Motet und David keine Oeologen, Berlin, 1799, pp. 86-47), who prored, lat*
thai Oenetit I contains no rerelation ; 2d, still less a rerelation of geological facts ; 8d, in m
a rerelation made to Adam or to Moses.
414 THE MONOGENISTS AND
had for common' basiq the dispersion, over the sur&ce of the earth,
of the family of Noah.
" The sciences had, therefore, their point of departure fixed and
determinate; and around each of them was traced a circle, oat of
which it was forbidden to them to issue, under pain of &lliDg
instantly beneath the dread censure, of theologers, — ^who always
possessed, at the service of their • notions, whether good or bad,
three irresistible arguments, viz., persecution, imprisonment, or the
stake." »
Thus, then, the doctrine above advocated by the HumboldtBtt
supported, at the present hour, by the most brilliant scholarehip of
the European continent — sis might easily be proved through qaota-
tions from a hundred recent works. Into parliamentary-stiled
England, even, the light is beginning to penetrate. For instance,
the erudition of Mr. Samuel Sharpb none will contest To li
Hellenic learning we owe the most critically -accurate translation rf
the New Testament^ our language possesses : to him, also, Egypto*
logy, among other great services, is indebted for the best "Histoiy
of Egypt"" derived from classical sources. His remarks ^^(mtk
Book of Genesis'*^ bear directly on the subject before us : *' We have
no account of when this first of the Hebrew books was written, nor
by whom. It has been called one of the books of Moses; and some
small part of it may have been written by that great lawgiver and
leader of the Israelites. But it is the work of various authors and
various ages. The larger part, in its present form, seems to have
been written when the people dwelt in Canaan and were ruled over
by judges, when Ephraim and Manasseh were chief among the
tribes. But the author may have had older writings to guide him
in his history. It is evident, also, in numerous places, that other
writers, far more modem, have not scrupled to make their own
additions. We must divide it into several portions, and each portion
will best explain itself.**
Still more recently, an English biblical scholar, of no mean pw-
tensions — ^whose gentlemanly temper and pleasant style inspii*
regrets that one so truthful should be compelled, owing to the
dreary atmosphere of national prejudices which surrounds him, to
** **0n the cosmographical Opinions of the Fathers of the Church, compared with ^
philosophical Doctrines of Qreece" — Revue dee Deux Mondet (8** B^rie), Paris, iSMt ^
T>. 602.
i^ 7^ JV«w Tatammt translated from Orietbaeh^i TexL London, 12iiio, Uoxon, M i'^
?860.
*> London, 8to, Moxon, 1846.
* Sharps, Jlietorie Notet on the Booke of the Old and New TeetammU; London, 12b*4
Hoxon, 1854; p. 6.
THB POLYGENISTS. 415
fight, in the cause of plurality of human origins and of diversity of
rocts^ with his visor down — ^has put forth a volume* that augurs well
for ethnological progress in Great Bi^tain. The method of argu-
ment, and the majority of fiacts advanced^ will be new, however,
only to the mere reader of English, — ^two hundred years having
elapsed since Peyrerius^ started a controversy which, on the conti-
nent, has been prolific enough, down to Fabre d'Olivet and his pupil
Baffinesque,^ and still later to Klee.^ More recently still, we find
ao apposite passage in Dr. August Zeune :^* " It is known that, after
the uprooting of the several Antilles by the Spaniards, Spanish
ghostly divines palliated the introduction of negro slaves, for the
pupose of working the mines, by the assumption that negroes, as
the descendants of Ham (that is to say, the blaek\ who was accursed*
by his &ther ]^oah; because Ham is named in a holy record as
'slave of all slaves among his brethren/ * * * A well-known natu-
nlist) now deceased, held the wondrous opinion that Ham, after his
firther had cursed him, became black from grief; and was the {stamm^
wter) lineal progenitor of the negroes. Which of the three sons of
Noah became Kalmucks ? Genesis indicates three {Menschenschdp-
f^en) races, at a much earlier day, in the children of Adam, of the
Kohlm, and of the Nephilim, &c. ; so that Adam appears merely as
the %Umf other of the Iranian race, because Paradise also points to
•^nnenia [quoting Schiller, ikher die erste Menschengesellschaft nach
^ Mo%aichen Urkunde']. * * * Inasmuch as, however, according to
^e assertion of an admired dramatist, it has not yet occurred to any-
Wy to sustain that all figs have sprung from a solitary primitive fig,
®^«n as little can any one admit the whole of mankind to be derived
(fliiiamm^n) lineally from a single human pair. Wherever the con-
ditions for life were found, there life has sprung forth." * * *
Did the limited size of the present work permit (its previous space
being engrossed by contributions of higher order than polemical dis-
^^^ions upon the scientific value, in anthropology, of a single nation's
** ADonjmouB — The Genetit of the Earth and of Man: **A critical examination of the
^^>mr and Greek Scriptares, chiefly with a yiew to the solution of the question, whether
^ Varieties of the Human Species be of more than one origin," &c. Edited by Riqiivald
^ART Pools, M. R. S. L., &c. Edinburgh, 12mo, Black, 1856.
^ PrifAdamit<Ey five exercUatio tuper Versibua XII"*, XIIIb«, et XIV^*, eapitu quinti Epi^
Me D. PauU ad Romanoi, 1665.
^ Lmgue ff^bratque reitituie, Paris, 4to, 1815 ; « Cosmogonie de Moyse," pp. 55-8, 177-88,
2I1.I2: — and American Nationt.
^UDiluge, &c., Paris, 18mo, 1847; Chapter III, pp. 192-204.
^ if her Sehadelbildwig Mur fettem Begrundwig der MenMcKenraum^ Berlin, 4to, 1846;
».2-4
* Similar aati-scriptural notions, so far as the Hebrew text is concerned, are entCTta
tj Dft. Wabd, Natural Hitt. of Mankind (Society for promoting Christian knowl
fa, 12mo^ 1849, p. 196. Compare Tgpu of Mankind, Toee KNAAN, pp. 486-f
416 THE MONOQENISTS AND
literature), I would endeavor, whilst striving to emulate our aiwf-
mous author's charity and good taste, to lay before his acumen proofr
that, with motives most laudable and utility unquestionable, he has
tried to reconcile two things which surpass reconciliation; and,
therefore, that his praiseworthy labors will, unhappily, satisfy nei-
ther the exigencies of natural science, on the one hand, nor those of
rigid Hebraism, of the modem school, on the other. Yet, as a Bpe-
cimen of his propositions, I cannot refrain from the extract of a
passage or two.^
" The narrative with which the Bible commences, ending with the
third verse of the second chapter, is distinguished from that which
immediately follows it, as the latter narrative also is from the thirds
not merely by the name given therein to Deity, but in several other
respects. Its most remarkable characteristic is this : that it altoge^
ther consists of a description of events which could not have beeo-
witnessed by any human being. [2%tg is precinely the view aboi^
taken by the Humboldts.] Every one, therefore, who admits th^
truth of the Bible, whatever be his opinion of some other portion^
of it, must hold this narrative to be a revelation.
" Now, we find that revelations of this kind, of which the subjects
are events, were generally conveyed in representations to the sight r
and hence, by the safest and most legitimate mode of judging, by
comparing Scripture with Scripture [a sort of reasoning within a
circle'], we are led to the conclusion, that the narrative under our
consideration is most probably the relation of a revelation by means of
a vision, or rather aperies of visions." * * * "The passages in the
Bible which arc commonly regarded as deciding the question re-
specting the unity of the origin of the human species, demand a
reverential caution of this kind [i. e., * until we have weighed all
the circumstances of the case* — antecedent paragraph"] in him who
examines them : for while these apparently indicate the origination
of all mankind from a single pair of ancestors, there are others
which apparently imply the existence of human beings not the
offspring of Adam." * * * "If we regard Adam as the first of all
mankind, this general view of the origin and development of lan-
guage (Chev'. Bunsen's), supposing it to be admitted, obliges us to
reduce a great part of the history of the book of Oenesis to the
category of faulty and vague traditions, as we have before ob-
served." * * *
Now, with every deference, before exhibiting such contradictions
to the eyes of the. simple believer, and deducing therefrom several
distinct lineages of the first men, would it not be the most prudent
M Gautit of the Earth, &o. (sapn); pp. 1-2, 11-2, 19, iS-i, and 181-4L
THE POLTGENISTS. 417
and nataial step, on the part of archteologists, to ascertain previously
the relative age, writer^ and peeuliaritieSy of each given document ?
I cannot find that our author has taken these precautions; but I
ready — " the existence of pre- Adamites, without a revelation, is surely
leas wonderful than the fact that tliere have been, and still are, post-
Adamites without it" ♦ ♦ ♦ "These passages, though reconcilable
with the general opinion respecting the origination of all mankind,
seem rather to indicate the existence of nations not of the same race
as the descendants of Adam, and not destroyed by the flood, and
the partition of the lands of the former among certain colonies of
the latter; and an argument in favor of this inference may be drawn
from the fact that the appellation here rendered ^the nations*
('haggoylm*), in other instances, which are very numerous, gene-
rally, and perhaps always, denotes the nations exclusive of the
people of God, or of the Israelites ; wherefore it is often rendered,
in the authorized version, ^the Gentiles' and Hhe heathen.' If so,
^e may suppose that the confusion of tongues was a consequence,
not the cause, of the dispersion from Babel. The whole of the
tenth chapter of Genesis seems to be parenthetic,'*
" Parenthetically," as applied to Xth Genesis, is an adverb which,
8o fiir as my limited reading of English biblical criticism extends,
fi^^t occurs in a little work in some slight degree connected with my
former studies.* It is gratifying to find its correctness now endorsed ;
And still more to perceive, that the admission of the aboriginal plu-
Tality of Human RaceSj sustained here in America by tlic Mortonian
®^hool, compels English scholars so to modify their interpretations
^f king James' version, as to make the diversitg-doctrine harmonize
^ith the Scriptures — or vice verad. For my own part, I congratulate
hoth author and editor on their ingenious and ingenuous method of
smoothing a pathway for the eventual recognition, in England, of
our common polygenistic views. Orthodox in treatment, if passably
heretical in issues — maviter in modo^ fortiter in re — " The Genesis of
^^^ Earth and of Man " will percolate unobtrusively into the Scottish
^ Well as the English mind; inevitably and speedily awakening
^^oes, of surpassing benefit to Ethnology, which books of heavier
^hbie could not hope to rouse up, amid such intellectual conditions,
^ a century! Its publishers, therefore, need not sigh with Byron,
** For through a needle it eatierfor a camel it
Topau, than thit email eant-o into familiee.**
* Otia jgff^tiaea^ London, 8to., Madden, 1849: p. 141 : — reprinted fVom Luke Burki'r
^^^^oUgictU Journal, London, 1848-9; and enlarged npon in J^pet of Mankind, Philadel-
P^ tad London, 4to. and 8to., 1854 ; pp. 466-666.
27
418 THE M0N06EKISTS AND
My final corroboration of the Humboldts' doctrine has to be drawn
from the antipodes. Strange ! Whilst amid the civilizations of Eu-
rope and America no independent Ethnologic serial has hitherto
been able to survive, tar less to remunerate its editor, mankind's
most '^ proper study '' has found, for some ten years, asylum and
pati'onage at Singapore ! ^
The merit is due to the genius, acquirements, and enterprise of
an individual. If each of the eight zoological realms over which
Agassiz distributes the various groups of mankind could boast of
possessing its Mr. Looan, English science would not have to deplore
the continued absence of that true spirit of ethnological investigation,
coupled with perfect knowledge of the instruments to be employed,
in nearly all but the Malayan.
"Ethnology, in its etymological and narrowest sense,* is" — accord-
ing to Logan's judgment — " the science of nations. It investigates
the characteristics and history of the various tribes of man. The
time seems to be already come when we may venture to define it
more comprehensively as the science of the Human Race. From tb^
investigation of the peculiarities and histories of particular tribes i*
rises to the conception of mankind as one race, and combining tb^
truth which it gathers from eveiy tribe, presents the whole as th^
science of the ethnic development of man. Those who may conside^
it premature to unite all nations in the idea of one race, can stil^
accept the definition as indicating the science that results from m^
comparison of nations and their developments. Whether all men
are descended from one stock or not, may be placed apart as an
enquiry by itself, for those who think it worth while to pursue it in the
present state of our knowledge. All are agreed that man is of one
kind. If the millions who now people the earth had some hundreds
of progenitors instead of a single pair, the science which the defini-
tion comprises will remain unaffected." * ♦ * ♦
" I mray state here, once for all, that ethnology can only be pur-
sued as a scientific study by viewing the Hebraic religious develop-
ment, and the Hebrew records, in their human aspect ; that is, as
entering into the ethnic development of the Aramaean race and of
the world. The supernatural element, and all the discussions respect-
ing the limits of inspiration and the methods of interpretation, belon^r
to theological science, and amongst all the discordant systems of the-
^ The Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eattem Atia^ 1S47-66; edited bj J. R-
LooAN, Singapore.
SB Joum. of the East. Indian Arehip,, Tol. W., 1860; **The Btkndogp ^ tkt Imdiam Ar-
chipelago ; embracing inquiries into the continental relatione of the Indo-Paeiie
pp. 262, 263 note: and vol. ri., 1862 ; p. 678-9. ^
THE POLTGENISTS. 419
ologyy that can only be true which is in harmony with the truthe
e^jtablished by the observation of God's works." ******
** There is a deep-rooted source of error in Bunsen's ethnic specu-
lations,* as in those of many other German philosophers, the
goUcgels amongst them. It is assumed that the ethnology of the
i^D.cient Hebrews, as preserved in their sacred books, is a full refleo-
ijon of that of the world. I have, in another place, protested
against this resumption, in ethnology, of the system that has im-
pe<ied the progress of every branch of knowledge in succession,
from Astronomy to Geology, that of endeavoring to bind down the
Ixuman mind to the science of the ancient Hebrews. There has
been no divine revelation of Ethnology any more than of Qeologj',
Zoology, or any other purely-mundane science.
" We might as justly refuse to recognize the existence of plants,
animals, and planets, that are not mentioned in the Bible, as base
our Ethnology on that of a people who were perhaps the least
ethnologic of all great civilized nations that have existed. It is
obvious that any ethnic science that does not embrace every tribe
and language in the world must be needlessly imperfect, and that
an exclusion of large sections of the human race must render it
grossly so. Now it is certain that the Hebrews were ignorant of
* Allading probably to the Chevalier's paper, ** On the results of recent Egyptian
•earoheSy" Ac-^Three Unguktie Dittertaiiont ; Report of the British Assoc, for the AdT. of
ScieDce for 1847; London, Sto., 1848: — because the Outlines of the Philosophy of UniveraiU
Bittory (supra, note 16), 1854, could not have arrived at Singapore four years previously.
And, -while on this subject, let me repudiate the preposterously-misnamed Turanian theory, an
Applied to the Aborigines of America I Conceding, to the learned Egyptologist and classi-
er eeholar, the highest admiration for his acquirements in such arduous studies, it would
l>ATe been prudent in him, perhaps, by withholding an endorsement of Sohoolcrapt'h
MiatoTjf of the Indian Tribea of North America (already five volumes, elephant quarto!), not
te liave exposed himself to the charge of discussing themes upon which he possesses little
^^ no knowledge himself, and his authority, save in the capacity of recorder of the habit^v
of such living tribes as official peregrinations afforded, but a trifle more. Chev. Bunsen
^tK>T8 under singular delusion, if he considers that this ** great national work'* (Outlines, U,
Pp- 111-13), carries any weight among men of science in this country. Americans fed
proud, that their Legislature should have generously voted ** $80,856.50" (cost of the fii>t
▼olumes alone! see the North American Review, Boston, 1853, Art. XI, on Parts I, II,
in, p. 246), towards the promotion of knowledge ; Philadelphia may justly boast of
beautiful typography, splendid paper, and superb mechanical execution, of the work :
^vid it likewise contains several contributions of a high order from distinguished men :
t»i&t I win frankly state, from personal acquaintance with scientific sentiment, during fifteen
yean that I have visited the best-educated States in the Union, that, in the opinion of tho«e
<|iia.1ilied to judge, a twenfy-five-eenl pamphlet could easily condense all the knowledge
paraded, in these five big volumes, by its industrious author. With this respectful hint
to Chev. Bunsen and Prof. Max-Miiller, I postpone specifications to a more suitable ocoa-
■>on ; because, at present, with regard to this and other Washingtonian literary nstitutiont,
•^^'w^nom eoneessa moveri Camarina (Virgil, jEn., Ill, 701).
420 THE M0N06ENISTS AND
the very existence, not only of the extensive outlying provinces of
America and Asiauesia, but of the great mass of the tribes of the
old world. They do not appear to have cultivated a knowledge of
any non-Semitic language, and consequently their ethnic notions
respecting some adjacent non-Semitic tribes must have been veiy
obscure and erroneous.. It maybe doubted whether their know-
ledge of the Africans extended beyond the Egyptians, and their
southern Nilotic neighbors, the Ethiopians. The European nattons
were unknown to them, save through some vague impressions
respecting the sea-board tribes of the S. and W. coasts, received
from the reticinent Phoenicians. Their knowledge of the numerons
nations of northern, middle, and eastern Asia, was partial and
obscure. They do not appear to have had a suspicion of the
existence of the great civilized peoples of the East, the Ariaiis and
the Chinese, and they were as profoundly ignorant of the Dravirians,
as they were of the Germans and the ancient British.*® Nothing
can more conclusively show the extremely narrow and isolated
character of their ethnology, and their rigid seclusion fronj time
immemorial in the Semitic civilization, than the fact that they had
entirely lost, and had been unable by their observations to recover,
the idea of barbarism. In this respect, their ethnology is fer below
that, not only of Herodotus and Manu, but of other Semitic nations;
such as the Arabs, the Phoenicians, and, in all probability, the
Babylonians, at least in their more civilized and commercial era.
It is therefore surprising to see a writer like Bunsen founding his
ethnology on that of Moses, which can only be correct as a partial
picture of the races of S. E. Asia, and N. E. Africa, as known to the
Hebrews."
« Types of Mankind, Part II, pp. 466-666; with its '* GenealogioAl Tablcjm" of Xth
Genesis, its "Map of the World as known to" the genesiacal writer; thorongblj confiriM^J
the deductions here drawn by Mr. Logan : and eTery fresh archseologist who examines this
hoary docament arrives at the same conclusions. I would now refer to researches noM^
by me, or unpublished, when I projected my MSS. for the above work, at Mobile, in 1852.
1st, Renan, Hist. de» Languet Simitiqun (supra), 1866, pp. 27-74, and 44»-68:— 2i
BiRQMANN, LtB ptuplet primitives de la race dt JaJlU, Etquiste tthno-ghtialogique ft historic-
Colmar, 8vo., 1868, p. 64:— 8d, Rawlinson, Notet on the Early Hialory of Bah$U>»*'*
London, 8vo., 1864, pp. 1-2, not*;— 4th, Hbtwooi>'s Voh Bohlkh, (supra, note 19), k*f^
to the Book of Oenesii, London, 1866; IT, pp. 210-64: — and 6th, as the most imporUnt
because devoted exclusively to analysis of this subject; Avovst Knobkl, Die Volkerttfel^
Genesis. Ethnographische Untersuehungen ; Giessen, 8vo., 1860. I was not aware of *^**
masterly book, until many months after the publication of my own studies in " Tfff* ^
Mankind." It was subsequently indicated to me at Paris, by my valued fHend If. R«BftB.
With no small gratification, I afterwards discovered that Dr. KnobeVs rMoIts and my owa wfft
always similar, often identical. Compare pp. 9, 18, 137-7, 167, 170, 889-62, forptrtieiJ^
instances, with the same points discussed in " Types."
THE P0LT6ENISTS. 421
Such are some of the true principles for embracing, in these in-
quiries, Hebrew ethnography, as an inestimable, but, in reality, a
very minor part of the World's ethnology : at the same time that,
through the above extracts, we perceive but a small portion of the
Uncertainties and perils, that beset this new and ill -appreciated
study. — "And yet," indignantly, but most righteously exclaims
Luke Bubkb, "And yet this is the science on which every man is
oompetent to pass an opinion with oracular emphasis ; the science to
whidi missionaries dictate laws, and which pious believers find
Trritten out, ready to their hands, in the book of Genesis. The
science, in a word, which a whole tribe of comparative philologists,
i^ith a fatuity almost inconceivable, have coolly withdrawn from the
oontTol of zoology, and settled to their own infinite satisfaction, a»
^f^er catalogiu of barbarian vocabularies.** The really learned are
j>erplexed with doubt, or appalled with difficulty : the true naturalist
pproaches with diffidence, or states his opinion without dogmatism
tenacity; but the theologian is perfectly at home, and has
god every thing long ago. The land is his by right Divine,
is own pebuliar appanage ; and with the authority of a master he
-|g>ereniptorily decides, that a science, to which even the distant future
«%^ill scarcely be able to do proper justice, shall receive its laws and
^aspirations from the remote and ridiculous past."**
Having thus fortified what I deem to be the " ultima ratio," above
-^ut forth on Human Ori^ns, by the brothers Humboldt conjointly,
^± may be interesting to dissect some sentences of that magnificent
-paragraph ; in order that we may not unwittingly ascribe to WiLr
^BLM, the philologist, the more decided opinions of his brother Alex-
y^NDER, whose universality of science precludes special classification.
And first, it seems ominous to the Unity-doctrine, that the most
li^rilliant philologer of his day should have left a manuscript, " On
•fcie Diverntf/ of Languages and of Nations."
This manuscript, however, being unpublished, no positive deduc-
tion can be drawn from its mere title ; but the treatise must possess
some elements distinguishing it from the elder work, long honored
hy the scientific world : "Uber die Verschiedenheit der menschlichen
Sj>Tachbaues;" On the Diversity of Structure of Human Languages^ — •
contained in Wilhelm von Humboldt's researches into the ^^Kawi-
This applies espeoiallj to an inexhnastible, learned, and laborious ethnological '*cata-
lo^vie-maker/' Dr. Latham. Vide the Brighton Examiner, October 2, 1855 — for a critique
by Mr. Lake Barke, of *'Dr. Latham's Lecture on 'Ethnology.*"
*• CharUtton Medical Journal and Review, Charleston, S. C, vol. XI, No. 4, July 1856—
•« Strictures/' &c., by Luke Burke, Esq., Editor of the London Ethnologica. Journal —
pp. 457-8.
\
422 THE M0N06ENISTS AND
tongue, in the island of Java;"*' elsewhere cited in Co$mo9. On
of these passages is noteworthy, not only for the law it euuncia
but also for the variety of rendering it has received:
^
>
Orbnan Oeioihal.^* — "Die Sprache umschlingt mehr, als tonst etwM !in Menichi
da» ganze Gesohleoht. Gerade in ihrer Tolkertrennenden Eigemiohaft Tereinigt sie di
daa WechseWerattindniBZ fremdartiger Rede die Verschiedenhcit der IndiTidualitiiteii, o]
Ihrer EigoDthUmlichkeit Eintrag'zu rhun. (A. a 0. S. 427.)"
Sabink'h Translation.^ — ** Language, more than any other faonltj, bind* manl^^^^
together. DiTersities of idiom produce, indeed, to a certain extent, separation bet«r(i
nations ; but the neccHsity of mutual understanding occaiiions the aoqairament of fore(|
languages, and reunites men without destroying national peculiarity.'*
Orrfi's Translation.^ — ** Language, more than any other attribute of mankind, biad^^^^^^
together the whole human race. By its idiomatic properties, it certainly seems to separats ^^ ^
nations ; but the reciprocal understanding of foreign languages connects men together, oa •^
the other hand, without injuring indiyidual national characteristics."
Quiqniaut's Translation.*^ — ** Le langage, plus qu'aucune autre faculty de 1'bomme, •^^
forme un faisceau de Tesp^ce humaine tout enti^re. U semble, au premier abord, s^parer '^
les peuples comme les idiomes ; mais c'est justement la necessity de s*entendre r^ciproque- '-^.
ment dans une langue ^trang^re qui rapproche les indiyidualit^s, en laissant k chacune sor
originality propre."
Tliat the organs of speech enable mankind to interchange their -
thoughts, is one of those tniiflms to question which would be absurd. ^
Speech is an inherent attribute of the "genus homo ;" just as mewing
is to the feline, and barking to the canine : but it does not follow ^.^ ^^
that, because a Lapp might by some chance acquire Guaranty t^^
Tasmanian English, an Arab Korean, a Maiulingo Madjar, an Esqul^ ^-^^^
man Tamul, or, what is more ])088ible, that a thorough-bred Israelr ^ jj^
tish emigrant from anci(Mit Chuldea (his own national t-ongue bein ^: ^^
forgotten) might now bo found speaking any one of these tongui:^^. ^^
as his own vernacular, — it does not follow, I repeat, cither th^^ ^^^
humanity is indivisible into groups of men linguistically, as well t ^^
physically and geograj)hically, distinct in origin ; or that Wilhel -^3nj
von Humboldt thought so: any more than because "/?/« eoL^^^^
Angorensis** of Turkish Angora "mews" like "/e/t» brevicaudat ^^g"
of Japanese Nippon, and both these animals like ^^felin domtit z^iea
ccerulia* of Siberian Tobolsk,^ that these three cats are necessai^ ^.jij
*» Ueber die Kawi-Spraehe au/ der Intel Java^ Berlin, 4to, 1S86. Cardinal Wiskmax ft^
quently quoteH it culogiHtically in his Conneclion between Science and revealed ReUjfion,
** Op. ciL {eupra. p. 407), p. 403.
^ Supra (note 10) — Cosmoe, I, p. cxv, note 448.
<• Supra (note 0) — Cosmos, I, p. 859, note.
*^ Supra (note 1) — Cosmos, I, pp. 579-80, note 48.
M Not being mynelf a zoologiBt, it may be well to shield assertions, on this cat-qnt^^g^M
with the authority of one who is. pRor. S. S. Haldeman remarks: "Thus, tlk^^fi
mummies of Kgypt were said to be identical with the modem Felis domestica ; an(3^ gg^^
was the general opinion, until the discovery, of Dr. Riippell, of the genuine analogue of (^^
embalmed species, in the Felis maniculata of Noubia. I belioTe Professor Bell to b$
THE POLTGENISTS. 423
of the same blood lineage, identical species, or proximate geogra-
phical origin: notwithstanding that, amongst other ^'philosophical
aphorisms,*' Bunsen — ^with-whom philology and ethnology are syno-
nymes through which we shall recover, some day, the one primeval
language spoken by the first pair, who are now accounted to be
"beatorum in cobUs" — declares, "that physiological inquiry [one, as
we all knowy completely outside of the range of his high education
and various studies], although it can never arrive by itself at any
conclusive result, still decidedly inclines, on the whole, towards the
iieory of the unity of the human race.*'!^ I have no hopes, in
dew of his early education and present time of life, that the accom-
plished Chevalier will ever modify such orthodox opinion; but
eaders of the present volume may perhaps discover some reasons
or difiering from it.
But, even under the supposition that Wilhelm von Humboldt, in
lis now-past generation, when writing "on the Diversity of Lan-
piages and Peoples," may have speculated upon the possibility of
"educing both into one original stock, it will remain equally certain,
haty in such assumed conclusion, he was biassed by no dogmatical
■espect for myths, fiction, or pretended tradition {ubi supra) ; and
iirthermore that,*if he grounded his results on the ^^ Kawi Sprache,"
le inadvertently built upon a quicksand ; as subsequent researches
lave established.
Amongst scientific travellers and enlightened Orientalists of Eng-
land, the venerable author of the " History of the Indian Archipe-
lago " has long stood in the foremost rank. His speciality of inves-
tigation occupied — " a period of more than forty years, twelve of
which were passed in countries of Which the Malay is the vernacular
or the popular language, and ten in the compilation of materials ;" —
of which a recent^ "Dissertation" embodies not merely the pre-
cious ethnographical issue ; but, through his method of analysis and
depth of logic, superadded to vast practical knowledge of his theme
—combined with sterling common sense, its author has produced
what, in my individual opinion, must become the model text-book,
oorrect in deciding that Fclis domestica can neither be referred to this species, nor to the
FeUfl catus found wild in the forests of Europe." {Recent Freahvaier Mollusca^ tphich art
iostflton to North America and Europe^ Boston Jonr. of Nat. Hist, Jan. 1844, pp. 6-7.)
^ OutUnet (supra, p. 102), I, p. 46. ** Multee terricoUs linguae, ooelestibus una," is another
rtkj of stating such axiom. IIow did this last writer know that people do talk one language
1. heaTen ? Can he show us whether the **dead" haye speech at all ? During some gene-
^tlons, the Sorbonne, at Paris, discussed, in schoolboys* themes, a coherent enigma, yiz.,
Vn Moncii resurgant cum inteatinis — not a less difficult problem for such youths' pedagogues !
M A Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language^ with a preliminary Ditaertation ; 2
oU. 8to., London, 1852. Our citations are from L pp. 85-6, 128-9.
424 THE MONOGENiSTS AND
to sincere students of comparative philology. Here science feeb
itself relieved from verbal transcendentalism, so sublime that it is
meaningless, in which the hybrid school* of Anglo-German ethnolo-
gists delights : and this volume, at any rate, does not ^^ teach gram-
mar as if there were no language, geography as if there were do
earth." Mr. Crawfurd, — unlike some of his English contemporaries
who, grouping into little catalogues all the tongues known or nn-
known upon eai*th, of which it is materially impossible that any one
man's brain, or lifetime, could gather even the rudiments, proclaim
that ^'philology proves the unity" of human origins — ^Mr. Crawford
thoroughly understands his subject, and writes so that even onrselves
can understand him.
" There exists in Java, as in Northern and Southern India, in Cey-
lon, in Birma, and Siam, an ancient recondite language, but it is not,
as in those countries, any longer the language of law and religion,
but a mere dead tongue. This language goes under the name of
Kawi, a word which means ' narrative,' or * tale,' and is not the tft-
cific name of any national tongue. Most probably it is a corruption
of the Sanscrit kavy a, ^ a narration.' In Java there are found manj
inscriptions, both on brass and stone, the great majority of whicl^
on examination, are found to consist of various ancient modification^
of the present written character." ******* ^'Some writer^
have supposed the Kawi to be a foreign tongue, introduced into Jav^^
at some unknown epoch, but there is no ground for this notion,
its general accordance wuth the ordinary language plainly show
Independent of its being the language of inscriptions, it is, also, that^
of the most remarkable literary productions of the Javanese, among
which, the most celebrated is the Bratayuda, or * war of the descend-
ants of Barat,' a kind of abstract of the Hindu Mahabarat" * ♦ *
(probable date, about a. d. 1195). In it, " near 80 parts in 100, or
four-fifths of the Kawi, are modem Javanese." ***** "When,
therefore, it is considered that the Kawi is no longer the language
of law or religion, but merely a dead language, it is not difficult to
understand how it comes to be so little imderstood ; while, in deci-
phering inscriptions, the difficulty is enhanced by an obsolete cha-
racter." * * * * "Kawi is only an antiquated Javanese."
" The illustrious philosopher, linguist, and statesman, the late Ba-
ron William Humboldt, has, in his large work on the Kawi of Java,
expressed tlie opinion that the Tagala of the Philippines is the most
perfect living specimen of that Malayan tongue, which, with other
writers, he fancies to have been the parental stock from which all
the other tongues of the brown raCe in the Eastern Archipelago, the
Philippines, the islands of the Pacific, and even the language of Ma-
THE POLYGENISTS, 425
lagascar, have sprung. I cannot help thinking that this hypothesis,
naintidned with much ingenuity, must have originated in this emi-
nent Mcholar^s practical unacquaintance with any one language of the
nany fphich came under his consideration; and that, had he possessed
^6 necessary knowledge, the mere running over the pages of any
Philippine dictionary would have satisfied him of the error of his
theory. I conclude, then, by expressing my conviction that, as far as
^e evidence yielded by a comparison of the Tagala, Bisaya, and
Pampanga languages with the Malay and Javanese goes, there is no
Dtiore ground for believing that the Philippine and Malayan languages
bave a common origin, than for concluding that Spanish and Portu-
guese are Semitic languages, because they contain a few hundred
vrordfi of Arabic, or that the Welsh and Irish are of Latin ori^n, because
they contain a good many words of Latin ; or that Italian is of Gothic
origin, because it contains a far greater number of words of Teutonic
origin than any Philippine language does of Malay and Javanese."*^
How Crawfurd disposes of the Malayan tongues, segregating this
group victoriously from all others, has been previously indicated in M.
Maury's chapter, [^ante. pp. 79-80], Our purpose is answered by
publishing, in the said chapter, proofs that linguistic science has pro-
gressed considerably since 1836, when the disquisition on the "JBTam-
sprache" was written ; and that, while to Wilhelm von Humboldt is
gratefully accorded the highest position in pliilology as it stood 20
years ago, it is injustice to the memory of a great man to quote his
authority as tantamount to a finality y when he himself (were he now
alive) would have kept pace with the latest discoveries in science, as
when, — to his honor be it recognized — he was the first qualified
critic, out of France, to welcome and promote Champollion-le-Jeune*s
hieroglyphical decipherings ;® unappalled himself, if others were not,
at the storm which ignorance and superstition everywhere had raised
against the immortal Frenchman.
It is to the surviving brother that Ideler dedicates his work —
"Alexandre ab Humboldt, Germanorum quotquot fuere, sunt, erunt-
que decori sacrum." In his own person, the nonogenerian patriarch
B See also Th€ Wettmintter Review^ No. xyiii, April, 1856; London ed., Art. iii. on ** Types
of Mankind ;" pp. 878-5. In thanking the reyiewer for the fairness of his critique upon
oar work, let me point out two oyersights contained in his obliging article: Ist. — (p. 864)
Prof. Agaseix neyer created a ** Hottentot" realm; but merelj included a Hottentot Faunu
in his "African" realm (see Typetf p. Ixxvii.) : 2d. — (p. 867) by referring, as I haye done,
to Morton's llltutrated'Syttem of Human Anatomy (p. 151), he wjll find that the Doctor
wrote *'a climate as cold as Ireland/' not Iceland: so that there remains no ** double miB
take," except the pair aboye committed by the reyiewer.
* Xdblkr, Hermapion (supra, note 17) ; chap. XXXI, **Lettre de M. le Baron Qaillaiime
de Humboldt k M. Champollion."
*■ of ecience acema likely to realize Flouren's proposed law,** viz: tha^^
the true length of human life should not fall below one hundred yeara^
and certainly there Uvea no man to whom mankind owe a more fer .
vent tribute of good wishes. Others are better qualified than th—
present writer to show how ceaselessly Baron Alexander de Hun:::^_
holdt steps onward, day by day, as leader in multitudinous fields (^-f
Natural Science ; but should Egyptology be taken as the criterion p^
his ever-progreaaing knowledge, then we need, in order to plam
some pickets along the route, but to re-open his Cotmoi,'* and to
peruse some of Lepsius's" and Brugach's writinga.'*
Nevertheless, supposing that we take a step baekwai'ds of some 47
years from this day, when Baron de Ilnmholdt stood already at the
meridian of his glorious life, and open the beautiful httTodtietvm
with which, in 1810, he prefaced the "Vues des Cordilleras," we
perceive how, at that day — one generation and a half ago, — he felt
oveijoyod at having then lived to witness the ai)pearance of the great
French work, the "Description de I'Egypte," fruit of Napoleon
Bonaparte's eastern campaigns of 1778-1800, — which grand folioa,
except for architectural designs of ancient, aud excellent views and
disquisitions of modern Egypt, have, since Champollion's era, 1822-
32, become, archffiologically speaking, almost so much waste paper.
Yot, at that time (to most men under litly, in this our XlXth
century, remote day), Alexander von Humboldt had already arrived,^k.jg^
at the following philosophical conclusions about the " unity of the^^-^^
human species."
"Le probU-me de la premiere population do I'Am^rique n'est plu^^K^-Q,
du ressort de I'histoire, que les questions sur Torigine des plantea et^-^^ ^
des animaux ot sur la distribution des germes organiquea ne sont dcv £aiii
ressort des science naturellos, L'histoire, en remontant aux epoqnefte^* ^^
les plus recultes [wAieA, in A. D. 1810, vieant only to about 1000 year'~^:xiTt
before ChrUt; inaamvch as thoee revelationi, on some 8000 yuara pr^- ^jf.
viougly to the latter era, derived lince from the petroglypht of the Nil^^^ZSUt^
the Euphrates, and the Tigris, had not been dreamed of, much lest eom^-^n.
menced], nous montre presque toutes les parties du globe occupet^fc-^^os
par des horames qui se croicnt aborigenes, parce qu'ils ignores — nt
leur filiation. Au milieu d'une multitude de peuplea qui se sor— ^tit
h la qiMnlill ilt Vi.
-C\
— S
Ik
laglabt; Pari.. 12mn, ISSfi, p. C^ ^a
B times th« time It takM to ■■ uniU the be' i. i,^^
take. etFeot et ebout 20 jreara of ege.
t "Btoi
•• D« U Longlvili Uwnaini tl
*! Uint the nnlurni length of siiimiil life ia
with their epipbyiica:" which pruoeBS, id ma
»• Ollft Tmnil., n. pp. 124-a.
» Brufmui Mpyplfn, jEihiapim, Je.. Berllo, 1862; "Vorwort."
•• Biiitbrrichlt am .^gvplti. Berlin, IS.iS i ■■ VorwoK;" «nd Orammalita Dei
IBOLUT IT BourLAND, Yoyage, Atl&a Pittoresque, Pikria, ru]in,18I0.
THB POLYGENISTS. 427
nicc4d4s o< m6168 les uns aux autres, il est impossible de reconnottre
ivec exactitude la premiere base de la population, cette couche
mmitive au deli de laquelle commence le domaine des traditions
xwmog^niques.
"Les nations de TAm^rique, i Texception de celles qui avoisinent
e cercle polaire, forment une seule race caract^ris^e par la conforma-
ion du cr^ne, par la couleur de la peau, par Textrfeme rarete de la
>arbe, et par des cheveux plats et lisses. La race americaine a des
"apports tres-sensibles avec celle des peuples mongoles qui renferme
68 descendans des Hiong-nu, connus jadis sous le nom de Huns, les
Calkas, les Kalmucks, et les Bourattes. Des observations recentes
)nt meme prouv6 que non seulement les habitants k Unalaska, mais
tussi plusieurs peuplades de TAm^rique m^ridionale, indiquent par des
saract^res ost^ologiques de la tete, un passage de la race americaine
not across the Pacific nor the Atlantic^ but in physiological gradation\
i la race mongole. Lorsqu'on aura mieux 6tudi6 les bommes bruns
le TAfrique et cet essaim de peuples qui habitent I'interieure et le
lord-est de TAsie, que des voyageurs systematiques designent vague-
nent sous les noms de Tartars et de Tschoudes, les races caucasienne,
nongole, americaine [this last group of humanity was explored 30 years
^atcTy and to Baron de Humboldt's satisfaction^^ by Morton, in his
^Crania Americanct*']^ malaye et n^gre paroitront moins isolees
' Morton* s school now think the contrary established]^ et Ton reconnoitra,
lans cette grande famille du genre humain, un seul type organique
uodifie par des circonstances qui nous resteront peut-etre k jamais
nconnues." * * ♦ "Nous ne connaissons jusqu'ici aucun idiome de
I'Amerique qui, plus que les autres, semble se lier k un des groupes
lombreux de langue asiatiques, africaines, on europ^ennes."*
Lideed, as the same illustrious writer says elsewhere," these dis-
cussions, which we call new^ "sur Tunite de Tespfece humaine et de
les deviations d'un type primitif," and about the peopling of America,
igitated the minds of its first Spanish historians, Acosta, Oviedo,
Q^ABCiA, &c.,— on all which consult the learned compendium of Dr.
McCULLOH.*^
As a final illustration of the eagle-eye with which Humboldt seizes
each discovery of physical science as it is made, the German and
French editions of Kosmos itself furnish a happy instance. The first
f* 8e6 the Baron's congratulatory letter to Dr. Morton, in Types of Mankind, pp. xxxIt-t.
f* Vtut det CordilUrat, pp. yii-yiii, x.
f* Examen eritiqtie de Vhutoire de la OSographie du Nouveau Continent et det progrhe de
fAetranomie nautique aux 15** et 16"«« ei^cleaj Paris, 1836, I, "Considerations," pp. 6, 6.
<* Retearchee, Philosophwal and Antiquarian, concerning the Aboriginal Hittorg of Anurwa^
Baltimore, 1829, ** Introduction," tji^paetim.
428 THE M0K06ENISTS AND
volume of the former appeared in Germany during April, 1848. "D
fut consider^ (says M. Faye,)® comme rexpression fidMe de Tfetat da
sciences physiques." In that year but 11 planeti were known to
astronomers. But, by 1846, on the issue of the French version, M.
Hencke, of Driessen, ha\ang discovered another, it became incumbent
upon its' translator to count 12: — "Mais les appreciations de M.d«
Humboldt n'en ont regu aucune atteinte ; au contraire, cette dkco^'
verte lour apporte une force nouvelle, une verification de plus." 'Bo^
many more have turned up since, I do not know. Prop. RiddeJ-*^
already enumerated "thirty-eight known asteroids,® at New Orleoi^^^
in February 1856. Can any one suppose that Baron de HumbolA
residing in the centre of royal science at Potsdam, is not at this ho
more precisely informed ?
Consequently, if my individual convictions happen to differ from ik-^
ethnological doctrine of Baron de Humboldt, I wish critics to comp
hend that I am fully aware of the enormous disparity existing betwee
our respective mental capacities and attainments ; and whilst, on m
side, the consciousness of his superiority serves to increase my admi
ration, I cannot but congratulate myself that, — ^however other grea"
authorities may be found to agree with, or to contradict him, on th
question of human monogenism or polygenism — in rejecting "myths,*
"fiction," and "pretended tradition," I find myself merely an
implicitly following in the wake of Alexander von Humboldt.
So high, indeed, is my individual reverence for the authority of
Humboldt, that, in the present essay, my part chiefly confines itself
to setting forth his ethnological opinions in juxtaposition to other
great men's; leaving the unprejudiced reader to form his own judg-
ment, as to the side on which scientific truth holds the preponde-
rance. With the ethics, said to be involved in such problem, I do
not particularly concern myself: my own notions in this matter
being similar to those of my lamented collaborator Dr. Henrj* S.
Patterson ;^ \nz : that, inasmuch as the religious dogma of man-
kind's Unity of origin has never yet instigated the different races
of men to act toward each other like "brotliers," it might still
occur, in a distant future, that, when the antagonistic doctrine of
Liversity shall be recognized as attesting one of Nature's organic
laws, such change of theory may possibly superinduce some altera-
tion of practice ; and then that men of distinct lineages may become,
as I desire, more really-Atiwiane in their mutual intercourse. If under
the monogenistic hypothesis, mankind cannot well be worse off
•3 CotmoSf Tr. ed., 1846, ** ATertissement du Traduoteor," pp. iii.
** AddreM read be/ore (he New OrUam Acadtmy of Sciencet, 1856, p. S.
64 (i Memoir of Samuel George Morton," J\fP** of Mankind^ pp. li-liL
THE POLTGENISTS. 429
than they are now, some hopes of eventual melioration may, per-
haps, be indulged in, by sostainers of the polygenistic point of view.
Humboldt's language on this question admits of no equivoque. —
*' But, in my opinion, more powerful reasons militate in favor of the
unity of the human species" ♦ ♦ * «ln sustaining the unity of
the human speeiesy we reject, as a necessary consequence, the dis-
tressing distinction of superior and of inferior races:" — and he
terminates by citing his brother's beautiful aphorism® — "'An idea
that reveals itself athwart history, whilst extending daily its salutary
enxpire, an idea which, better than any other, proves the fact so often
coEfttested, but still oftener misunderstood, of the general perfecti-
bi lity of the species, is the idea of humanitt/.' "
X am unconscious, certainly, of a disposition to deny the historical
last indicated; neither do I question the improvableness of every
c of man, each in the ratio of its own grade of organization, nor
doiabt the beneficial influence of such modern belief wherever it
e&Ki. be implanted : but, not on that account do I consider a Tcumeh
^MK9i, a FuegtaUy a Kalmukj an Orang-benua^ or a Bechuanay to
doQcend from the same blood lineage as the noblest of living
T^citons: — whose loftiness of soul gives utterance to an "idea,"
^ucilias that which no education could instil into the brains of the
^l>ove-named five, among many other races. The very idea itself
^'^ I>urely " Caucasian ;" and as such, together with true civilization,
®^^**ve8 the more strongly to mark distinctions of mental organism,
^^^•^ongst the various groups of historical humanity.
^'Xo the second proposition, recognizing, vdth De Gobineau," and
^^t;Ti Pott,*^ the existence of ^^ superior and of inferior races** as
^**>r^ply a fact in nature, I will submit some objections as we proceed:
^^ the same time that I can perceive nothing " depressing," " chcer-
^s^^»» or "distressing," in any fact, humanly comprehensible, of the
^^ator's laws, inscrutable to human reason though they may yet be.
^ ^ut it is the accuracy of the first asseition, viz: "the unity of the
V^'toan speoiefib" that, without some ventilation of the Baron's pre-
^^« meaning, I cannot accept ; for the same reasons which, in the
^^risian discussion before alluded to (supra, p. 404), M. d'Eichtiial
^^ducee in his report to the Sociiti Ethnologique.
And here, in order to meet ungenerous or misapplied criticism,
^ A. DB Humboldt, Cotmat^ French ed. ; I, pp. 428, 480 ; and p. 579, note 48 ; quoting
^. de Humboldt, On th$ Kawi timgue. III, p. 426. Compare OtWi tranaL, I, pp. 852, 858 ;
^Ui SabmiBy pp. 851, 855-6.
*■ InigaUti dtM Raeet kumainu (supra, p. 188).
" Du Ungltkhhiit memeMieher Rasten haupt/dehUeh vom Sprachwrnvuch^fllichm Stand'
rmku, fte.— HaUe, 8to, 1856.
430 THE M0N06ENISTS AND
let me mention, once for all, that, wherever memory recalls to mbd
a given writer who, in the printed emission of his thoughts, hp
sustained views bearing directly on a theme befpre me (of sufficient
merit to demand re-perusal), it is my habit always to reproduce his
ideas in his own words, in preference to giving those ideas as my
own. Apart from literary honesty (the violation of which is looked
upon by most litterateurs as a venial offence), there accrues positive
advantage from such practice; because, "a motion being seconded,"
the reader is thereby presented with two or more men's opinions in
lieu of one. It is to the late Letronne I owe this system. Calling
one day upon him, in 1845, at the Archives^ in Paris, to ask for some
information relative to his Courn d' archiologie Sgyptienntj at the
College de France, where my attendance was ever punctual,* he
continued, during our long interview, to tumble down, from his
well-stocked library, work after work, whence, whilst talking, h^
made frequent extracts. Struck with his incessant laboriousnee^
curiosity bade me observe, that the subject must be very importaa^
to require so many references. "Au contraire," he exclaime^^
"tr^ insignifiiant : c'est que j'ai i, faire une petite r^ponse k i^^
* * *, de rinstitut." To my remark, that, for such purpose, the
hardly needed so much expenditure of time and fatigue on the
of a Letronne, he favored me with the following characteristic:^
observation. Said he, in effect — ^whenever he happened to remembei^^
that an author, ancient or modern, had treated on the topic in hand, -
he always quoted him — Ist, because this process established such
author's priority; 2d, because it proved that he (Letronne) was
conversant with the literature of such subject: and, — when I sug-
gested that he might, in consequence, be deemed, by strangers, to
be a mere compiler — he broke forth with, *^ Compilateur ! If I had
nothing new to say, over and above all these citations, why should I
write f" This lesson, I trust, was not lost upon me; wherefore my
extracts are continued.
"M. Schcelcher® [one of the members, no less than the most cele-
brated of French abolitionists] has, moreover, told you himself that
he professes the principle (let us rather say the dogma) of the equal-
ity, complete and absolute, of the human races. To him, in view
of this great faith of unity, all shades, gradations, distinctions, which
may exist between different races, are as if they were not. He does
not precisely deny them ; but he attenuates them as much as possible,
he leaves them in the shade, he takes no account of them.*'
<• Otia JSffyptiaca, Dedication, and pp. 16, 28-4, 26, 77.
* Author, amid yarious works, of a Tery correct esttmate of modem Egjpt^ m it
politically about 1844, and aooiaUy to the present hoar.
THE POLTGENISTS 431
'We do not fear," then comments M. d'Eichthal, "to reproach
r colleague with exaggerations of this doctrine. His opinions, if
:en in alj their rigor [why not, primd /octV, those of Humboldt
o}, would attain to nothing less than the annihilation of ethnology
ilf; because ethnology is but the classification of races according
the characteristical differences that distinguish them. Efface or
x>w aside these differences, and the name of ethnolo^cal science
9 no longer any meaning. Even the question at tiiis moment
mpying us ceases to possess any value ! All human races being
>po8ed to be one^ every discussion, relative to those characters
lich might distinguish them, becomes ipso facto superfluous."
[t appears to me that, in M. d'EichthaUs argument, the dilemma
well put. Where, in fact, can be the utility of ethnolo^cal in-
iriea, if (say, in America) we set forth with an Anglicized Hebrew
ih — ^which has become metamorphosed, amongst Indo-European
lions, into traditionary credence as to fact — that all mankind
scend, in a straight line, from "a single pair"? Except as
bodox repellers of free investigation, the unity-raQn have really
place in ethnological science ; unless, with Alexander von Hum-
Idt, they use the term "unity" in a philosophical (or "parliamentr
r") sense, and not in the one currently understood by theologers.
PART I.
To ascertain the likelihood of the stability of such views, it will
convenient to classify the acceptations in which different authors
8 the term "Unity," as applicable to Mankind, into three eate-
ries, viz: —
A. — Unity as a theolo^cal dogma.
B. — Unity as a zoological fact
C. — Unity as a moral, or metaphysical, doctrine.
With regard to the first two (A and B), it is not often easy to
parate, into just proportions, the value attached to either by many
le writers, — so completely have they fused these two distinct ideas
bo one mass. The majority, setting forth with a preconceived
►tion (derived from an early education that they do not possess
e moral courage to analyze, still more rarely to shake off), that all
e races of men descend from a primordial male and female potr,
isnamed in English "Adam and Eve,"^ have, often unconsciously,
• HAuw Text, OtnttU II, 28. Here occur two distinct words, (of which ^e oontrMt if
ii ..
432 THE MONOGENISTS AND
perceived in nature nothing but the reflex of their own menta!
aasumption ; and, as a consequence, have seized only upon analogies
confirmatory of their own sentimental bias ; discarding altogether,
or leaving out of sight, those natural and historical &ct8 that nuli-
tate against it.
Foremost and highest, if not perhaps the earliest, among these,
stand two contemporaries, Blumenbach^ and Zimmermann; the
former of whom is justly acknowledged to be the founder of anthro-
pological science, as well as of cranioscopy. The latter may he
reckoned among the first who established correct principles of
animal geographical distribution.
It is not, however (as usually supposed), in his large Deeadei
Oranioruniy that Blumenbach gave free utterance to his opinions.
These are contained in sundry duodecimos, some of which have
passed through three improved editions. Those that I first read
belonged once to Cuvier, and were indicated to me by the accom-
plished Librarian of the Mti$ium d'HiBtoire NaturelUj my friend M.
Lemercier. The following extract sums up his argument upon
human " Unity," ^^ which he had previously formulated into a doc-
trine— " Unica saltern est totius generis humani Species.^* His opening
sentence sufficiently establishes the mental preoccupations I have
signalized above.
" Ardua quidem, sed cum ad vindicandam Saeri eodicis fidem^ toJ^
ob lucem quam universse generis humani imo et reliqute natuT^
historiae impertit, utilissima et dignissima disquisitio. Malitia (^'
dem, negligentia et novitatis studium posteriori opinion! favebat^
Plures erim humani generis species inde a Juliani Imperatoris te^
poribus {Opera^ p. 192) iis egregie arridebant [«.«., Symon Tyss
effaced in king James* version) for **man," yiz: A-BaM and AISA: whilst again the fern:
AISAaH, just formed out of **the-red-man'8" rib, does not receive the name of KAaiUi
(life) — vulgaricb KAaVaH, and still more volgarlj **£ve" in English — until Chap. Ill,
20. See some mythological analogies in T)fpe9 of Mankind, pp. 668, 578.
Yi With exquisite taste, mj friend, Mr. J. Barnard Davis, has resuscitated the
of the illustrious German, and, flanked on a medallion by that of his successor Dr. Morto^
it adorns that beautiful and trulj-scientifio work, Crania Britanniea, London, 1856;
first decade of which I owe to its author's kind regard. Appertaining properly to
ipSnalitSs of our collaborators Dr. Meigs and Prof. Leidy, I reft*ain from comments on
great book which, vindicating the rights of Anatomy to priority of respect in the study
mankind, will do good pervice in rescuing ethnology fW>m % too-exclusive reliance
Philology, — as understood, I mean to say, by Anglo-Oerman monogenists ; but not when, v««
in M. Maury's chapter I of this volume, it is shown how perfectly true philology attains t^
the same philosophical results as all other sciences bearing upon man.
^ Blumsndach, De Oeneris Humani varietaie nativa, Gottingss, 1781; pp. 81, 47, — tili^
being the 2d edition of a paper printed 5 years previously; and afterwards OQoMuM^
enlarged and altered in a 3d edition, GottingsB, 1795.
THE POLTGENISTS. 433
and Voltaire] quorum Sacri codicis fidem suspectam reddere intere-
st- Facilius porro erat (Ethiopes aut Americse imberbes incolas
primo statim intuitu pro diversis speciebus habere, quam in corporis
liumani structuram inquirere, anatomicos et itincrum nurneroBOS
^uctores consulere, horumque fidem aut levitatem studiose perpen-
d^ere, e naturalis historisB universo ambitu parallela conferre exempla,
i^umque demum judicium ferre varietatis caussas scrutari. Ita v. c.
':0amo8U8 ille Thkophrastus Paracelsus (lepidum caput !) primus ni
^Uor capere non potuit quomodo Amerieanf^ ut reliqui hominis ab
^damo genus ducere possunt, ideoque ut brevi se expediret negotio
4Jtuo9 Adamo% a Deo creatos statuit, Asiaticum alterum, altcrum
^^mericanum {De philoaoph. oceulen. I. J).**
Prom the profound " Theology of Nature" by my venerable friend
^fJL. Hercule Straus-Durckheim,'* whose long researches in compara-
-l^ive anatomy, at the Jardin des Plantes, vindicate Creative Power
^jrom vulgar anthropomorphous assimilations, I learn that: — "As
^^ncems zoology, it was natural that the first classifiers — among
-^hom LiNN^us, who is with reason considered the true founder of
lUJience, beyond all distinguished himself— were equally unable to
employ other than exterior characteristics ; and therefore, soon per-
ceiving that these data were insufficient, the successors of Linnaeus,
and of BuFFON, adhered to seeking the veritable principles of this
science in the study of the Anatomy, and of the Physiology of
saixnals, which alone could make them known. It is. thus that
Da^ubbnton, collaborator of Buffon, and Blumenbach, pupil of the
illixfitrious LiNN^us, were the first to cling to the study of these two
sciences, in order to make them the basis of Zoology; a study which
oxK'tr celebrated Cuvier afterwards brought to a very high degree of
pexrfection in his Legons d*Anatomie comparie: that work which
foxT3i8, since its publication in 1805, the fundamental basis, not
laorely of all works of Anatomy and comparative physiology that
have subsequently appeared, but likewise that of all treatises on
Zoology, properly so-called, which discuss the classification of
animals. * * * It was he (LiNNiBUs) who created nomenclature and
** It iB to a Jewish Rabbi, neyertheless, as might hare been expected, that orthodoxy
owes the best proofs of the colonization of America by lineal descendants of Adam and
Eve. In 1650, R. Menasseh printed his *<Spe8 Israelis," in which, following the monstrous
fables of MoNTBSiHi, he discovered true Indian Jews upon the Cordilleras ! (Basnagi,
•^•^ €md ReUg, of the Jewt, transl. Taylor; London, fol. 1708; pp. 470-87). The H^
brewvy howerer, have settled in many, parts of America since; ever preserving their dis*
tinctxiess from all races, white, negro, aboriginal Indian, or Sinico-mongol : the most
curioixs instance being cited by Davis (Crania Britannkaj p. 8, note) in the Israelitish
colony at Antioquia^ near Bogoti.
** ^MologU de la Nature^ Paris, 8vo, 8 vols, (ches Tautenr, Rne des Fosses-Saint- Victor,
14) 1862; III, pp. 247-^.
28
434 THE M0N06EKISTS AND
style in natural history, giving to each species two nunes; one,
more particularly substantive, forming its generic Name; and die
second, adjective^ indicating the SpecieSj and constituting its tpmfic
Name.** It becomes in consequence unnecessary, after this historical
sketch, for us to begin earlier than the lifetime of the Gottingen
philosopher.
To Blumenbach, however, the action of ^^ climate" was an ade-
quate explanation of the '^five varieties'* he distinguishes in man.
He believed that, "homines nigri subinde albescuntT' also, "et albi
e contra nigrescunt!"''^ At a later date, he fortified thbviewina
treatise entitled "TJeber die Negem insbesondre;'"" compiled chiefly
from English emancipation-sources, and sustaining the perfectibility
of negro races, with specimens of their poetry and literary works,
on the well-known system of the benevolent Abb6 Gr^goire.
Very similar are the opinions of Zimmermann,^ although advo-
cated far more from the naturalist than the theological point of
view. Whilst he struggles to indicate the narrow geographical d^
cumscription of the range of most mammifers, he attributes toefc-
matCy aliment, &c., such wondrous powers, that, according to him,
a hyenaj through transplantation, might, in some generations, become
turned into a wolf! Next applying these principles to man, Zim-
mermann attempts to show how color is changed by climate, heat
producing negroes and cold Esquimaux; cites the old traveller
Benjamin, of Tudela, for Jews turning black in Abyssinia;^ and
credits a story related by Caldanus, how once he saw, at Venice, a
negro who, brought there in childhood, had, in his old age, become
yellowish!'^ Thus: "The white man can become black, and the
» Op. eit, 2d ed., pp. 56, 69, 72:— 8d ed., p. 51 seq.
T6 Blumknbaoh, Beytrdge 2ur NaturgetehichUy Gottingen, 12mo, in two parts, 180C, 1811;
pp. 78-07.
TT Specimen Zoologice Oeographiecd quadrupedum domidUa et fnigraHoruM, 4to, Lngdmii Bft^
Torum, 1777; of which I use the French translation — **ZooIogie G^graphique, 1' artid^
L' Homme," Cassel, 8to, 1784; pp. 44, 131, 186, 189-90.
^ See, on the Falashaty ** Types of Mankind," pp. 122-8. That these people are mer^
African aborigines, converted to a pseado-Judaism, maj now be yerified throogh tb«if
portraits (Cf. Lefkbyrb, Voyage en Abyetinie, 1839-48 ; Atlas fol.— •« UmiTB, femme Fei*-
oha, ag^e de 40 ans" — whose raoe is identical with those of many other non-Jewish natioB*
figured in the same excellent work). Besides, Renan has abolished any imagined philol'*'
gical connection, in the clause, that the speech of these Faldeydn *«n*a riea de sWHqs'
{Hut. dee Langues ShniOquet, pp. 811-2). Compare, also, AsTom d'Abbadib, Letter <*
M. Jomard, on the ''Falaeha, Juifs d'Abyssinie (8 Not. 1844): Ce type ezitte dies lee Ag»^
de VAtala et du Simen, et chex les Sidama. II nous est impossible de le rameaer aa t^
luif. La langue des Falacha est la mdme que oelle qui vient de s'^tebidre daat le DenbT**
Bulletin de l-a Soc. de Oiographie, Paris, Juillet, 1845; pp. 44, 72,
^ What was believed last century on these subjeets, eyen by pbyiiduHi, May be eetD ^
a small work I possess — ** Traits de la couleor de la p^tm kummm «ii flMnl, dt eeDe dtf
THE POLYGENISTS. , 435
black on the contraiy white, and this change is again carried on
through the different degrees of heat and cold'* — his conclusion
being that "man, possessing himself thus little by little of all cli-
mates, becomes, through their influence, here a Georgian, there a
negro, elsewhere an Eskimau !"
Next in order should follow Lawrence, could one readily seize
(through the variations of theory manifest in different editions of
his work) what are the real stand-points of genius so versatile. He
has the Protean faculty of saying one thing and believing another,
interchangeably ; and may be quoted either on the unity or diversity
ii^gr«0 «n particulier, et de la mStamorphote d'ane de ces oouloon dans Tautre, soit de nais-
lanee, soit accidentellement," bj M. Ls Cat, Doctor, &o., Amsterdam, Byo, 1765. No
pbjsiologist, howeTer, disputes that disease will, more or less temporarily, change the color
of the skin. There are albino negroee as well as white elephants, raccoons, deer, or mice.
On these points, by far the most powerful argument is the late Dr. Charles Caldwell's anni-
hilating rcTiew of an ** Essay on the causes of the yariety of complexion and figure in the
human species; by the Rev. Br. S. S. Smith, of Princeton Coll., N. J., 1810" — published,
in four admirable articles, in the Philadelphia "Portfolio," Sro, 1814; yoL iy., 8d series.
Bee partioalarly, pp. 26-81, 26^-271, '*the case of Henry Moss."
Without pretending to enter into discussions in which none but physiologists are entitled
to respectful attention, let me refer those desirous of enlightenment to the great work of
Dft. Pbospkr Lucas {TraitS philotophique et phytiologique de Vhiriditi naturelUf Paris, 1847,
2 Yols. 8yo) for eyery example, throughout the range of animate nature, bearing upon the
kwB of ^^InniiU and HiridiU in the procreation of the rital mechanism."
The most recent, no less than the most brilliant, American writer of the day on *< Human
Physiology, statical and dynamical" (New York, 1856, pp. 665-580), seems to me still to
lay too much stress upon the tuppoeed action of ** climate" on the coloration of the human
skin; and inasmuch as Db. Drapxr'b cTer-scientific language has giyen rise to pitifiil
absunUtiee like those put forth in an article appropriately entiUed ** The Cooking of Men"
(Harper'e Magazine^ Oct, 1856), it may be well to counterbalance such exaggerations of his
lugh authority by the following paragraph of a physiologist certainly not less eminent. De.
Saul. Oso. Mobton says (lUutlrated Sgttem of Human Anatomy^ Special, General, and
Mkroeeopie, Philadelphia, 1849, p. 151): <*It is a common opinion, that climate alone is
capable of producing all those diyersities of complexion so remarkable in the human races.
A Tery few facts may suffice to show that such cannot be the case. Thus, the negroes of
Tan Diemen's Land, who are among the blackest people on the earth, Utc in a climate as
eold as that of Ireland; while the Indo-Chinese nations, who IItc in tropical Asia, are of a
brown and oUto complexion. It is remarked, by Humboldt, that the American tribes of
the equinoctial region hare no darker skin than the mountaineers of the Temperate Zone.
So alao the Puelchte of the Magellanic plains, beyond the fifty-fifth degree of south lati-
tude, are absolutely darker than Abipones, Tobas, and other tribes, who are many degrees
nearer the equator. Again, the Charruas, who inhabit south of the Rio de la Plata, are
almost black, whilst the Guaycas, under the line, are among the fairest of the American
tribes. Finally, not to multiply examples, those nations of the Caucasian race which haTS
beeoiae inhabitants of the Torrid Zone, in both hemispheres, although their descendants
baye been for centuries, and in Africa for many centuries, exposed to the most actiTS
influences of climate, haye neTer, in a solitary instance, exhibited the transformation fh>m
the Caucasian to a negro complexion. They become darker, it is true ; but there is a point
at whitAk the change is arrested. Climate modifies the human complexion, but is far fhim
being the cause of it"
436 THE MONOGENISTS AND
side, accordingly as we stumble upon a given edition of his learaea
and useful book. In the one before me,^ I find this conclosion:
" 5thly. That the human species, therefore, like that of the cow,
sheep, horse, and pig, is single; and that all the differences which it
exhibits, are to be regarded merely as varieties." Alas ! I fear fhat
if the unity of mankind cannot be sustained upon better zoological
or analogical grounds than this supposed singleness of tpeeiei of
cows, sheep, horses, or even pigs, there are but few naturalists, at
the present day, who do not take an opposite view.
A long list of minor writers on man, exclusive of numerous
theological dilettanti — of less importance than the Abb6 Frfere" or
the Abb6 Migne® — ^might here be introduced, before reaching Eusebe
de Salles® at Marseilles, Hollard^ of Qeneva, or Ward" in London
— all of whom, setting out with preconceived determination to vin-
dicate the parental claims of "Adam and Eve," enter ipso facto
into the category above distinguished by the letter A.
The whole of these authors, great or small, merge into PrichakPi
— ^whose profound bibliographical knowledge and unsurpassed it^'
dustry constitute at once the alpha and omega of all that may surviv'^
the criticism of advancing science, in the above-named books. X^
our "Types of Mankind," what my collaborator. Dr. Nott, w^
myself deemed to be this revered ethnographer's iallacies, h^^
already been pointed out. By omitting to bestow adequate consid^^
ration on "pennanence of tj^e," when all materials were within hr"
reach. Dr. Prichard exposed the vital error of his system, leaving U
Dr. Morton the honors of the field. I have no wish to disturb tb
ashes of departed greatness, except to consecrate those of both mei
in funereal urns of equal grandeur. Mr. Edwin Norris's new anc^^^
beautiful edition^ is embellished, and in philology usefully extended,^ "^
by this learned gentleman's notes. The ending sentence, on the^^^^
final page, discloses the only ultimatum of Prichard's doctrine that
now concerns us. It seems like the last vestige of dogmatical bias
^ Lteturet on Physiolot/y, Zoology j and tKe Natural Hittory of Man; 1 toI. Sto, London,
1819; compare p. 501 with 648.
^ Prineipes de la PhUotophie de VHittoire^ Paris, 1888; pp. 78-89: — nnd VHomm» eonm
par la RivSlation, Paris, 1838; II, pp. 195, 206-221.
» Dietionnaire de V Ethnographie modeme, 4to, doable eohimn, Paris, 1858, pip. 1027 f Its
onlj merit consists in the republication, by way of introdnotory, of D'OMAum d'Hallot*s
excellent ^Umente d^ Ethnographie,
" HitU Qin. des Racet ffumaineit on PkUotopku Etknographique, Paris. 12mo^ 1819; pp.
295-99.
M De r Homme et dee Raeet ffumainet, Paris, 12mo, 1858 ; last pagt.
* The Natural Hittory of Mankind^ London, 12mo, 1849; p. 7, fto.
« Prichard, Natural Hittory of Man, edited by Edwin Norris, Esq., LondoB, Bafllttn^ S
Tols. 8vo, 1854; II, p. 714.
THE POLYGENISTS. 437
^liich its upright penman did not live to modify or efface : "We are
tntitled to draw confidently the conclasion that all human races are
)f one species and one fiimily."
Not in any sense derived from theological formularies, however,
loos Alexander von Humboldt understand the term "unity" as
classified under our letter A. No such idea can be found through-
out the eleven pages of Cosmos devoted to the "human species " as a
component part of nature. On the contrary, in the paragraph that
leads this essay {ubi supra\ Humboldt expressly repudiates mythsy
fiction^ and pretended tradition. Let us inquire whether the Baron's
lefinition of this word should find a place with letter B.
To a certain extent it niust ; because the phrase " unity of the
mman species^' preceding and following the declaration of the great
)hysiologist John Miiller, viz: that^' human races are the forms of
in unique species," ^ necessarily implies connection with the termi-
lology of Natural History. Such, I find, is the sense in which the
Baron's learned countryman. Dr. Zeune, understands the same pas-
lage — "The expression, 'unity of the human race,* has been vari-
)usly misunderetood, and referred to the so-called unity, or descent
rom a single human pair. But the honored author did not mean
he world-historical unity, but the natural-historical unity ; that is,
he prolific perpetuation of the different human races, so that their
lybrids can again cohabit fruitfully with each other ; and not like
dlied genera [groups], such as the horse and ass, wolf and dog, pro-
luce sterile hybrids, like mules [cavaline-asses] and wolf-dog Qu-
)ine-houud], which can only propagate themselves through the parent
itock." He remarks, besides, " To draw the origin of the different
luman races from one single man is absurd and impossible. These
•aces exist independently one from another since the oldest times.
IVTiich was the most ancient it is impossible to say."" 80 also, still
nore recently, does Owen,^ whose anatomical authority is to none
nferior, conclude that — "Man is the sole species of his genus, the
jole representative of his order;" — almost the words of Blumenbach,
Kjhoed by eminent naturalists for three consecutive generations;
specially by those who with Cuvier,* De Blainville,®^ Gervais,^ and
^ Coamoty Fr. ed., i. p. 425; and infra.
* Uber SchadeJhildung zur fntern Btgrundung der Menckenrasten, Berlin, 1846.
* Newspaper report of Lecture on Anihropoidct before the British Auoeiation for the Ad-
faneement of Science; session of 1864.
** Griffith's transl., I, London, p. 129.
•* OeUographiCy if/rwimi/^rw. Primates ; 4to., 1841.
** Troii rlgnet de la Nature, IlitU Nat, dee Mammifhretf 4to., PoriSi 1854; Ire. partie, pp.
438 THE MONOGENISTS AND
Chenu," have discussed more recently the points of resemblance, or \yf,
of disparity, existing between the Bimanes and the Quadrumanei.
Their united results will be passed under review in the second divi-
sion of our essay.
Nevertheless, Morton^ and Agassiz* — accounted by celebrated
naturalists, anatomists, cranioscopists, paleeontologists, and ethnogra
phers, to possess a weighty voice in the premises, have not been able
to reconcile the term " species," as applied customarily (and as I
think, too loosely) to mankind, with the rigorous use of this word in
more broadly-marked departments of Natural History.
Dr. Meigs's, Prof. Leidy's, Dr. Nott's, contributions to the present
volume cover the ground of debate on a point which, in its bearings
upon mankind, each writer has studied as profoundly as any ethno-
logist living. For my individual part, I follow my master in arch»-
ology, Letronno ; who, in 1845, commenced his first lesson to our
crowded Egyptian class, at Paris, with the sentence — "Messieurs I
avant tout, commengons par nous entendre sur des termes:'* becauee,
until the precise limit of the designation " species " becomes siiBO'
lutely defined, or even conventionally agreed upon, it might, pe*^
haps, be prudent to suspend its further obtrusion into Anthropologff'^
A naturalist of repute has remarked — " The Germans themselve^^
whose terminology did possess the fault of being so vague, no'
aspire to exactitude of language. This does not mean to say thi
the definitions of naturalists have an absolute value, that is not
sible in human sciences; but they have at least a precise valu^^'
Everybody [?] now-a-days knows what is understood by the word^-- *
species^ race, and variety.
" It is certain that, in scientific discussions of which man has beer::::^^^
the object, the words genus, species, race, and variety, have been ioC^^^
often confounded. Nevertheless, the meaning of these words is no^
perfectly determined, and it suflSces, to avoid all error, to stick t<
the definitions laid down by naturalists. Thus, one generally undei
stands by species, an assemblage of beings which descend, or may b<
regarded as descending, from common parentage [that is, first a rul<
is made absolute, h priori, and then all the difierent types of men ai
made to fit into it !] The union of many species, possessing between — ^
each other multiplied affinities, forms a genus. The words race and -
variety both indicate a variation of the type of the species, of which,
w Encyclopidie d'Uistoire Naturelle, Paris, 1852? vol. i, " Qamdramanet, pp. 1-21: pro— -
bably among the most copious as well as the fairest analyzers of these queetioiis.
^ Typet of Mankinds pp. 81, 875, and elsewhere, cites Dr. Morton's writings.
^ Op. cU., p. IxxIt, Prof. Agassiz's definitions. See also the Profemor's freth oontribtt-
tion, ante.
i
C(
THE POLTGENISTS. 439
sxioreover, they are derivatives. But the word variety is not appli-
o^ble save to individaals : the word race is an assemblage of indivi-
duals descending from the same species and transmitting to each
cottier determinate characters.
** The difference between species and race is, therefore, that the first
^>OBae8ses something fixed, something independent of accidental and
"^'aiiable conditions of the {milieu amhiant) fluctuating centre. The
second, on the contrary, presents ordinarily the result of this {action
tnilieu) central action^ and in consequence is essentially variable.
Conformably to these definitions, all mankind constitute but a
jingle 9peeieSy although there are among them some different races ;
^ut these races can all be brought back to one and the same primi-
-fcive type."" This explanation I deny in toto.
M. Paul de R6musat, in ethnological studies no tyro, after stating
"t)oth sides with fairness, and then concluding for his part that
^* unity" is impossible,*^ fi'ankly inquires — "What, then, is this spe-
^fie character ? Can one give to species a clear and precise defeii-
-f^ou ? Do there even necessarily exist ' species,* as our minds are
-prone to suppose ? * * * whilst (forsooth) we cannot come to a com-
xnon understanding, either upon the meaning of the word * species,'
xior determine a sign, real and invariable, of distinction between the
different classes called by this name" ! Another of those clear-
-Tited naturalists, trained at the Jardin des Plantes, whose special
it seems to pierce through mystifications, started, ten years ago,
.^ries of difficulties about "species" which none but thorough-bred
»-t;uralist8 (not the mere theological dilettante) are competent to
alyze or remove : nor will outsiders like myself fail to be enlight-
erx^d, as well as amused, by whatever is scored by the steel-tipped
p^xi of M. Gerard.* Again, Prof. Joseph Leidy,^ rejecting previous
do"finitions, observes that — "A species is a mere convenient word
-v^rith which naturalists empirically designate groups of organized
"beings possessing characters of comparative constancy, as far as his-
tarie experience [precisely the criteria demanded (ubi supra) by Job.
Miiller, and which both the Humboldts acknowledge to be, with
respect to human origines, a powerless implement] has guided them in
giving due weight to such constancy. According to this definition,"
Prof. Leidy continues, " the races of men are evidently distinct species."
* M. DB QuATRBFAOKS, at the stance du 9 JuiUetj 1847, of the Soci^t^ Ethnologique de
Paris {Bulletin, Tome i., 1847 ; p^. 237).
•* •* Des Races Humaines" — Revue des Deux Mondet, 15 Mai, 1854, pp. 788-804.
" 1I>'0rbiont, DicUonnaire Univ. d'Biatoire Naiurelle, Paris, 1844, toI. V, eub voce "Es-
I*ce,**pp. 488-62.
•• Nott's Appendix B. to The Moral and Intellectval Diversity of Races, &c., from the
Fretkcli of De Gobineau, by H. Hotz, Philada., 12mo., 1856 ; pp. 480-1.
440 THE MONOGEKISTS AND
And finally, Alfred Maury, no raw recruit even in the physical
sciences, the analysis of which preceded his present high 9tatui in the
archaeological and ethnographic — ^reviewing HoTz's De Gobineauy and
Pott's Ungleichheit wienwAKcAer iZaMcn,^"' critically observes — "The
constitution of the human mind is one, without doubt; but what sig-
nifies the mental unity of humanity, if, in its application, men treat
each otlier as members of inimical or rival families, — ^if the force of
things always condemns the ones to fall beneath the domination of
the others, and to extinguish themselves in their arms ? To dispute
about knowing whether races constitute different * species,* or merely
* varieties,' is to put forth school-divinity and not science. That which
is necessary is, to measure the extent of separations, and hence a8ce^
tain the proportions of those inequalities that none can deny. The
name which one may give to human races will not affect the thing
itself, nor in any way alter the reality."
** Varius Sucbonsnsis ait, JEmilius Scaubus neg^t : ntri creditis, qnirites ?*" ^
In the face of such objections, before an archseolo^st can subscribe
unconditionally to the " uniti/ of the human * species,' " he ought to
wait until some revelation enables those who use this apothegm to
show that they really comprehend the signification of a term logically
inherent in their proposition. That is to say, — adopting here Ae
• forcible if trite aphorism of a scientific colleague — ^in plain English
and without diplomatic circumlocution, when dictionaries furnish me
with as precise a meaning for the term *' species " as I can discover
for such words as beefy ormtitton^^^ it will be time enough for acceptr
iuff its alleged corollary, viz : the "unity *' of sanguineous, or cong^
nitiil, descent for all the diverse groups of men — now distinct ^^
colors, in conformations, in languages, in geographical habitats^ ^^
historical traditions, and in all their other countless moral, intell^^
tual, and physical phenomena — from a mythic "Adam and Eve*
" At the very onset we are met by the question, What is a spect^^
and sides will be taken according to the answer each one is ready
adopt. The definition of a species does not necessarily inclir \
descent from a single pair, because the first male [AISA] and t ^
first female [AISAaH] would, by the definition, be of different sp^
cies," — acutely remarks Prof. Haldkman.^^
In that whereon everybody, whether competent to decide or nC^
volunteers an " opinion,'* typographical facilities eoBteris parib^
!» Athenceum Frangau, Paris, 19 Avril, 1866; p. 828.
wi Bkntlky, Phaiarut ed. 1836 ; i., p. xii. ; from Vol. Max, iii. 7.
i« ♦* Z« mot fit peut'tlre unpeu f^roce; maitj tacre bUu^ U ett tincirtl" ^tm pBJfonx «X*
iD »* Rich© d' Amour."
^ Jitcent Frethwattr MoUutea (rapra) pp. 8-4.
THE POLTGENISTS. 441
enable me to do the same ; and mine, on this mystified term* ^^ spe-
cies," as applicable to the gentis homo alone, will, like that of other
men, pass for what it may be worth : the critic always remembering
that a definition is precise in the ratio of the fewness of its words.
I submit to fellow-archfleologists —
Species; that which, through conjunction with itself, always,
according to experience, reproduces itself.
Thus, by way of example, the union of a negro with a negress
produces a negro ; that of an American Indian with a squaw produces
an Indian ; that of a Jew (circumcision, in- or ex- elusive) with a
Jewess produces a Jew ; that of a Saxon male with a Saxon female
produces a Saxon ; and so forth, invariably, throughout all the fami-
lies of men. In any case where the offipring of each chances not
to be identical, in its race-character, with the supposed parents, such
deviation can occur only where either parent is not of pure blood ;
and proves, ipso facto, that the ancestral pedigrees of one or the other
procreator must, within the limit of about three to seven (or more)
preceding generations, have been crossed by a foreign stock.
Indeed, I do not see why the first definition of Prichard doe's not
circumscribe all the above examples. It is that given in the second
edition,^®* 182d, of his erudite works; which difters, not merely
through the entire absence of this lucid rule in the j?r«^,^^ 1813 ; but
also essentially from the one laid down at a later period, 1837, in
the third.^^ Prichard's capacious mind, like that of all conscientious
inquirers, was progressive ; and those who really know the various
editions of his "Researches," cannot fail to admire how quickly he
dropped one hypothesis after another, until his last volume closes
with a complete abandonment of the unity of Genesis itself. '^^ It
is probable that his biographer. Dr. Cull, is as little acquainted with
these bibliophile discrepancies, as with ethnological criticism gene-
rally— Hebrew palaeography inclusive.^°® Prichard printed in a. d.
1826 :
" The meaning attached to the term Species [almost identical with
^^ Saearchet into the Phytical Hialory of Man, London, 2d edition, Syo, 1826; toI. I,
pp. 90-1.
i*> Op. cit., Ist edition, London, 8to, 1818 — nothing of the kind!
i*> Op, cU.y 8d edition, London, 8to, 1837; vol. II, p. 106: — cited at length in ** Types
of Mankind," p. 80.
^ Phytieal History of Mankind, 8yo, London, 1847; vol. V, pp. 660-66.
>** NoRBis's edition of Prichard's Natural Hittory of Man; London, Bailli^re, 1864;
▼oL I, pp. xxi-ix: — "Short biographical Notice," by Richard Cull, Esq., "Honorary
Secretary." How correctly he reads English, may be inferred from his critique of Agassix*s
paper {Addnu to the Ethnological Society of London^ May, 1864; London, 8vo, pp. 12-18.);
vhere he anbstitates "6. The Hottentot realm," (p. 8) for " Hottentot /auna" (compan
** Types of Mankind," p. IxxTii).
442 THE K0N06ENISTS AND
LacordiI:re*s in his Untomohgie], in natural history, is veiy 8!!nple
and obvious. It includes only one circumstance, namely, an original
distinctiveness and constant transmission of any character. A race
of animals, or plants, marked by any peculiarity of structure, which
have always been constant and undeviating, constitutes a tpeetei;
and two races are considered as specifically different, if they are
distinguished from each other by some peculiarities, which one
cannot be supposed to have acquired, or the other to have lost,
through any known operation of physical causes : for we are led to
conclude, that the tribe thus distinguished cannot have sprung from
the same original stock." It need hardly be repeated that the
learned ethnographer endeavors to show the inapplicability, owing
to deviations, of 'this law to Man. My studies lead me to the oppo-
site opinion, exemplified in the instances above enumerated.
Such simple principles are notorious to dog-&nciers, cattle-
breeders, or poultry-men ; and are practised by them with unerring
pecuniary success, in the rearing of animals, quadruped or biped.
It is but a superstition that imagines mankind not to be bound by
the same natural law.
Under this self-evident rule, some scholastic confusion of ideas
may be disposed of through a few interrogatories. If, by " species"
are meant beings of the same (equally -conventional word) genvkt^
whose sexual union produces offspring, mankind fell into that class
unquestionably; with dogs, sheep, goats, and other mammals sua-
ceptible of domestication ;^°® but what living naturalist, of repute, ^^
this year 1857, any longer classifies all the canes, all the oves, or 0^
the caprae, each into a single "species?** If hybridity, in any ^^
its various and as yet unsettled degrees, be considered a test ^"^
"species** — i. e. the production of progeny more or less unprolii
inter se — then, in Australia,"® a native female of the aborigin^^
stock ceases, after cohabitation with an English colonist, to prC^
create upon reunion with a male autochthon of her own race-^
— then, in Van Diemen*s Land, before the deportation of its fe^
(only 210) remaining aborigines, in 1835, to Flinder*s Island, BassV
Straits,"^ even a convict population of athletic and unscrupulous
English males failed, in their intercourse with Tasmanian females^-*
1" Morton, Hybridity in AnimaU and PlanU, New Uaveii, 1847 ; p. 28. — The ^gagn if
howeyer, reputed to be the father of all goats ; the moujUm^ that of all sheep ; the Nepaales^
buamu (eanit primcevui) that of all dogs ; just as Adam that of aO mankind ; according tc^
Marcel de Serres ( Connoganie de Motae, I, pp. 807-22).
^^^ Strzelecki. PhyHcal description of New South Wale* and Van Diemen** Ltmd, Londoa^^
Syo, 1846; pp. 346-7:— Jacquinot, Zoohgie, U, p. 109: — Kkox, Baeet, p. 190.
1" QuoT et Gaimard, Voy. de V Astrolabe, 1826-9; Zoolo^ie, Paris, 8to, 1880; I,
46 :— D'Omalius d'Halloy, Dea Races Humamtt, 1846; p. 186.
THE POLYOENISTS. 443
lot merely to produce ah intermediate raee^ but to leave more than
»iie or two adult specimens of their repugnant unions ; nor are there
eports either of hybrids^ resulting from the mixture of Europeans
nth the Andamanes of the bay of Bengal: — ^then, in the ultra-tropi-
al parts of America, as well as in its southern or tropical States,
aulattoes, produced by intercourse between exotic Europeans of
he white race, with equally-exotic Afiican females of the black, die
►ut, unless recrossed by one or other of the parental stocks, in three
>r four generations:^" — then, in Egypt, the Memlooks, or "Qhuz,"
originally male slaves'^ of the Uzbek, Ouigour and Mongol races,
ind afterwards kept up by incessant importations of European,
Turkish, Circassian, and other white boys (intermixed with negro
slaves), were not only unable to rear half-caste children to recruit
their squadrons; — but, whilst their blood-stains are scarcely yet
obliterated on the battlements of the Cairine-Citadel since their
slaughter in 1811, not a trace survives of their promiscuous philo-
gamy among the Felldh population of the Nile : — then, in Algeria,
the Moorish {Maurt)^ or Mauresque"* inhabitants of seaboard cities,
[in a climate which, except in depressed agricultural localities (where
the Moor8 do not reside), is like that of southern Spain] unstrength-
ened (as of yore in the piratical days when Christian captives of all
shades, and negro prisoners of every hue, thronged their slave-
bazaars) by the perpetual influx of new and vigorous blood, — are
dying off at a fearful rate^" through the inexorable laws of hybridity ;
at the same time that, after twenty-five years of experimental agri-
■^-^1 111! I
*" NoTT, Natural Hitt. of the Caucasian and Negro Racet, Mobile, 1844; pp. 16-7, 19,
8, 80-6 i—BibUeal and Phyeical Hist, of Man; New York, 1849; pp. 30-47.
u* Klapboth, Tableaux de PAsie, Paris, 1826, pp. 121-2. Ebn Khalidoon, Uistoire deB
^b^es et des Dynasties Musulmanes de VAfrique Septentrionale, Transl. de Slane, Alger,
^1, II« p. 49 — and Note from QuATBEMfeBE {Mim, sur FEggpte, II, p. 866).
u« Ca&btte, Exploration Scientifique de VAlgirie, 1840-2, Paris, 1858; III, pp. 806-10,
»r intermixtare of Races, &c. Pascal-Dupbat, Essai Historigue sur les Races anciennes et
odemet de VAfrique Septentrionale, Paris, 1845; pp. 217, 240-64: — ^but the best definition
f tbe Taried inhabitants of that part of Barbary may be seen in Rozet ( Voyage dans la
*^ge9sce d'Algtr^ Paris, 1888), who, among the ** sept yari^t^s d*hommes bien distinotes les
nes des autres ; les Berbhres, les MaureSy les nigres^ les Arabes^ les 7\ires et les KoulougUs^**
learly strikes out the mixed populace of Maures (Moors): and proves, as well their hj-
Tidity, as the misconcep^ons (Shakspeare's Othello to wit) prevalent about their name
^ Moor" (II, pp. 1-8, 51-2). On the opposite side, consult Bebthebahd, Midecine et
Wygihte des Arabes^ Paris, 1855; pp. 174, 556.
uft BouDiN, Uistoire Statistique de la colonisation et de la Population en AlgMe^ Paris, 1858 ;
pp. 5, 21, 80: — See also Knox {Races of Men^ pp. 197-210), who acknowledges that he
leriTes bis Information from a former publication of the highest authority in these ques-
tions, my honored friend, M. le Dr. Boudin, M^decin en Chef de THdpital Militaire du
Ronle, Paris {Lettres sur VAlgirie, 1848). I await with great expectations, having seen
BQime of its proof-sheets at Paris, Dr. Boudin's Traiti de Statistique et de O^ographie m^dieaUi
^now ** sous presse chex Bailli^re*'), for complete establishment of all these positions.
444 THE M0N06ENISTS AND
culture, civil, military, and convict, throfigli -which myriads of
colonists have perished, it has hecome a settled fact in the Imperial
administration that, as tillers of the soil, Frenchmen can nevCT
colonize Barbary ; "® [like the English in Hindosttln, the Dutch in
Malayana, the Spaniards in South America, and the Portuguese in
Africa, France must employ native labor — that of the indigenous
" adscripti glebse," viz., the Berber race, or its exotic congener the
Arab] : — and then, finally, not to burthen the page with illustrations
,that every country in the world can supply, if history, which means
experience (the only test recognized by Miiller, Leidy, and by archae-
ology), be taken as a criterion, we have yet to learn whether tbe
greatest nations have not developed themselves through the union
of proximate "species," and the most deplorable arisen through
that of remote ones.
To explain my conception, two references will at present suffice:
first, to our last publication,"^ for Dr. Nott's definition of ethnic sub-
divisions of ' species ;* and next, to the work of our learned friend
Count A. de Gobineau ; "^ from whom — however I may difter in trifles
relating to his fundamental theory of the Arian origin of all civili-
zation, or to his classifications of Xth Genesis — ethnology, in his three
chapters on the Romans, derives one of the most masterly elucidsr
tions ever penned by any historian. Nor is this eulogium merely ft
prejudice of ray own ; three of the best-informed and critical scholar
of England, to whom I lent M. de Gobineau's volumes, coinciding
entirely in such hearty acknowledgment. The following specim^^
will be new to the general reader : —
" But there appeared once, in the history of decaying peoples^ *
man strenuously indignant at the debasement of his nation ; di*
cerning with eagle eye, through the mists of false prosperity, tJ-^
abyss toward which a general demoralization was dragging the coi^
monwealth ; and who, master of all the means for action, — birt^
riches, talents, personal standing, high appointments — found hiiiT^
self, at the same time, robust in sanguinary nature, and determine^
not to shrink from the use of any resource. This surgeon — thJ
butcher, if you please — ^this august scoundrel, if you like it bette
this Titan — showed himself in Rome at the moment when the
public, drunk with crimes, with dominion, and with triumpha.
"•Desjobert, VAlgSrie, 1847; pp. 5-8, 23-29:— Id. Ditcoun in the Assembl^e X»-
tionale L^gislatiye, Session de 1850, pp. 8-18: — Id., DoeumenU StatUiiquea tur fAl^inti
1851, pp. 3-5. Br. Nott hiis enlarged upon these new facts in his Chap. IV, anU,
"T Tt/pes of Mankind, pp. 81, 407-10.
u> Etsai tur VIn4galU6 det Eaces ffumamea, 1855; III, Chap. Y, VI, VII; 6q>ecial]j pf
274-7.
THE POLTGENISTS,
445
exhaustion, gnawed by the leprosy of every vice, was rolling itself
over and over towards an abyss. He was Lucius Cornelius
Sylla, * * *
"At the end of a long career, after efforts of which the measure
of intensity is the violence accumulated, Sylla, despairing of the
future — melancholy, worn out, discouraged — abdicated of his own
accord tbe dictator's hatchet; and, resigning himself to live unoccu-
pied in the midst of that patrician or plebeian populace which still
shuddered at sight of him, he proved, at least, that he was not a mere
vulgar and ambitious politician; and that, having recognized the
inanity of his hopes, he cared not to preserve a sterile power. * * ♦
" There really existed no chance of his success. The populace he
wished to bring back to the manners and discipline of the olden time,
resembled in nothing that republican people who had practised them.
To convince oneself, it suffices to compare the ethnic elements of the
days of Cincinnatus [b. c. 460] with those existing at the epoch when
the great dictator lived [b. c. 138-81].
TiMi Of CuroimrATUB.
Tim Of Stlla.
t[
51
Sabhtetj In mtiioti^ ;
aahinet.
l«t Intermixed minority
of white And yellow
[dark]
2d. Very fteble Semitte im-
migntion.
s
s
1^
ItaXiotSj crossed with
Hellenic blood.
naUaU,
G^ieeJkf of Magna G raeda,
and from Sicily;
HeUenigtt of Asia;
iStoiMletof Asia;
ShemiUt of Africa;
Shtmita of Spain.
Iflt MiOority Semitl-
oiied;
2d. Minority Arian:
3d. Extreme snbdirl-
slon of the yellow
[dark] prindple."
Tt is impossible to bring back into the same frame-work two
^tions which, under the same name, resemble each other so little,"
^:ry correctly observes M. de Qobineau : and I will only add that,
'^l^en ethnologists apply this excellent method of analysis to every
^tion, — especially to these United States of America — they will
fc>tain practical results undreamed of by literary historians, who,
^lieving in the " Unity of the human Species^' have neither any
l^a of these amalgamations of distinct races, nor of their natural,
^d therefore inevitable, consequences for good or evil.
^gain reverting to our questions as to the word " species," after
t^^pping away sophistries that encumber such vague term, let me
^Ic, — does any one pretend, when races are called by their intelli-
gible names, that carnal intercourse between an Eskimo and a Ne-
i^'^eas ever originated what we understand by a Cheeky — ^between a
^ane and a Dyak, an Arab^ — ^between a Tungousian and an Israelite,
446 THE K0N06ENISTS AKD
a New ZealandeTy— or between a Botocndo and a TasmaniaDi a MmiU
ehou Tartar y a Lapp, a BechananOf or perchance a Kelt f In eveiy
one of these imaginary, and, anciently, geographically-impoefflble
unions, each fecund act of coition could produce but a <^ half-breed*/*
intermediate, that is, between any two races. One feels ashamed,
now that transformation of one ^^ species " of animal into another
through the exploded power of metamorphosis, in former days of
ignorance attributed to climate^ is rejected, as contrary to experience,
by all living naturalists (even the theological)— -one really blushes to
descend to such common-place methods of illustration ; but the neces-
sity is imperious in view of the amount of perversion and medueTal
credulity still passing currently as regards the study of Man.
Ajid when Blumsnbach^^ and Ism, Geoffboy St. Hilaike,^ Bra-
DACH*'^ and Lucas,''' BfeARn'" and Girou be Buzareingues,"*
'Walker''* and Chbvrbuil,'* Plourens**' and Morton,"" Vogt*
and Priaulx,^ pile up instances (among mammifera alone),
whereby the so-called law% of "species," and often too of "genera,"
are set at naught by contradictory fiax^ts, is it not folly in ethnologists
to go on wasting tlieir time about the encyclopaedic tneaning of an
Anglicized foreign bisyllabie, which every true naturalist of the pre-
sent day is forced to qualify vdth explanatory adjectives, according
to his individual acceptation of its sense ? Voltaire pithily remarto
— " Ce qu'on pent expliquer de vingt maniferes diff6rentes ne merite
d'etre expliqu6 d'aucune:" — and for myself I have long ago dis-
canlod its use in ethnography, — substituting " Type " when I intend
to designate men whose physical appearance stands in strongest con-
tmst to that of others {ex, gr. Swedes and Negritos, Chaymas a^^^
Georgians, Kourilians and Mandaras, Taitians and Yakuts); ^^
" Race " where the distinction is not so strongly characterized C^
between Italians and Greeks, Jews and Arabs, Malgaches and Ai^
1^* De Oeneru Humani varieiate nattva, 1781 ; pp. 7-11.
>» Hittoirt giniraU et partieuUh'e det Anomaiii$ de V Orgam$aticm, Paris, 1882 ; i. pp. 221-^^
>tt TraiU d€ Phynologu, trad. Jourdan, Paris; 2d toL 1888, pp. 182^5, 261-70.
>» Traiti phUowphique et phytiologique de FHMdiiS NatureUe, Paris, 1847; i. pp. 198-29^
li. pp. 177-829.
^ Court de Phytiologie, Paris, 1860-55.
><« De la 04niration, Paris, 8to., 1828; pp. 124-182, 807-a
>*s On Intermarriage, London, 8to. 1888 ; — and Phytiognomy founded on PkyrioUgy, 188 '
II* Journal dee SavanU, Join, 1846; p. 857.
>^ De la LongiviU ffumame^ Paris, 1855; pp. 106-161.
>** NoTT, in Types of Mankind, chap. zii. and p. 724, notes, cites all important papen (^
Dr. Morton.
^^ Cabl Voot, JBohlerglaube und Witeeneehafl, THessen, 1855; pp. 59-67.
<M Osmond db Beauvoib Pbiaulz, Quceetionm Mo$aicmt London, 1842 — on "tevediBg i^
and in,'' pp. 471-88.
THE POLYGENISTS. 447
lays) ; ^ but in no case do I affirm by employment of such terms,
whilst in most cases doubting, with the illustrious Humboldts, the
common pedigree of any two of such typeSj or raeesy back to a mythic
single pair called "Adam and Eve."
" Hence, then," I accept Marcel de Serres's rule, disputing only
the accuracy of the fiwts through which he would endeavor to elimi-
nate mankind fix)m its action — "generation ought, it seems, to be
considered as the type of species^ and the only foundation upon which
it can be established in a certain and rational manner:"^ guarding
it with the language of the learned Colonel Hamilton Smith,^ viz :
— that, " if no better argument, or more decisive fact can be adduced,
than that axiom which declares, that * fertile offipring constitute the
proof of identity of species,' we may be permitted to reply, that as
this maxim does not repose upon unexceptionable fiicts, it deserves
to be held solely in the light of a criterion, mare convenient in syste-
nuUie elawification than absolutely correct.'*
Should these views meet with fevor among fellow-students in the
Mortonian school of ethnology, it will become (save and except for
their always meritorious collection of facts) almost a work of super-
erogation to inquire what individual of former sustainers of tl^e
'^ unity of the human species** deserves to be classified under the
letter B.
Thus Camper,^ Lacepfede,*^ Lesson,^ or Griffith,^ — each a mas-
ter in mammalogy, without reference to their copyists inniraierable,
—are maintainers of human unity of species on zoological grounds ;
as are likewise Walchnaer,^ Haller,'* Pitta,*^ Wagner,"^ Bakkqr,^**
u> See Blahohabd, in Dumoutibr's Anikropologie, Paris, 1854, pp. 18-9.
B> Enai tur let Cavemea A OttemenU, Paris, Svo., Sd ed., 1888; pp. 284, 268, 898.
u* Naiural HUtory of the Human Speeiet; Edinburgh, 12mo., 1848; p. 21 : — compare Dbs-
MOULiMS (Racet ffumainea, pp. 194-7), for certain limits of this law of generation.
>** (Euvrta de Pierre Camper qui ont pour ohjet VHietoire NalureUet la Phytiologie et VAna-
Umie eomparie^ Paris, Svo., 1808; IL p. 458.
» Hieioire NaturdU de f Homme, Paris, 18mo., 1821 ; p. 188.
» Zooloffie, Paris, 1826, 4to. ; i. p. 84— in Dupbbut, Voy. de la CoquOU, 1822-5: also,
Ibid. Racee Humainee, in Con^Umeni dee (Euvree de Buffon, Paris, 1828 ; 1. p. 44.
^w Translation of Cuvieb's Animal Kingdom, London, 4to., 1827 ; i. Introd. p. xL ; and
"Supplemental History of Man," p. 178, seq.
>» Eeeai tur Pkittoire de VEtpice humaine, Paris, 8to., 1798, p. 10; — and CotmoU>gie, ou
Dtteripiion giniraU de la Terre, Paris, Svo. 1816; pp. 159-61.
«• SUm. FkytioL, p. rii. Ub. xxriu. { xxii.
^^ Influence of CUmaie on the Human Speeiet and on the varietUt of Man aritingfrom it, Lon-
don, Svo., 1812; p. 16.
"^^ NaturgetckiekU dee Menaehen Handbueh der popularen anthropohgie, Hempten, 8?o.,
1881 ; IL pp. 828-248.
^^ Aotenr-OT Getehiedhmdig Ondentoek aangaande den Oor^ronkenUjken atom von het Men-
•ckel^'k CheUuht, Haarlem, Sto., 1810, p. 176.
448 THE MOKOQEKISTS AND
Serres,'*^ Herder, Carpenter, and many other writers, of more orle«
note, upon physiological. To these, although his proper hew standi
should be under the letter A, may be added Dr. Hall,'** the learned
editor of Bohn's London edition of Pickering's Races of M(m.^
An eminent and far-travelled naturalist, accustomed to observe facta
and weigh evidence equitably, the latter has maintained strict neu-
trality in describing the " eleven races of men " seen by himBelf ;
and the best proof of the high value attached to Dr. Pickering's
opinion, no less than of his impartiality, is, that passages of his work
have been cited by Morton in support of diversity^ and by others of
the unity of mankind.
There is a third hypothesis to which it is still more diflScult to
assign a place. Emanating from the schools of transcendental snBr
tomy, none but embryologists are competent to discuss its mani^
festations. Posited in the language of Dr. Knox,^*" its logical cons^^
quences would certainly demonstrate an unity of human origins 5-
but upon principles, it strikes me, more disagreeable to theologei»
than even the establishment oi diversity itself!
"* There is but one animal^ said QeoflEroy, * not many ;' and to thi^
vjflt and philosophic view, the mind of Cuvier himself, towards the
close of life, gradually approached. It is, no doubt, a correct one.
Applied to man, the doctrine amounts to this, — Mankind is of one
family, one origin. In every embryo is the type of all the races of
*• Le Moniteur^ Paris, 8 Fev., 1856 ; Feuilleton, " Museum d'histoire natoreUe— Coots
d'Anihropologie de M. Serres" — ** M. Serres a declare tout d'abord sea coiiTictions en et qui
touche V units humaine. E y oroit fermement, et s'lndigne (!) parfois contre ceox qui oMnt
Clever la-dcssus Tombre d'une doute." This Tirtuous indignation sits well on the author of
Anatomie comparfe du Cerveau dans let 4 dosses des Animaux Vertihrfs (Paris, 1824 — see At-
las, p. 40, figs. 264, 266; and PI. xiT., figs. 264-6), who, under the head, which he wns
unable to procure, of an ** enc^phale du lion (felis leo)" drawn a fourth of its size, actnallj
substituted that of a cat ; as some of his malicious colleagues of the Acad^mie des Sciences
proved in public session I
1** *' An Analytical Synopsis of the Natural History of Man" — London, 12mo., 1851 ; pp.
xxvii-xliii — being a sort of rifaeimento of "Interesting Facts connected with the Animal
Kingdom j with some remarks on the Unity of our Species" (London, 8yo., 1841 ; pp. 9S-
102 ; indeed, passim to p. 206) : — which appropriately ends with a saying of <*the preacher,
* The black man is God's image like ourselvss [!] though carved in ebony.*"
Does he really mean what he says? Has he ever thought of the converse of this anti-
quated Jewish proposition (Oen. i. 26) T If so, we part company in conceptions of Creative
Power (see '* Types," p. 564) : and I leave our preacher to translate a French commentary
— ** < Dieu erf a Vhomme selon son imafftf* et Vhomme U lui a hitn rendu /**
J<* United States Exploring Expedition, vol. ix., Boston, 4to., 1848.
^^ Races of Men, Phil, ed., 1850; pp. 297-8. For the contrary argnment« see Nowetm
Discourn sur Us Revolutions du Olobe, par A J. de Gb. et P. (translators of LyelVs Principles
of Geology), Paris, 1836 ; ii. pp. 86-47 — '* De la permanence des Bsp^oes, en d'antree tcrmes,
jusqu'& quel point les esp^ces peuvent-elles dtre modifi^ee?"
THE POLYGENISTS. 449
men ; the circumstances determining these various races of men, as
tliey now, and have existed, are as yet unknown ; but they exist, no
doubt, and must be physical; regulated by secondary laws, not
changing, slowly or suddenly, the existing order of things. The
idea of new creations, or of any creation saving that of living
matter, is wholly inadmissible. * * * In conclusion: the permanent
varieties of men, permanent at least seemingly during the historic
period, originate in laws elucidated in part by embryology, by the
laws of the unity of organization, in a word, by the great laws of
transcendental anatomy."
Between Dr. Xnox's embryonic suggestions, and the " develop-
ment theory" espoused by a previous defender of unity^^^ it is not
easy to strike the line of demarcation. Certain, however, is it
that this brilliant writer, whatever may have been his success, in
supplementary editions of his daring book, while repelling assaults
opon his accuracy in other fields of speculative science, broke down
hopelessly when he treated on mankind, — the authorities cited by
him being sufficient testimony that his reading on ethnology was
exceedingly limited ; and, still more unfortunately, it is patent that
through assumption of a single origin for all the races of men, he
"f^sxkes humanity itself an exception to the so-called law of organic
development which his antecedent pages, with singular ingenuity,
"ftd endeavored to establish. His *' unity" becomes, in consequence,
* ^ton-fejuttur; whereas (without committing myself to any opinion
^^ a theory which Agassiz"* pronounced to be "contrary to all the
'Modern results of science"), had the author of " Vestiges'* sought, in
P^lfiBontological discoveries and in historical inductions, for evidences
^^t sundry inferior races of men preceded, in epoch, the superior^ I
^^11 not say that he could, eleven years ago, have proved a new pro-
P^^mtion, of which science, even yet, has only caught some glimmer-
^^^; but he would, at all events, have satisfied the requirements of
^^^usistency.
Tet another monogenistic point of view has been recently pre-
*^^ted, — ^to myself, however, not very intelligible. " I do not, ih^T^
ft>i-ej»»MD ^^rites Dr. Draper, " contemplate the human race as consist-
VMga of Crtatitm^ New York ed., 1845; "Hypothesis of the Deyelopment of the
^Set%ble and Animal kingdoms ;" and, for man, pp. 223-82, compared with p. 177.
^^ Typcf of Mankind, *' The natural proTinces of the Animal World, and their relation to
^^ different types of Han," p. Ixzri : — ^republished in substance by Mr. James Hey wood,
^•» F. B. 8. ; as an Appendix to toI. II, of his translation of Von Bohlen't Oenuit,
^^^ and with the usual misUke of ** Hottentot realm" instead ef •' Hottentot fauna*"
'^* 278). I haTt already gi^en a preiious instance of this particular orersight in our
^^^•Wtrs (tii^rtt, note 108) ; as we proceed, many others will be indicated.
^ Smman Phytiology, New York, 1866, pp. 565-6.
29
450
THE MONOGENISTS AND
ing of variotica, much less of distinct Bpccies ; but rather as offefB^^
numberleBB repreaeiitationH of the diiFerent forma which ui iJeu)
type can he made to asaiime under exposure to difiercnt condition)^
I believe that that ideal type may etill be recognised, «ven in ea«e«
that offer, when compared together, complete discordances; and that,
if Huch an illustration be permiHaible, it ia like a general expre*8ion
In algebra, which gives rise to diflereiit results, according as we tusmgn
different values to ita quantities ; yet, in every one of these navlu,
the original expression exists,"
My own aspirations, tempered by dear-bought experience in liumia
speculation on the unknown, no longer rise, nevoitlieless, above the
hutorical stand-point; and, therefore, with regard to the third <at(.
gory, before propounded, viz. :' " C. — Unity as a moral op metaplqh
sical doctrine," — I feel, with Jefferson, "a decent respect for tin
opinions of mankind,""' and, consequently, place before the reader
their humanitarian sentiments rather than my own.
And here it ia that the soul-inspiring thoughts of the Humboldt*—
which truly "puiseut leur chanuc dans la profondeur dea ecnti-
ments,"'" basing tlieir high moral value on their touching elo-
quence — rival St. Paul's eulogia of " love," ^ in boundless charity
towards all mankind. " Without doubt," says Alexander von Hum-
boldt, "there are families of peoples more susceptlbleof culture, more
civilized, more enlightened; but there are none more noble tkn
others. All are equally made for liberty, for that liberty which, b i
6tate of society but little advanced, appertains only to the iudiridnal;
hut which, among those nations called to the enjoyment of verit^le
political institutions [under the royal House of I3randeubui;gb!]ii
the right of the whole community.""*
Then "the idea of humanity" is beautifully developed hy Idft bro-
ther William — " This ia what tends to break down those bBrricra
which prejudices and interested motives of every kind have erectwl
between men, and to cause humanity to be looked upon lu its <nirM-
hle, without distinction of religion, of nation, of color, as one great
brotherhood, as a single body, marching towards one and the same
goal, the free development of the moral forces. '» « • • Rooted in llie
w TItt DitUralim ef IndrptHdmee ot the tlniCed Stotos of Amoric*, a.d. JUDCCLXITL
» Cemm, Fr. ed., I, p. 4»1.
i» Not " charity," whicli is copied from tho earilai of at. Jerome's Tulyair; bnt IhaOnak
originnl iyiwf,.—8ll\nvn'l JVw Talament, from Qrioabaoh'B test; pp. S2S-4.— Im t^.nik
Corinliian,, XIII, 1-18.
'»• Comn, Fr. ed. (supra, note 1); t, p. 480.
"» Ibid, pp, 480-1 ; t!abine tranalaloH, from thp German, "the frOH deTelopmenl of tlxir
moraUneultlci" {I, p. 86(1): ntii renders, -tlia unrwlrnined dcTelopnient of their pfcywart
powers" (I, p. 858j— lie; Tho origiual toit is in W. too H.'b Kavi-tprathi, HI, p. 42ft.
THE POLYGENISTS 451
depths of human nature, commanded at the same time by its most
sublime instincts, this beneficent and fraternal union of the whole
species becomes one of the grand ideas which preside over the history
of humanity."
Possibly in the future. I cannot find the practice of such "idea"
by any nation but old Okeanic Utopians in the past. I have resided
years in Africa, Europe, and America, months in Asia ; and indivi-
dual experience only enhances, to my mind, the virtue of this law
through its exceptions.
A more sternly-philosophical explanation of the moral unity of
mankind is that put forth by Agassiz. It somehow accords more
closely with my reason ; not less, I am fain to hope, with my social
aspirations than the prelauded citation from Cosmos.
" We have a right to consider the questions growing out of men's
physical relations as merely scientific questions, and to investigate
them without reference to either politics or religion.
"There are two distinct questions involved in the subject which
we have under discussion, — the Unity of Mankind, and the Diversity
of Origin of the Human Races. These are two distinct questions,
having almost no connection with each other, but they are con-
stantly confounded as if they were but one. * * *
"Are men, even if the diversity of their origin is established, to be
considered as all belonging to one species^ or arc we to conclude that
there are several diflerent species among them? The writer has
been in this respect strangely misunderstood. Because he has at
one time said that mankind constitutes one species, and at another
time has said that men did not originate from one common stock, he
has been represented as contradicting himself, as stating at one time
one thing, and at another time another. He would, therefore, insist
upon this distinction, that the unity of species does not involve a unity
of origin^ and that a diversity of origin does not involve a plurality of
9peeies. Moreover, what we should now consider as the characteristic
of species is something very different from what has formerly been
80 considered. As soon as it was ascertained that animals differ so
widely, it was found that what constitutes a species in certain types
18 something very different from what constitutes a species in other
types, and that facts which prove an identity of species in some
animals do not prove an identity or plurality in another group. * * *
" The immediate conclusion from these facts, however, is the dis-
tinction we have made above, that to acknowledge a unity in man-
kind, to show that such a unity exists, is not to admit that men have
a comimon origin, nor to grant that such a conclusion may be justly
452
THE MONOGKNISTS AND
1
derived from biico premisea. We mHintein, therefore, tliAt the
of mankind doea not imply a communitj of origin for men ; we
believe, on the contrary, that a higher view of this unity of mankind ^
can bo taken than that which is derived from a mere ecnsnal coo-^
nection, — that we need not search for the highest bond of hnmamt*^.
in a mere animal function, whereby wo are moet closely related t^
the brutes. * * •
" Such is the foundation of a unity between men truly worthy
their nature, such is the foundation of thoBe sympathies which i\.^v,
enable them to bestow upon each other, in all parte of the world, ^^
name of brethren, as they are brethren in God, brethren in humaii/(j.
though their origin, to aay the least, is lost in the darkness of Hie
beginning of the world. • • ♦■
"We maintain, that, like all other organized beings, mankind
cannot have originated in single individuals, but must have been
created in that numeric harmony which is oharactcriatic of each
species ; men must have originated in nationi, as the boes have on-
ginated in swarms, and as the different social plants have at fint
covered the extensive tracts over which tboy naturally spread. • ■ '
" We have seen what important, what prominent reasons there am
for as to acknowledge the unity of mankind. But this unity dow
not exclude diversity. Diversity is the complement of uniQf; $11
unity does not mean oneness, or singleness, but a plurality in whidi
there are many points of resemblance, of agreement, of identi^. Tlii
diversity in unity is the fundamental law of nature. It can be trued
through all the departments of nature, — in the largest diriaiOH
which we acknowledge among natural phenomena, as well u in
those which are cireumscribetl within the most narrow limits. Itii
even ttie law of development of the animals belonging to the Mot
species. And this diversity in unity becomes gradually more and
more prominent throughout organized beings, as we rise fromlliflt
lowest to their highest forms. • * •
"Those who contend for the unity of the hnman race, on tiu
ground of a common descent from a single pair, labor under 1
strange delusion, when they believe that their argument is favonble
to the idea of a moral government of the world, and of the direct
intervention of Providence in the development of mankind. TJnooo-
aciously, they advocate a greater and more extensive influence intlie
production of those peculiarities by physical agencies, than hjiit
Deity himself. If their viewa were true, God had leas to do directiy
with the production of the diversity which exists in nature, in the vege-
table as well as in the animal kingdom, and in the human race, than
E FOLYGENISTS.
tlimatic conditions, and the diversity of food upon which these
)eing9 subsiat," '"
I am wholly at a loss iu what category — whether nnder letter A,
ir B, or C, or anywhere else — to place the very learned Dr. Latham
with whose books ethnographers are of course familiar); cliieHy
tecause of his well-known habit of commencing a paragraph with
m asserted fact, the value of which he generally manages to undo
it its cloae. From the best of his numerous ethnological "catalogues
■aisonn^s," I cull an illustration through which the reader may be
ible to understand my meaning, even should he fail, perhaps, in
jreciaely comprehending the Doctor's:
"If we now look back upon the ground that has been gone over,
we shall find tliat the evidence of the human family having origi-
nated in one particular spot, and having diffused itself from thence
to the very extremities of the earth, is by no means conclusive. Still
less is it certain that that particular spot has been ascertained. The
present writer believes that it was somewhere in intertropical Asia
[a long way, consequently, from Mount Ararat !], and that it was the
tittgle locality of a single pair [Adam and Eve?j — without, however,
professing to have found it. Even this centre [of the author's belief]
is only hypothetical — near, indeed, to the point which he looks upon
aa the starting point of the human migration, but by no means
identical with it."[!]'"
Sometimes one finds that a thorough monogenist allows, nncon-
nciously perhaps, an observation to escape him, which shows how
mpreasious, derived from Calviuistic primary tuition, become irre-
oueilalile, in his mature age, to the man of science.
"The data of Genesis," holds Hollard,'^ "commentated upon by
poor science, devoid of criticism and ill-disciplined, led the way for
^o&e rare thinkers who, during the middle ages, attempted to under-
tand Nature. Too commonly the commentary bewildered the text
>f all conceptions dating from that period [a very long one, and not
tt ended'\, what haa had, and must have had, the greatest success,
3 the doctrine of the chain of beings, — formulated, in these terms,
>y Father Nieremberg ;
" JVmWub hiatus, nulla fraolio, nulla diapersio formarum, invicetn con-
lexx aunt velut antiulut annulo. In great favor among the naturalists
>f ' la renaissance,' this doctrine was professed with Mat by Charles
Bonnet, at the end of last century ; and this philosopher attached to
t the idea of a paliugenesiac evolution of Nature. It would have
u* Aastmt. "The UacrHity of origin of Hiiiniin Bncea." Chralian Ezaminrr anil Rtiigivat
Huecllany. Bo«ton, 1850. XLIX, Art. Tiii. pp. 110, 113, 119-^. 120, 128, 138, Ui.
BT L*TiMH, Maa and hJ, Miyralion,. LonUoD, l^mo, 1851 i p. Hi.
"Dt rSanmt, Pttit, 1808, pp. 18-4,
(
454 TilE MOKOGKNISTS AND ^^1
greatly scandalized tiae partiaans of the chain of hri-ngi had iomeljody
taught them that, owing to tlieir conception of Nature, they would^
one day eliake hands with the greatest enemies of the Chrirtiac^
religion. This conception is, in fact, far more within the logic (W
panthciam than that of our (notre) [Genovese] religious clogina.
"To represent tlio three realms of nature, as if forming bnt o?^
long series of rings linked one with another, a succc-ssiou of ter^
which leave no interval between them — so greatly do the nuar^
molt, and transform themselves, the ones into the others — is, whetd^^
one wishes it or repudiates it, whether one knows it or he ignoiT,j,j
of it, to enter into the spirit of systems which fluhstitute, for the
thought of a Providential Creation, that of an animate Naiuft
(as Aristotle conceived it), — a Nature which, in ita ascenadongl
effort, would traverse all the imaginable terms of a contloDou
progression,
"True or false, — and this is neither yet the moment for abBolvinj
nor for condemning it — the doctrine, which I have just chaructenKcd,
must have been heartily welcomed by those naturalists who {>n>-
fessed, openly, the autonomy of Nature."
I need not beg Dr. Henry UoUard's pardon for classifying Wi
anthropology under letter A ; but some sort of an apology uemi i
due to the reader for my stereotypical inadvertence, through \riiick I
a learned Protestant Helvetian happens to find his pious hb.
timenta misplaced in that part of this work consecrated to tie
letter C.
A third conception may be gathered from passages of the rut
work of Gnstave Klemin.** My excellent friend, Dr. L. A. Gowe,
of Geneva,'* pointed them out to me during our joint studies at tie
Museum d'Histoire Naturclle:
" It is tolei-ahly indid'erent whether mankind come down from one
pair or from many pairs; whether some first parents were Beparat*l_T
created in America, in Africa, in Asia, and in Europe ; or whethtr
the population of all these regions draws its origin from a single
couple ; but what is certain is, that there have existed on thia eanh
pattivt races prior to the active races, and that these primitive ni«*
hud multiplied considerably before the apparition of tlie lattfr."
He enlarges upon the distinctions between such active and pusiw
I CutlUT-GitkahU der ^tmchhtiti \1H'i~5!l, Uipiig, Std., 10 rob.; Lpf.
Honorablj and widily known in medical icienoes, Dr. Oosae. whllit faiDiiDj dk, U
PariB, 1SG4-5, with indiceaiofcnowlD'Igcw well HinHnito other proora or bligcnvnnuliHn.
pnbliahiMl hii erndll« Btiai nir la Diformalinni ArlificieUa da Crist. Our colltbonlor, Sr.
J. Allken Moige, baring andBrtakcn its anil; us, I g1ad]j leare lo him a tntyMt n tM
of mj aludieB eictudei Taliii opinion.
^
TUB POLYGENISTS. 455
Taces ; ^eming these last to have been the darker in complexion,
luid inferior in conformation, and in their rapidity of growth to have
resembled the precocity of the female sex. Hence, Klemm concludes
that — "In studying the manners, usages, monuments, industry, or
ganization, traditions, creeds, and history of different peoples, I have*
become induced to admit, that all humanity which forms a whole,
like man himself, is separated into two halvesy corresponding with
each other, one active and one pasaivej the one masculine and the other
feminine,^*
This theory, novel to most readers of English, may, like other
theories, be true or false, according to the sense in which the words
active and passive, applied to ethnic peculiarities, are comprehended
by those who employ them. To me their application is not clear,
unless qualified by stronger adjectives ; implying the recognition of
superior and of inferior races : and, in such sense, M. d'Eichthal's
conception of the difference between the White and the Negro types
is curious and interesting : ^^^
" Thus, gentlemen, the debate, although concentrated upon the
African question, conducts us to this first conclusion, established, ex-
plicitly or implicitly, by the defenders themselves of the two extreme
opinions, viz : that the African negro race has attained its present civili-
zation through the influence of the white race^ notably from the Arabs :
that, in order to raise itself to a higher civilization, it has need of a new
initiation^ imparted by this same race : that, to the white race, consequently,
belongs the initiative in the development of a common civilization. It is
very remarkable that Eitter, at the end of his work on the Geo-
graphy of Africa, casting what he calls a retrospective glance over the
history of this continent, arrives precisely at the same conclusion ;
which he expresses furthermore in terms of high philosophical bear-
ing:— *Must it be,' asks the learned geographer, ' that civilization is
to be brought from the exterior and inoculated, so to say, upon the
inhabitants of the Soodan (Negro-land), because, to judge accord-
ing to the entire development of history, the others are called upon
to give, and these to receive ?'
" Such is, in fact, the abstract expression of the normal relation
between the black race and the white race ; the one is passive, the
other active in respect to it. * * * ' The black shows himself to us as
eivilizable [domesticable ?], but without the initiative faculty in point
of civilization.' ***** "Thus, in the most intimate of their associa-
tions [sexual intercourse between white .males and black females],
these two races preserve the character which we have recognized in
Ml BulUtin de la SoeiiiS Elhnologique de Paris, Tome 1^«, Ann^e 1847 ; pp. 69-70, 77, 206.
282-4, 239-241.
45G TUE MONOGENISTS AND
the entembk of tlicir destiniea. Tte wlilte race U Man ; tho blac^
race is Woman. No formula can bo well exprcsB tho reciprocal chi^^^
racterislics and the Isiw of asHociation between the two nicfs. It suf-
fices moreover to explain how one of these raeca haa bson able to ti^J^'
initiator, ihfi oiXicT initiated ; the one active, and the other ptutiv^ ^ '^^
without ita following that this relationship carries with it, as ha« be^,,^ '•'
luuintained, at leaat for the future, ou tho one side BUpcrioritj,
Uio other inffriority."
To tho debate iteelf I must refer for a controversy conducted ^
ail eidea with rurc ability and scientific decorum ; my own views ^„^_
ing expression, geuerally, in tho ethnological arguments of M, Cour-
tet de I'IsIe ; to be cited hereinafter. Enough hiw now been eet fonh
on the unity side of the question ; and the reader can honceforuan]
claasify any less important nionogenists tiian those herein enunie-
ratod, into category A, B, or C, as best suits his appreciation of tlicir
merits.
Inttr alia, the ultimate philosophical results of the celebrated
Academician and Professor, Flourens, whose microscopic cxnmiu;^—
tion of the human skin in different races, suppoEcd by couiplacentf^
clergymen to have established an infallible recipe for proving iL^
liuGuI descent of all mankind from "Adam and Eve," has led tliem, ii^MK
England and America, almost to account him one of theniHelves^ —
An English version, however literal, fails to do justice to the piet^^Qi
and logic of tlie French originaL
" All these necessary conditions, so admirably combined and pre
pared for the precise moment when life was to appear, prove Qo«l
and one sole God. They could not, seemingly, have been two,
they hud been two, they would not have so well understood eacs^ji
other — i/g ne te leraient pas si bien entendua."^°
Hitherto, the weight of authorities quoted has been altogether cm»n
the affirmative side: the polygenists, as yet, have scarcely had_ g
voice on the negative. To them the next section will be I — tr ■_]_
audi alteram partem; commencing with Berard,"" Professor of Pbj— «[.
oiogy, — "I cannot suppose that a mind disengaged from prejudic- -^
and from hiuderanccB which certain extra-scientific conBideraticz^ns
might interpose to liberty of thought, cuu entertain doubts upou "^Lbe
primitive plnrahty of human typea."
To the many diversltarian authorities whose langunj^e has b^^eo
cited in Typet of Mankind, coupled with tho variety of puIygenL^tio
facts accumulated in that work and the present, there would Bc^iem
little reason to add corroborative tealiniony, were it not for the ^«lce_
" Dtia Langniti Uumainr, Pnrii. ]2mo., 1B6C, p. 21
•• Court de I'bytiutogit, Pkria, e»o., 1860, 1, p. 408.
THE POLYGENISTS. 467
of showing how the advocates of this new school are rising up ou
eveiy side, as if in derision of theocratical impediments. I will,
therefore, merely select two whose conclusions are arrived at by rea-
soning from diflferent starting-points. Dr. Prosper Lucas shall be
the first, as one who has studied humanity closest in its generative
laws.*** •
" The psychological diversity of races is, as we have said, as tho-
roughly demonstrated as their physiological ; and this diversity bears
upon all the forms of human dynamism. All the races, in a word,
although partaking of the attributes of one and the same * species,* "
present them under a form and at a degree which are properties of
each of them : each one of them has its own type of sensoriety, its
type of character, its type of intelligence, its type of activity. Now,
there is not a single one in which generation does not delevope sud-
den anomalies of the natural, and wherein we cannot observe, as in
the pliysical form of its existence, different and spontaneous transi-
tions of the moral type of one race into the moral type of another."
M. Blanchard is our second, no less than the expression of a
duplex authority, — ^his own, and Dr. Dumoutier's; whose anthropo-
logical experiences were derived, as shown by his splendid Atlas, ^"
from accurate attention to the various types of men he beheld while
circumnavigating the globe with Dumont d'Urville, and whose poly-
genistic opinions were frequently elicited at the meetings of the So-
ciSti Ethnologtqus de Paris,^^
" Speaking for ourselves, it is not sufficient to admit that there
are, either a certain number of races, or several distinct species ; it
"becoming necessary to ascend still higher. In order that the ques-
tion should be clearly posited, we will say at once that, to our eyes,
there exist different species of men ; that these species, very proxi-
mate to each other, form a natural genus; and that these species
were created in the very countries in which we find them at present.
JEn riBumi^ the creation of mankind must have taken place upon an
infinitude of points on the globe, and not upon a single point
whence they have spread themselves, little by little, over all the
surface of the earth. * * *
" Through all the reasons that we have just rapidly set forth, we
have acquired the conviction, that the human genus is a veritable
genus, in the sense attached to this word by naturalists, and that
this genus comprises several species.
w* H^rmti Naturelle, i. pp. 160-1.
1* Voyage au PdUSud, Anlhropoloffie^ AUas, fol., Paris, 1846; cited in Typet of Mankind^
pp. 488, &c.
M BulUtifu, 1846-7.
458
THE MONOGENISTS AND
"TliPBe epeciea must have been neeessariiy created each one "m
the coniitry in which it waa destiued to perpetuate itself; and hence
then, wo muet admit, at tho origin, a coueiderahle number of foH ^^
{touches). • • * ^
"We think, ^"ith Dco^s (Traiti de Phytiologie), that mankint^^
comprehends a great ininiher of species; but, by what signs thesw^'*
species can be defined in au indubitable manner, no one, in tl^;^/^**
present etate [of etaeiioe], can tell, if he abBtains from comparir.;:;-^ "'*
only the most diissirailar." '" *
But, by way of parenthesis, as explanatory of a passing eomirn^^.
on ''Vestiges of Creation," and of a remark by Klemm {gupra, p*
454-5), that inferior human races seem in antiquity to have pre-
ceded the tuperioTf there are data whicli hero may find place.
W DLASCiLAiiu. Vegasi au P6U Snd. eoraclli, fAilrotabi tl la ZMt, 1837-40,—- ((lUnp,-
logit, fat a. \e Doot«ar DvmuI'TIkb, I'sria, 1854, pp. 19, 45, 46.
In oorroborBtian of what a. far-tniTelled Duotor, M. Diihoutieb. my nboire, and rlw.-
where, in regard to the areallon of a distinct gpeciee of mku for c*ch tnolopol conolr;^^
no leg* than to Tortir; the poHitiona suBlulned b; m; oolUboratoT Db. Nott (anfr, Chaptscr"'
join an eitrnct from iL vorli by our mutual friend Dn. BoliDIM, nbich Dr. Kott had mislui^^
when his MS. lias rant to the printer:
"For a long time there has hoen ascribed to man IhcfiCuU/nf ii hulhiii lii If li i
eTer; olimnte, and tho power of Bstabiiahiiig his reiidence upon nil points of ths glob« ^a
8ncb crcdenao, reposing upon no kind of experimental basis whalever, could merely codeiL^S
tnte but a simple hfpotbesie; against whiob, now-n-dajs. facta, as authvnlie lu naln«[tiii^^_
protest, rerhnpa the partinans of oosmopalilism hod been in loo icreat a hurrj ii> lend ^^b.
a fraction of bomanitj, Topresented. by whut it has been agreed npon to call, thi 'C>iKi^>^ ^,
Bi»n' race, that whieh may ver; well not belung Bare to the tmemhlt of tnanlnod; — parbaj^^,
too, tbcy had not suBicietitlj discriminated the laboring and agricaltaral man, frvm t..^^
mere Iraositorj eionrsioniat," Time, in order to prove bis poeition, Bondtn oitM, ami
other ciamplei. — how. in Egypt, the austral negroes are. and the Canealiian Mna
were, unable to raise up even a third generation, — how, in Corsica, French famOiea nck;|i
beneath Itnlinn surnames. Where ore the desoendanta of Remans, or Vandal*, or Orcr^
in AfrieaF In modem Arabia (1S30), after Mnhnmmed Ali had got clear of the Mar^^
war, 18,000 Amsoots (Albanians) were Boon redooed to some 400 mm. At QibnAv
(1817], a negro regiment was almost annihilated by consamption. In 1841 , daring i)^
weeks on the Niger, 130 Europeans ont of 146 caught African feicr. nnd 40 snceiiditiH{
whilst, out of tee negro sailors, only II were affeuted. and none died. In 18«fl, rfae BrltJil
Wslcbereen eipodition failed, in the Netlierlsods, through one kind of mnrsh fe»er: tltsit
the snmo period Ihiit, at St. Domingo, 20 French Generalg, and 1 B,000 rnnlt and Eft, did
tn two mnnths by anothur maUrial disesae. Of 80,000 Id 32.000 Frenchmen, but um
8000 aurriTcd eiposura to that Antillinn island; while the Doininicnniied AfricJui ncjra,
Tonssaint i'OuTprture, re-transporled to Europe, was perishing from the chill of hb priioe
in Franco. (Pafhologie eomparte. Paris, 1849. pp. 1-4).
Agnin, " already the facts acquired by science establish, in a manner IrretocaWs, lltl
the direrso races, which constitute tlie great family of hnminity, obey especial lawi, mAa
the triple aspect of birth, mortality, and patboingical splitwdes." France n«« wpi
■oldiera at Guyana and Senegal ; England employs, like the Bomnns ef old, th* stnmor
«aeb colony, to perform arduous military works — confining {taltrii patibta) for til biri
labor, tropical soldiora to the Tropics, sind extra-tropical ly- bom soldiery to lerrlia dnlj.
THE P0LT6EKISTS. 459
PART II.
O&EAT and malti&rions are the changes in palaeontology, as in
other sciences, since Georges Cuvier wrote :
" That which astounds is, that amongst all these Mammifers, of
which the greater part possess now-a-days their congeners in hot
countries, there has not been a single Quadrumane ; that there has
not been gathered a single bone, a single tooth of a Monkey^ were
they but some bones or some teeth of monkeys, / of now-lost
species." ** ^
Barely five years after the decease, in 1832, of this grand natu-
ralist, f 099x1 Simise turned up, during 1837, in France and in Hind-
ost^n!
In eighteen subsequent years of exploration, many more have
been discovered; enumerated in the subjoined works'* as genus
Hapale^ 2 species ; Callithrix primsevua ProtopithecuSj 2 ; CebuSy 1 ;
found in South America : — MacaciM eocoenuSy Pithecus antiquusj 2
species, &c. ; in England, France, or in the Sub-Himalayan range.
Wagner had previously indicated the existence of other fossil
monkeys in Greece; but early in the present year, M. Gaudry
reports to the Academic des Sciences, his having exhumed, at the
**glte fossilifere de Pikermi,"^^ specimens of Meaopithecus major
and Meaopithecus pentelicus ; mixed up with remains of hyaena,
mastodon, rhinoceros, hog, hippotherium, bos-marathonicus, giraffe,
and probably of birds.
Geologists can now determine the relative epochas of each speci-
men, according to the formations in which the several genera of
such fossil monkeys appear; but De Blainville states that, while
these of Brazil are more recent, being met with in the dilmdum of
caverns, — "those of India and Europe lie in a medium tertiary
fresh-water deposit, and consequently are of an age long anterior to
onlj where the climate accords with that of their race and birth-place. At Sierra Leooe,
the mortality of negroes, compared to that of whites, is as 30 to 483 ; i. «. as 1 against 161
(Phyaiologie et Pathologie eompar^et des Races humaines, pp. 1-7).
M" Discours sur Us Revolutions de la surface du Olobe^ Paris, 1880, 6th ed., p. 851.
M" Mabcel de Serres, Essai sur les Cavemes d OssementSy Paris, 8vo, 8d ed., 1838; pp.
226-7: — De Blainville, 0«//oyra;>^M,« ** Mammif^res-Primates," Paris, 4to, 1841; pp. 49-
66: — D*Orbiqny, Diet. Univ. d: Hist. Nat.; Paris, 1847; X, pp 669-70, "Quadrumanea
fossiles:" — Heck, Iconographic Encyclopedia, transl. Baird, New Vork, 1851; IT, pp. 492-
8: — Qervai8> Trois rhgnes de la Nature, Mammif^res, I« partie, Paris, 1854; pp. 12-13,
ITO Letter to M. Elie de Beaumont; Athenceum Francois, 1 Mars, 185G; pp. 167.
460 THE MONOGENISTS AND
the last catastrophe, which is supposed to have given the present
shape to our seas and our continents.'*
This is confirmed by a curious observation of Marcel de Serres,"*
that while, as yet, monkeys have been found " only on the ancient
continent in the fosnil state, it is uniquely in the humatiU state they
have been recognized on the new."
It is, therefore, no longer contestable, that fosnl monheyn exist,
and in abundance. Other genera, without question, will be dis-
covered in the ratio that portions of the earth, and by far the most
extensive, become accessible to the geologist's hammer. Thoa«
barbarous regions which living anthropoid monkeys now inhabit —
viz. : Guinea, Congo, and Loango, where the Chimpanzee {Tragic
dytes niger); the Gaboon river-lands, where the Gorilla Q-ina; ai»-^
the forests of Borneo and Sumatra, where two, or even three [MuytT^
Agassizs* letter], species of the Orang-utan {Satyru9 rufu$y 2kC^
Satyrus bicolor); are found ^^ — being at present wholly inaccessib^ ^®
to geological investigation, it is premature to affirm or deny tk^^^^
existence of such anthropomorphous grades, as the above, betwe^^^
the "genus Homo" or bimanesj and those lower genera of quadr^^^'
manea already known to palaeontology, in the fossil state. Suc=^^^
a discovery would fortify, although its absence does not affect, th^^^®
propositions I am about to submit.
Leaving aside De Lamark's much-abused development-theoiy,^^
all naturalists agree that, whether in the incommensurable cycles oi^ ^^
geological time anterior to our planet's present condition, or durin^^ S
the clironologically-indefinable period that mankind have been ite^- -^
later occupants, there is a manifest progre8%ion of organism upward^^ -^
from the Radiata to the Articulata, from these fo the Mollusca, an
again from these last to the Vertebrata."* At the summit of ve
brated animals, after ascending once more through the Fishes, the
Reptiles, the Birds, and the Mammifers, stands Man, himself the
highest of the mammalian division — "sole representative of his
genus" if Prof. Owen pleases, but composed, notwithstanding, of
many distinct typea^ each subdivisible into many races.
Now, whether we look up or down the tableau of living nature, or
drag out of the rocky bowels of our earth the whole series of fossil
animals known to palseontology, nearest to mankind, among mam-
1^ Cosmogonie de Moue compariet aux faitt giohffiquet, Paris, Sto, 2d ed., 1S41 ; I, ppw
162-7.
"2 Chenu, EneyclopSdie d*Histoire NaturelUy Yol. " Quadnunanes,*' Primatti; pp. S0.S2.
1^ Gcneroasly explained by Haldeman, Recent Freshwater Motlutca (sapra), pp. 6>S.
>^* See the Rigne Animal de M. le Baron Cuvier, dispo*i en TabUawx milhodiqmn pm L
AoHiLLS CoMTK, Paris, fol. 1S40 ; Ist Plate, " Introdactioii."
THE POLTGENISTS. 461
lalia, in every feature of organization, spring up the Monkeys in
old relief; as Man's closest sequence in the descending scale of zoo
^giQ2X gradation ; and, likewise, so far as science yet has ascertained,
s one of Man's immediate precursors in the ascending line of our
planet's chronology. Each of these two points, however, requires
ome elucidation, in order to eschew deductions that are not mine.
J'or the first, one reference will explain the view I concur in ; it is
^ervais's.*^
** We know nothing well except through comparison, and, in order
o compare objects correctly, one must begin by placing them near
ogether. This is not to say that Man is a Monkey, and still less
hat a Monkey is a Man, even degraded; because, upon studying
eith care the one and the other, it will be recognized without diffi-
lulty that if Man resembles the highest animals [the Primates],
brough the totality of his organization, he differs from them above
XL in the details ; and that, even more endowed than the greater
lumber of these in almost every respect, he surpasses them essen-
ially by the very perfection of his structure. His brain, as well as
lis intelligence, assigns him a rank apart. He is indeed, as Ovid says,
SancUiis his animal, mentisqae eapaoios altie.
It is well known, on the other hand, that, to Linnaeus and his con-
emporaries, the limits of genus were much less narrowed than they
LTe for naturalists of our day. The generic union of Man and of other
9ie] Monkeys would be, therefore, at the present state of science,
jntirely contrary to the rules of classification. * * * "(Monkeys) are
«sily recognized by their organization, of which the principal traits
iccord with those that the human genus displays in such an elevated
legree of perfection. Their brain and their other deeply-placed
>rgan8; their exterior appearance, and, especially, the foim of their
lead ; the position and number of their teats ; their thumbs at the
luperior members, more frequently than not opposable to the other
ingers ; their station approaching more and more the vertical, but
srithout ever reachingit completely; and a certain community of intel-
ectnal aptitudes ; everything, in these animals, announces an incon-
lestable resemblance with Man, and a superiority as regards other
luadrupeds. Albeit, this similitude diminishes in proportion as one
lescends through the series of genera that compose the family of
Monkeys ; and, whilst ever preserving the fundamental traits of the
jroup to which they belong, the lowest species [the OuiatiteSj for in-
rtance] show by their intelligence as much as by their brain, in their
>» WsL Nat. det MammiferU, pp. 49, and 7-8.
462 TUB MOKOGENISTS AND
Bhapea as well as iu the structure of their principal organs, a
inferiority, if one coiiiparcB them with tlie Primateu, and beyond ^L^^i
with Man." ^^
Science, therefore, at the present hour, ceases to go back to tb(^,
long-ex pluded and (considering the epoch of ita advocatcB) over-sftlii^-^.
rizod notions of Moiiboddo, Rousseau, or Mostati.'™ Such higtoricw^^^^ *
theory only continues to aflbi-d pabulum for homily-writcra, wh^,^^^
groping still auiidst Auguate Ccinite's'" »ub-mctupliyeical strat,^^^ '
imagine, not perhupa unreasonably, that some of their readcra lia--^.
learned nothing since the XVEUlh century. Even in the time ^^ i
Voltaire — to wliom men merely aeemed to be ho many moukci;^ M
without tails — of tLe apparently tail-lesa quadrumana (Orang, Chitu. ■
panzoG, and Gorilla), but one species (except, of course, Tysona I
Chimpanzee, 1698,"' and Buffou's, 1740) was known to France; '
and that one, the Orang-utan, — belonging to the prince of Orange,
1776 — too imperfectly for him to perceive, between the "lord of ^^^|
ereatiou" and liis caricature, a still closer analogy: or, again, for tlia ^^H
imniortiil bugbear of pseudo-piotists to comprehend that, if tlM ^^^1
absouco of such exterior appendage in the above three priuiatea dooe 4
not the more constitute a true "monkoy,"' neither does ita presence, ^,
in the several authentic examples cited by Lucas,'™ the less consti- — _.
tutc a true " man." So that, while man, as " the sole rcprcsentatire ^^ui
of his genus," possesses no tail, there are individual instances that :*-,^t
bring the case much nearer home than the interesting fact fur^^^f
which the latest English partisan of successive transtbrmations '" en— ,«^,
countered obloquy ; viz, : that " the bones of a caudal extremity exist:*-^,
in an undeveloped state, iu the at ooceygi» of the human subject. ■" __^_"
Wliy, if such " dfviationt" as fliat melancholy ease of the *' porcupia^c~g,
family," or those worn-out specimens of "sexidigital imlU-Jiliinlg^^ •>
>" ZlKHBRHAS, Zool. j/foff., p. IM.
m Conn dt PkUotophK Peiiiht, Piiris. 1830; I, pp. 8-5.
1" Martin, Man and Monteyi, i>.ndno, Sto., 1841 ; pp. 8T9 «Dd 402.
i<* ittrfdia JfaluriUe. I, pp. »\%-7.0:~TtUn\Dg to SkpjtiB, tind to U.(ir.i>r. f^iiar Iliuiia
"Le dAiGlnppement cnngSnial de det uppenilLae (a tail) ba lie eo vffet an rapport trti ii ^^.„
■taat, qii'll (t^KRBEs) a diSinoDtrf, eutro I'tvolation da la moillc tpinitre ot celle da la qo^ -^^^
La moalle ^pinitre se prolonge, dnoa I'liriginB, Jdw)u'& I'DilnSiniU du aanal terUbral, e^. %^
tnuB leg nDimanx do la clasee ob il eilfle, ct taas, A celt« jpoque iJe la via embrj-omire: ^ i,
troQTSut aiDBi niutiin d'line queue plus on moinB lon^nw selon qu'nltffieurenieiit, « d't^-sK,,
1m DBpaabn, Is pmlangement de In moelle ee. maiDlieot on aa retire, I'aia *erlibral rv^ uj
D'eAt paa pourm J'uii sppcndice cbqiIhL * * • Et U amie aiusi qaelqueroii {%%ji K. g
8t, KiIiAikk) que la iDoelln tpinlire, coDgorrant sa premiirD dispoiitlun, •'ilende M«
ahc( riinmnie, au momont do 1b ubUbbdcc, JuDqu'l l'eitr£mll£ du cocoji. Daiia m
enlnniM TsrUhrale reate tenain^e par nne qoeue."
X* Vfiiign of C'lalion, I at New York olil^on, 12ina, p. 148. In Bpcnklng nf "appar^^
tell'IcaB moakcyB." it nay be well to refer to tlie ekelotana of OrasB-Hatynu, TTOgl^^jin
niger, aod Ourilla Oba, in OiavAia, of. at., pp. 14, 20, 32.
TEE POLTGENISTS. 463
fftieen paraded by every monogeuist, from Zimmermiin ™ to Pri-
■hard,'" iu proof of how a new race of men might, according to them,
irigiaate — why, I repeat, do they not observe couaistcucy of argu-
ueiit, whilst always violatiag their own law of "Bpeeies" — i.e., per-
aauency of noriiial type — and allow that a Parisian saddler,"^ or the
ate Mr. Barber of luverness,'** might and ought to have procreated
utire generations of new human "species" with tails? Partial is the
luitj-acbool to natural analogies, accusing polygenista of tendency
0 disregard them. Our "chart of Monkeys," further on, will at
east show that I am not obnoxious to this grave charge.
In the interim, there arc but two living savang, that I am aware of
— the one a uaturahst and courageous voyager ; '" the other, if not
xactly an archfeologist, a much more famous champion of ortho-
oxy,'* — who believe in the existence, past or present, of whole
atlous decorated with tails. The fonner, when at Bahia, heard, fi-ora
he veracious lips of imported Haoussa negroes, of the " Niamt-
fiams,'*' on hommes i queue j" who still whisk their tails in Africa,
bout thirteen days' journey from Kaiio (not far from that Island
"■ Op. eii., p. 172.
"« Banrtka mlo iKi Fhysieal Sulory of Man, Ist edition, 1818; pp. 72-5: — In Iho 2d
dition {op. cil., Ib'lli. I, pp. 201'.T), Frieh&rd fauiiil out tliiLt tbe "foroaping Tsniil;" whb
onrishing in its Bd generation!
■" LvcAi, dp. til,, I, pp. 187-8, 820-3. In«tiine*9 of iomina taudalt: the celebrated
DTsur Crmillier de la Cioutat. of a negro named Hoharamed, of » Frenob olScer, oF M.
e Bumbar and his Bister, and, lastly, of an nttorcey al Aii, surnamed B6rard, urboee
ill htkd (M in Ihe case Schbsckii Manitror. hut. wnemorab., 11, 84) the curlj shape of a
■" Compare MonbOdiM, 0/ the Origin and Frogreni of Language, Edinbargh, 8to, 2d ed.,
774; I, pp. 2&&-69, for tbe men vilh long tails &t Nicobari But the fullofting is losa
pMhrj^bal: "Andlcould produce legal oiidcnce, by witnesHes ;et living, of a man in
riTemesB, one Barbtr, a teacher of matbematics, nho had a. tail, aboat half a feot long,
rbich he carefnllj concealed dnring bis life ; bnt ~wsB discorered after bis death, which
lappened aboot twenty years »f[o." (P. 262, note.)
■"Db Castelnaii, in SuUttia dr la Sacidli de Ofographit, Paris. Jnillel, ISGl, p. 26. Camels,
[ is well kuovrn, weio not inlrodufied into AlVica ontit PtolemaJo times {Tj/pei of Mankind,
ip. 254. oll-lS, 723). Those seen by M. do Cnalelnan'a nairnlor, close hj "los hommi-s
. qneue." mnst heve been Btray-i'way)' from Tnar-ih. Foolah. or Arab encampments; be-
anse no Nigra race bas ever perceiTcd the valne of this animal, nor adopted its nee,
illhough for oeDtnries employed agninst them by their snironnding oppregsoni ; thus allow-
af a stupid repugnance to testify to Iheirown intellectanl inferiority (Confarre d'Eichthai.,
K«. H Origint da Foulaht, Paris, 8to., 1841 ; pp. 253-60, note).
»• PAEAVitr, op. cil., 1852, pp. 34. 50l!_
'*> These " Niams-Niams " are fabulous (like the Yahoo enemies of the Tirtnoni Hotiy-
tihnms) African sannibnlsi by different Negro tribes "Beierally called Remnm, Lttnlim,
^frnditn, Temyrm, or N'ytimn'utu" (W. D»«B01ioitOH CoftULt, Nigro-land of tht Arabi. 1841 ;
p. 112, 136: Gmddon, Oil's jEgspliaea, l^ondou, 1649; p. 126, note). Since this was
ritten. I bear that M. Tbehadx, the latest explorer of the upper Nile (with Bbuk-Roli.i
Sardininn morchnnt al Khartoom], has, still mora recently, exploded the notloi
tmma i gueue" in that region also.
i
464 THE MONOGENISTS AND
visited by Mr. Gulliver, in his "Voyage to tho HouyhnlinmB"); wlu-i*
our naturalist's informants had also beheld "wild camels." Tli
Ifttter, senior among " MM. les Mcnibres de I'lnstitut," as well as frc^^
from nnj sine but Sinology, happening to meet in Poris with a negr^,.^
of singular conformation, comparoe him with perfectly authenti ^J^
blofk-printed platea of ancient foreign nations in Mongolia, know^-^^"
to Chinese encycloptediata before an Enaj/chptedin, or even a geogp-.^^
phicftl dictionary, had been struck off in Europe. A copy of tt^ .
work, tho Sau I^ai Tno Bwyjf, is in the possession of my valued c^q,^ ,
league M. Pauthier, the historian of China; with whom I have ^^ J
joyed a laugh over its numerous doaigns of men with taili, while ie I
read mo the text; which, being in Chint>Be ideographics, docs not 1
strictly fall within Voltaire's malicious definition — "Lee dictionnaircj
g^ographiqnes nc sontque des erreurs par ordre alpbabeliqne." Mr.
Birch was so kind, subsequently, as to show me another copy in the
library of the British Museum.'"
For the second proposition, viz: that, in palseontology, monkeyi
appear to be the forerunners of man, a more serious tone of aualyna
must bo adopted.
Wg have seen how Cuvier, at Iiis demise in 1832, did not antid
pate the discovery, made five years later, oi fo»til monkeys; whi<it4
has since established, in several gradations of genera and of epoch, ft
link between extinct quadrumanea and living bivianta. Inasmuch i
that groat Naturalist, correct in his deductions from the data knowoi
to him, committed an error, as it turned out afterwards, about foaajy" J]
M TfaiR Is one of the Sluic ■uthoritieB (na quoted, thni ii. b; Dk OmanKB) jail 1 1 f 1 1 1 1 ■ ^^
to bj BD etoifuent diTine, st Hope Chupol, New Vork, iu bin 2d IceCnre on " The Kthaotofcrs^grr
of Ameririt," whvrein lie proTea thsl onr AmeriCftn ladtmis nro only a onlonj, -Attii Mid S0O^~f»
A.D,. of niiidiiBtanio BudliiBtn, since run wllJ ! [!tm York B mid. Feb. 6, 1867.)
In order to remaie at onao an; latent anspicioD thitt, al the prenent dnj, eraditien j.
necFHiarj' Iu know i>*ery piece of nnnaense tbat haa been written on the antiHColaaitd^^^ni
ooloniintion of America from rmy part of tha world — Chineac. Tartar, Japnne«t<, tmailltii j i
Norwegian, Iriith, Welsh, GantiBh. Hiipanlan, Poliib, Polynesian. Phinoician, Alalsntio, A. .^
Ac. — lei me refer criticB. who may be acquainted onl; with French, to " Recherche* aor ^^
Anliqutttia de I'Aindriqiie <lu Nord et de t'Ain$ri(|ue du Sod, et aur la population primit. -^„
de ao« deux eontlnenis. par M. D. B. Wamdxm," fonnerl; tJie totj learnod C. S. roDKu'% ,)
Pari*,— In the toMo AmiqaiHi MexUaitia\r«t Pulsiky'a Chap. II, p. 183, anft). QatubaLKlji
bad written long provtonBly — " It cannot be doDbted, that the greater part of Iho nalK «i,
of America liclonfl tn a race of men, who, isolated over aince Uio iiifaney of the world fw-n^
the rest of nmnVind [and bow, during auch infanc;, could the fnthers of Auorlcan Ind £ ^ai
eome hero from Mount Amratl), eihibit, in tho natural diverailj of language, in K^tjr
feature*, and the cnnfnrmatlon of their skull, incontentable pniofa nt an enrl; and eotn^]ri(
■epontioD." {Rettartha eonetming (lit Inililuliotii and Mnnunitnli of iMt aneitHl hhahm^mili
ef Anrrifa. London. ISH, L pp. 219-60.) Through the Sd I^tnre (Xtr r<M-t J/o-*//,
Feb. 9, 1857), I pvrceiTe how. ctcu at this dale, it is not yet known, in Now Torh, tt
eomiealitiefi about the god "Votan" afiai ■■ nallaai," ore merelf the pioDi ioTutlenatf
Ml ilUleraiB Juult prieat I On whom heronftor.
THE POLTGENISTS 465
monkeys, may he not have also made another in regard to fossil
man ? His convictions were : '*
** There is not either any man [among these fossil-bones]: all the
bones of our species that have been collected with those of which we
have spoken found themselves therein accidentally, and their num-
ber is moreover exceedingly small ; which would not assuredly have
been the ease if men had made establishments in the countries inha-
bited by these animals. Where then at that time was mankind ?"
liVe cannot answer decisively, as yet — " with those monkeys, to be
sure, whose fossil and humatile remains, unrevealed to Cuvier, have
been since discovered ;" but this much we can do, — show that while,
on the one hand, later researches have vastly extended Cuvier's nar-
row estimate of the antiquity of mankind upon earth ; on the other,
the gradations of epoch and of species, from the tertiary deposits
^Ikeve fossil simiae are found in Europe, upwards to recent formations
m x^hich, according to a preceding remark of Marcel de Serres, those
^utnatile monkeys have turned up in America, there is a gradual pro-
gi^fision of ^ sjxKJies" that brings these last nearly to specific identity
^th some of those simice platyrhince living in Brazilian forests at
^e present day.
W'e can do more. After obtaining an almost unbroken chain of
^^^teological samples, from living species of callithrix and pithecus in
"<5uth America, back to Lund's callithHx primcevus and protopithicus
^f humatile Brazilian deposits, and thence upwards through the
^^rious extinct genera of simice catarrhince found in a true fossil state
^^ Europe and Hindost4n; we are enabled, upon turning round and
*^H>king at the ascending scale of relative antiquity in human remains,
"^ from the Egyptian pyramid to the Belgian and Austrian bone-
^vems, from Scandinavian and Celtic barrows to the vestiges of
'^n's industry extant in French diluvial drift;, and from the old Ca-
rtbsean semi-fossilized skeletons of Guadaloupe, coupled with the
Brazilian semi-fossilized crania (Lund)^^ as well as with the semi-
fefisilized human jaws of Florida (Agassiz, in "Types"), — ^to esta-
Wiah, for man's antiquity, two points, parallel in some degree with
^hat has been done for that of the simice^ viz : 1st, That the exist-
ence of mankind on earth is carried back at least to the humatile
^^stge of osseous antiquity on both old and new continents ; and 2d,
ftat^ by strange and significant coincidence, like the genera caUithrix
*ttd pitheeuSy the living species and the dead, in Monkeys, all huma-
ttle specimens of Man in America correspond, in racsy with the same
J>iacowt twr let RivolutUmt^ pp. 851-2, and 181-9.
*'Notiee sur les ossemento hamaiiies fouilee, troav^s dans one CaTtirna da BrMl**^
i4 la Soe. R, dt$ Antiquairu du Nord, 1845-9, pp. 49-77.
80
4G6 THE MONOGENISTS AND
aboriginal Indian group still living on this continent. Such is what
will be attempted in the following pages.
But, before proceeding, we must rid ourselves of some precon-
ceived encumbrances about chronology; because "there are persons
in America * * *; persons whose intellects or fancies are employed
in the contemplation of complicated and obscure theories of human
origin, existence, and development — denying the very chronologt
which binds man to God, and links communities together by indiwh
luble moral obligations." "Pretty considerable" performances for
Mr. Schoolcraft's " chronology" !^^^
Our national Didymus and XAAKEPTTEPOS — ^he, too, of brazen
bowels, in literary fabrication — ^believing that "the heavens and the
earth" were created exactly at six o'clock on Sunday morning (Ist
day), in the month of September, at the equinox of the year b. c.
4004,'® would be much distressed if he knew what his only patron-
izer's (Chevalier Bunsen's) opinion is, viz. — " That a concurrence of
facts and of traditions demands, for the Noachian period, about ten
millennia before our era ; and, for the beginning of our race, another
ten thousand years, or very little more."*®^
The startling era claimed, in 1845, by Bunsen, for Egypt's first
Pharaoh, Menes, b. c. 3643, sinks into absolute insignificance before
the 20,000 years now insisted upon by him for man's terrestrial
existence. Palaeontologists of the Mortonian school will cheerfully
accept Bunsen's chronological extension, notwithstanding their in-
ability to comprehend the process by which the learned German
obtains that definite cipher, or the reason why the human period
should not be prolonged a few myriads of years more. Brought
down nearer to our generation it cannot, without violating all rea-
sonable induction regarding the ante-monumental state of Egypt;*
no less than from the remote era assigned by Prof. Agassiz^to
the conglomerate, brought to his cabinet from Florida, inclosing
numan "jaws with perfect teeth, and portions of a foot"
1*^ Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United Statet, Philadelphia, elephant 4to, 18^
— ** Ethnographical researches concerning the Red Man in America ;" Foarth Report, p- '^
>w Rkv. Dr. Liohtfoot, Harmony of the Foure Evangelistett London, 1644 ; Part 1, 1*"*
page. 1st, Compare Barnaob (Hist, and Religion oftheJewn, pp. 107-8)« on the di^oUtioB'
between the Caraites [lileralistt) and the Rabbinists {traditioni»t9\ whether the worM vai
created in March or in September : 2d, — if it be desired to ascertain on wbat grooBfii
the rabbis make the Ist Sept. the day of creation, the eolation is R. Jaconb's JMiBttif^
(printed at Venice, 1540) ; who proTos it through the Kabbala on the first word of Qcf<^
BeReSAITA — ^because, on transposing letters, AUph is equivalent to **fir8t|*' and ^ ^
means *Mn September" ! (Richard Simon, op, dL^ I, p. 8S2.)
>•» Outlines of the Philosophy of History ^ London, 1854; II, p. 12,
»• Types of Mankind, pp. 687-9.
» Op, dt,, pp. 862-«.
THE POLTGENISTS. 467
"With respect to Nilotic alluvials, my suggestion of geological
researches*^ has been wrought out, since 1851, by an old Egyptian
colleague, Hikekyan-Bey, one of Seid Pasha's civil engineers, with
effective government aid, at Heliopolis and Memphis, under direc-
tion of Mr. Leonard Homer, of the Royal Society,*®' which placed a
liberal grant of money at this gentleman's disposal. Father-in-law
of Sir Charles Lyell, and father of the accomplished ladies who
translated Lepsius's Brief e aus JEgypten^ JEthiopieny &c.,*^ no one
could be more qualified for the undertaking, — ^particulars concerning
which may be also read in Brugsch,** who visited Metraheni while
the works and surveys were going on. The royal names dis-interred
are given by him ; and they belong to the XlXth-XXth dynasties,
or the 15th-12th century b. c. ; but the depth, beneath the sur&ce, at
which they were found, indicates a much more remote antiquity for
the accumulation of soil below them. During my recent sojourn in
London, Mr. Homer, among other courtesies, was pleased to show
me the interesting specimens collected, and to favor me with an
insight into the probable results. These were to appear in a later
number of the Royal Society's T^ransactionn. They will establish an
unexpected antiquity for the Nile's deposits ; especially as Mr. Hor*
ner, with Lepsius and all of us, takes the XHth Dynasty at about
2800 before Christ; which, as he correctly observes, "according to
the margifial chronology printed in the latest editions of our Bibles,
is about 300 years before the death of Noah." **
Agiun, to the ante-Abrahamic age of the same XHth dynasty,
more than 4000 years backwards from our own day, belong those
eighteen hieroglyphical inscriptions, recording, upon the rocks near
Samneh, for a period of about fifty years, " the height to which the
river rose in the several years of which they bear the date. Lide-
pendently of the novelty of these inscriptions, which are very short,
they possess great value in enabling us to compare the ancient ele-
vations of the waters of the Nile with those of our time ; for the oldest
of these records dates back to a period of 2200 years before the
Christian era. Thus, the measurements I have made with the great-
est care, and which at this place were taken with comparative facility,
have given the remarkable result, that the average rise of the Nile,
w Otia ^ff^tiaca,lS4Q, pp. 67-S.
V PUtowphieal Trantactiotu of the Royal Society, yoI. cxIt, Part I, London, 4tOy 1856 ;
pp. 106-88.
"*X«fler« frwm Egypt, &c. — reyised by the author; and translated by Lbonora and
JoAHiiA B. Hormbb; London, 12mo, 1858.
M RmeberidU* mu JByypttn (1853-4), Leipxig. 8yo, 1855; pp. 62-79.
"* •< Mr. Horner on the AUnvial Land of Egypt," op, eU., p. 128.
468 THE MONOOENISTS AND
4000 years ago, was 7 mttres^ 80 cent, (or about 24 English feet)
higher than it is at the present day." * * * « it explains a feet that
had previously surprised me, viz : that in all the valley of Nubia, iho
level of the soil upon both shores, although it consists entirely of
alluvium deposited by the Nile, is much more elevated than at the
highest level of the river in the best year of modem inundation/'*
I have a distinct recollection of localities in Lower Nubia, — ex-
plored with Mr. A. C. Harris during our shooting excursions as fcr
as Widee Haifa (2d cataract), in 1839-40 — where the alluvinm,
deposited by the Nile anciently, upon the rock^ was at great distance
from, and at a higher level than, inundations at this day : but the
phenomenon merely excited surprise ; nor, until Chev. Lepsius dis-
covered the inscriptions at Samneh, was an unaccountable circnm-
stance, now of great value in geology as well as chronology, either
important or explicable. Eighteen years later, it helps to marie
degrees of time on Nature's calendar; and, conjointly with the hiero-
glyphs of Manetho's XHth dynasty, cut at Samneh, to fix a date for
the ante-Noachian existence of civilized humanity upon earth.
Adjacent to these inscriptions stand the coetaneous fortifications
of Samneh, built with great military skill and on an immense scale,
by these Pharaohs of the XHth dynasty, as their frontier bulwark
of the south against the attacks of Nubian hordes. M. de Vogiie, a
competent judge, has re-explored the localities ;^ confiiming in every
respect the anterior discovery of (yhev. Lepsius.
Geological investigation of Egypt, therefore, begins to furnish
abundant elbow-room for Plato's long disregarded assertion, put
into the Greek mouth of a native Egj^ptian priest too! — "And the
annals even of our own city [Sais] have been preaer\'ed 8000 yean
in our sacred writing. I will briefly describe the laws and mort
illustrious actions of those States which have existed 9000 years.""
— "And you will, by observing, discover, that what have been
painted and sculptured there [in Egj-pt] 10,000 j-ears ago, — and I
say 10,000 years, not as a word, but a fact, — are neither more beau-
« Lwiius, letter to Dr. 8. 0. Morion, ««PhiliB, Sept. 16, 1844;" Proeetdingt of iU
Academy of Natural Seieneet of Philadelphia^ Jan. 21, 1845: — See references to Leptio'i
later works, in JS/pee of Mankind, p. 692 ; and, for faithful copies of the inscriptions thoi-
felves, the Prussian Denkmaler, Abth. it., Bd, 2, Bl. 137, 180, 151.
*» ** Les fortifications antiques & Samneh (Nubie) " — Bulletin Arch^ologiqve de rAtkemtm
Fran^ain, Paris, Sept., 1855; pp. 81-4, PI. v. Mr. Osbum's romantic inference, about tb*
connection between those works and Joseph's scTcn years of famine, merely proves tbat
this learned, if volcanic, Coptologist is no geologist (Monumental Hietory of Egypt, Londfli^
Sto., 1854; ii. pp. 85, 182-9.
M «4 xhe Tim»u8," Plato's f0orA;«, Davis transL (Bohn) London, 1849, vi., p. 827.
THE P0LY6ENISTS. 469
tifal, nor more xxgly^ than those turned out of hand at the present
day, but are worked oft* according to the same art*'***
In his romance of Atlantis^ Plato makes the Egyptian priest say
to Solon, that the Athenian commonwealth had been created first by
Minerva, and ^* one thousand years later she founded ours ; and this
government established amongst us dates, according to our sacred
books, from eight thousand years." Referring to Henri Martin** for
annihilation of this Platonic myth as an historical document, the pas-
sage merely serves to display Plato's conception of the world's anti-
quity. Farcy** follows him up with a ruinous critique of " Atlan-
tis " as applicable to its ridiculous attribution to the population of
America. Humboldt,*^ more good-natured, while treating Atlantis
as mythic, seems inclined to hope the story may be true. Still, in
no ease, do Plato's theories help us to a sound chronology.
His 1 0,000 years for man in Egypt are but the half of the " 20,000 "
now required, — 23 centuries after Plato, by Bunsen, for the exist-
ence of mankind upon our planet's superficies ; and thus, as I have
long sustained,** we have finally got beyond all biblical or any other
chronology. Indeed, the most rigorous curtailer of Egyptian annals,
my erudite friend Mr. Samuel Sharpe, states the case (except that
his date for Osirtesen seems too contracted) exactly as all hierolo-
gists of the present day understand Egypt's position in the world's
history:
" For how many years, or rather thousands of years, this globe had
already been the dwelling-place of man, and the arts of life had been
growing under his inventive industry, is uncertain ; we can hope to
know very little of our race and its other discoveries before the in-
vention of letters. But in the reign of Osirtesen the carved writing,
by means of figures of men, animals, plants, and other natural and
artificial objects, was far from new. We are left to imagine the
number of centuries [anterior to the Pyramids'] that must have passed
*M «<The Laws/' Barges transl., op. eii,, 1862, t. p. 60.
w Etudes tur U Timie de Platon, Paris, 1841, ** AUantide :"— Typea of Mankind, pp. 694,
718,728.
** Antiquitii Mexieaineif before cited, ii. pp. 41-66.
** ** Le recit de Platon offrirait moins de difficulty ohronologiqae, rinterralle de 210 ana
mm la yieillesse de Solon et oelle de Platon ^tant rempli par trois generations de la descend-
ance de Dropid^s, si, par une alteration sans doute blam&ble da texte, c'etait celai-oi et non
Solon qai racontait i^ Critias, le grand-p^re de rinterlocutenr, oe qn'il ayait appris, par
Solon, de la catastrophe de TAtlantide. * * * Platon, poar donner plas dMmportance a son
redi, anrait pu introdnire tons ces faits dans nn roman historique, et sa parents avec
Solon faTorisait la probability de la fiction." (Examen Critique de Vhitioire de la Oiographitt
Ac., before quoted, ** Considerations," i. pp. 167-73.)
"• Otia JSgptiaea, pp. 41-2; 61-8: and Typea of Mankind, 688-9.
470 THE MOKOOENISTS AND
since this mode of writing first came into use, when the characten
were used for the objects only.""*
Mr. Birch, living dispassionately in the midst of temptations, ang-
mented hourly by the increasing copiousness of his materials, adherei,
with admirable fortitude, to the non-recognition of any aritlimetiod
system of chronology. His last and invaluable prieis of Egyptian
hieroglyphs'**^ contains no alhision to this " vexata qutcstio ;" but we
may look forward to a history of Egypt, reconstructed by himself
exclusively from archaelogical monuments, that, according to my
view, will ground Nilotic history upon a more stable basis than eve^
fluctuating ciphers. In the meanwhile, a thorough revision of the
astronomical data contained in hieroglyphical inscriptions, — data
that^ utterly misconstrued in object as well as import, for the last half>
century, have provoked endless disputations — has at length enabled
M. Biot**^ to fix three lifetimes of Pharaohs by three several instances
wherein "the festival of Sothis («Syriu«, the dog-star)," is recorded
on monuments of the XVIIth and XXth dynasties. The first;
occurred about b. o. 1440, during the reign of Thotmes HI; the second
about B. 0. 1800, under Kamses UI; and the third under Ramses VIL^
about B. 0. 1240.
Precious to science as are these new facts, I doubt whether th^
destruction of false hypotheses is not more so ; and the removal c:::;;^
further hallucinatioHH about pharaonic ohscrvation of the "SotlL'=^
Period " is one of countless reasons for gratitude to Biot.^^ -Afc^
reading his criticism of Greeco-Roman postulates, one recognizes hc^^
" It becomes easy to see that the idea of an heliacal Thoth, as if /^
had been realli/ observed at Memphis, under conditions that wotijrf
make it correspond, day by day, with that of Antoninus, after tfce
revolution of 1461 vague years, is a pure fiction :" at the same time
that, to imagine Menopiikks, which is but a Greek translation of the
nome (province) of Memphis, to have been a King^ becomes, likewise,
"a chimera."!
More popular, thougli not less interesting, is the beautiful "Deter-
mination of the Vernal E(iuinox of 1852, eftectcd in Egypt, according
to observations of the rising and setting of the sun in the alignment
of the southern and northern faces of the great Pyramid of Memphis,
«» Iliftory of Egypty London, 2d ed., 1852; i. p. 13.
"0 Cry$tal Palace Library, London, 12mo, Bradbury and ETans, 1868. Possessing oolj
the proof-sheett, kindly (pTon to me by my friend Mr. Birch, in adranoe of pablicstioo, I
cannot supply its dcfinitiTe title.
M> Mfmoirei de rAcad/^mie dea Seieneet, Tome XXIV, 1 858.
*!' Recherehet de quelquea Datet Abtoluea qui peuvent te eonelun det dat$t vaguit tw k
Monument £gyplient, Paris, 4to, 1853; pp. lG-17.
THE POLYGENISTS. 471
by M. Mariette/'*'' It explains how naturally this vaunted "wisdom
of the Egyptians" (Acts vii, 22) reduces itself to simple "rules of
thumb," still practised daily by the unlettered Fellaheen along the
2Jlle; and proves also "que les prejuges du savoir une fois etablis
sent durs k d6truire. C'est une sorte d'iguoranco petrifi^e."
This aphorism of M. Biot applies with singular force to chronolo-
gevs of the old school, among whom, however, must not be ranked
Prof. Orcurti,^** one of the Egyptologists attached to the Museum of
Turin, where the liberal principles of Sardinia allow free utterance
to opinion. He likewise advocates the longest chronology: — "Hence
[the ChampoUionists] establish that Egyptian chronology must be
studied at its direct fountains, independently of the chronological
data of the Bible (I mean for the epoch anterior to the XVHIth
dynasty); inasmuch as, there not being a fixed and established chro-
nology of Hebrew annals, reason insists that we should avail our-
selves of that liberty which the [Catholic] Church concedes to us for
using anysoever chronological system." * * * "Beyond this period
[the Xllth dynasty which, with De Rouge, he fixes about 2900 b. c],
we do not care to prosecute the tedioub task of adding ciphers that
are only conjectural;" and, like myself,^^* Orcurti rejects the con-
temporaneousnesi of any Egyptian dynasties; holding that, — "all the
ingenuity of Bunsen availed naught in causing a system to be
accepted which is in contradiction with the historians and the monu-
ments."
It is partly for this reason, and partly for another to be given anon,
that I will not weary readers with an analysis of the 2d vol. (1853)
of Chev. Bunsen's anglicised " Egypt's Place in the World's History,"
in which the author's enonnous erudition rivals his wonderful dex-
terity in making his own ciphers harmonize with each other rather
than with the monuments. Neither is it worth the labor to point
out the whimsicalities of the "Monumental History of Egypt" (1854),
by Mr. Osburn a" scholar that, apart from his unquestionable skill
in deciphering inscriptions, coupled with a good knowledge of Copt-
ology, seems to hanker after the character of Homer's Margites,
who knew a great many things^ but all of them wrong,'^^^
BiOT, Journal des Savants, May, June, July, 1855; p. 29, &c.: and Idem. "Bur leu
Yestes de rAocienne Uranographie ^gyptienne qae Ton poarrait r^trouTer anjourd'hui chex
les Arabcs qai habitent rint^ricur de VEgypte" — op. cit. Aug. 1855. See especially Dm
ItouaC, " Noms ^gyptiens des Planfetes," — Bui. Arch6ol.^ Athen Fran^au, Mars-Avril, 1856.
^* Catalogo ilUutrato dei Monumenti Egizii del R. Mtueo di Torino, Turin, Svo, 1852 ; pp.
-47, 51, 57.
a* Typea of Mankind, pp. 677, 683.
«• Bbntlkt'8 PhalAiria, Dyoe's ed., London, 8to, 1886; II, p. 14; from Alc^, II of Plato,
€p. Ill, 116, cd. 1826.
472 THE M0N06ENISTS AND
Even for the only true Bynchronism, yet proved, between Egyptian
monuments and Hebrew records, viz : the conquest of Jerusalem by
Shishak;^^^ a latitude of some 15 years must be allowed, as shown
by the following table.^'®
OKampolHon-Figeac, Letronne^ Lenormant, Wilkiruon, Bunten^ Dt Rougi^ Barueeldf
B. C. 971. 980. 981. 978. 982. 978. 989.
There being absolutely nothing, heretofore discovered, in the hiero-
glyphics, relative to any preceding relations between the Israelites
and the Egyptians, we are reduced to the vague process of ehronoh-
gical parallels for conjecturing under what particular "Pharaoh"
(king), occurred the Exodus, or Joseph's ministry, or Abraham's
visit; and inasmuch as neither on the ^Egyptian, nor on the Jewish
side, can arithmetical precision'*^ be attained beyond Solomon's age,
or about 1000 B.C., wc may now, after 34 years of incessant scrutiny
since Champollion's "Precis," give up further illusion that any closer
synchronism between Moses and the "Pharaoh" who was not drowned
in the Red Sea,^ than the one very plausibly arrived at by Lepsius,'"
and adopted by Viscount E. de Roug6,^ will ever be wrought out.
After showing the probability that Moses must have succeeded
the reign of a Ramses {Exody 1, 11 — " Raamses "), and that the Exode
probably took place while Mknephthah, son of Ramses II, was on
the throne, De Rouge now confirms an assertion made by me, evei
since I acquired sonic knowledge of hieroglyphics (in Egypt, 183!
41), — and advanced in the face of then-preponderating hopes rathei
than testimony to the contrary, that — "we have not found, upon th<
monuments, the trace of these first relations of the Israelites wit
Egypt." They never will be found ; and this for reasons which ^ a
critical examination of the ages and writers of the book called "
dus" would conclusively explain.
"Chronology," continues De Roug6, "presents too many uncei
tainties, as much in Egyptian history as in the Bible, and especial!
when an endeavor is made to measure the period of the JudgeSy fc
one to be able, d, priori and through a simple comparison of
to define under what king took place the exit from Egypt. Ti
difliculty is still greater when it concerns the patriarch Jose]
**^ Gliddon, Chapters on Early Egyptian IliHory^ Archoiologyf ^c, Ist ed., New Y<
1848; 15th ed., Philadelphia, 1854; pp. 2, 8.
*" Orcurti, op. cit. p. 50.
n» Type* of Mankind, pp. G88, 706, 714.
«» Wilkinson, Man. and Cuat. of the Ancient Eyyptiant, London, 1887; L pp. 64-6,
M Chronologie der JEgypter, Berlin, 4to, Ist part, 1849; pp. 858-68.
«* Conservator of the Imperial Museum at the Louvre — Notice Sommair§ den Mont^^jj^^^
Sgyplient du Mueie du Louvre, Paris, 18mo, 1855; pp. 14, 15, 22-8.
THE POLYGBNISTS. 473
1>ecau8e the length of the time of servitude in Egypt is itself the
object of numerous controversies." * * * "As we have said, the
Bynchronism of Moses with Ramses It [XTXth dynasty], so precious
at the historical point of view, gives us insufficient light for chrono-
logy ; because the duration of the time of the Judges of Israel is not
fciown in a very ceiiain manner. We shall remain within the limit
of the probable on placing Seti I about 1500 [b. c], and the com-
mencement of the XVinth dynasty toward the 18th century. But
it would be by no means astonishing if we deceived ourselves two
bundred years in the estimate, so greatly are the documents vitiated
ixi history or incomplete upon the monuments.
" We have thus mounted up to the moment of the expulsion of
the Shepherds [JSyksos] : here we shall not even undertake any
further calculation. The texts do not accord as to the time which
tlie occupation of Egypt by these terrible guests lasted, and the
monuments are silent in this respect That time was long ; several
dynasties succeeded each other before the deliverance: this is all
tlutt; we know about it. We are not better edified concerning the
leng^ of the first empire, and we possess no reasonable means of
^^^^^uring the age of the pyramids, those witnesses of the grandeur
^f tihe primitive Egyptians. K nevertheless we recall to mind,
"^*^t; the generations which constructed them are separated from
ouir vulgar era, first by the eighteen centuries of the second
^Syptian empire, next by the very long period of the Asiatic inva-
*^^*i, and lastly by several numerous and powerful dynasties that
uave bequeathed to us jsome monuments of their passage, the hoary
^^^tiquity of the pyramids, maugre inability to calculate it exactly,
^^U lose nothing of its majesty in the eyes of the historian."
I^rom this rapid sketch of the unanimity of opinion as to the Ai>-
^^'^ and prehustaric periods of human life in Egypt (oldest of histo-
^^^1 countries) towards which scientific men in France, Italy, Ger-
^^*^ny, and England, are now converging, the reader will appreciate
' the correctness of the view taken by me, and supported with other
stations, in Ti/pes of Mankind. It merely shows how different minds,
'^^Boning without prejudice upon the same common stock of data,
'^^cessarily arrive at similar conclusions. But M. de Rouge's refe-
'^Uce to the difficulties of adjusting the chronology of the Book of
^^^Q€$ induces a glance at its new and likely solution proposed by
^J*. Samuel Sharpe.*°
The obstacles to previous settlement of the succession of Israel's
Mitiorie noUt on the Books of the Old and Ntw Tettamentt (supra, note 29) pp. 40-6.
I
474 THE MONOOEKISTS AND
Judges are familiar to possessors of Cahen,®* De Wette,** Munk,"*
Righellini,^ or Palfrey.^ Hitherto, as Basnage^ remarks, owing
to superstitions of modern European origin upon the exaggerated
antiquity of their literature, the Jews " have been the librarians of
God, and ours too :*' nor are they only bigoted Talmudists who still
maintain, " that he who sins against Moses may be forgiven, but he
that contradicts the Doctors deserves death." There are plenty of
teachers extant who, without the faith or the Ilebraism of old Solo-
mon Jarchi (iiSa«cAz), would with him declare, that — "if a Rabbi
should teach that the left hand is the right, and the right the left, we
are bound to believe him."^ But, for the purpose in hand, which
is to show how Mr. Sharpe re-arranges the discrepant Book of
Judges, it suffi-ces to repeat the exhortation of St Jerome, — "Relege
omnes et Veteris et Novi Testamenti libros, et tantam annomm
reperies dissonantiam et numerum inter Judam et Israel, id est, inter
regnum utrumque confusum, ut hujusce-modi hserere qusestionibus,
non tarn studiosi, quam otiosi hominis esse videatur:"^ not forget-
ting cither, how the father of Catholic biblical criticism, PfeRE SiMOir
de rOratoire, eschews — " the punctilios of chronologists ; that contain
more vowels than consonants, and which it would be more incom-
modious to harmonize than the different clocks of a large city. ♦ ♦
Impossible to make an exact chronology through the Books of
Sacred Scripture such as they are at this day."
"Albeit," writes Munk,^ "it is impossible to present an historical
tableau of the epoch of the Shophetim. The Book of Judges, which
is the only one we can consult about that epoch, is not a book of AiV
tory. Everj'' thing in it is recounted in an unstitched manner, and
the events succeed each other with rigorous sequence and without
chronological order. It is a collection of detached traditions about
the times of the Shophet\m, composed probably upon ancient poems
and upon popular legends that celebrated the glory of these heroes.
This collection, which dates from the first ages of the monarchy, had
for object, as it appears, to encourage the new government to com-
»* La BibU, Traduction NouvdU, «*Schophetim," vol. rii. ; Paris, 1846.
«5 Crit. and Hist, Introduction to the Canon, Scrip, of th$ Old Tettamtnl^ Boston, tranaL
Parker. 1843; ii. pp. 19&-8.
» Palestine, Paris, 1845; pp. 230-1, 441.
*" Ezamen de la Religion Chretienne et de la Religion Juive^ Paris, Sto., 1834; iii. p. 560
*" Academical Lectures on the Jewish Scriptures, Boston, 8vo., 1840; ii. pp. 208—35.
*» History and Religion of the Jews, transl. Taylor, London, fol. 1708; pp. 844, 170.
**> Mac KAY, Progress of the Intellect, London, 8vo., 1850; p. 14.
s3^ Epist. ad Vital. — Richard Simon, Histoirt Critique du Vi$ux Tmlawunt^ Amsterdam,
4to., 1686; i. pp. 38, 360, 204-8.
M Palestine, p. 231.
THE POLTGENISTS. 475
plete the work begun by Joshua, and to show to the people all the
advantages of hereditary royalty. For this pui'pose, it sufficed to
show, by a series of examples, what had been the disorders to which
the Hebrews delivered themselves up, during the days of the repub-
lic ; what had been the evil consequences which the (loving) weak-
ness of the Hebrews towards the Canaanites had caused, and how
the temporary power of one alone had always preserved them from
total ruin. One must not, therefore, think to establish with exactr
nesB the chronological order of &cts and the epoch of each judge.
Savants have given themselves, in this respect, useless trouble, and
bU their efforts have completely failed. It will suffice to say that the
ciphers which we find in the Book of Judges, and in the first book
of Samuel, yield us, from the death of Joshua to the commencement
of the reign of Saiil, the sum total of 600 years ; which would make,
since the exode from Egypt, 665 years ; whereas, the first book of
Kings counts but 480 years from the going out of Egj-pt down to the
foundation of the Temple under Solomon. According to this, one
most suppose [with Mr. Sharpe] that several of the Shophetim
governed simultaneously in different countries. In the incertitude
of the dates, and in the absence of historical sources, we must con-
tent ourselves by here giving a summary of the traditions contained
in the Book of Judges, to afford a general tableau of the state of the
Hebrews during that period, without pretending to establish a chro-
nological succession."
The great merit of Mr. Sharpens restoration to accordance of the
dislocated fragments contained in Judges is its simplicity ; and sim-
plicity, so far from being an index to a primeval stage of human
intellect, is always an expression of modern philosophical science.
" To determine the chronology, we must have regard to the geo-
graphy; and we shall see that the wars here mentioned do not
always belong to the whole of the Israelites ;*' that is, they often
occurred simultaneously, and not, as generally supposed by the old
chronologers, consecutively — different points of Palestine being
ruled over by different judges at the same time. " The whole argu-
ment will be made more clear by the following Chronological Table :
476
THE MONOGEHISTS AND
s
00
s
0
P
PS
I
•4
a
OQ
H
H
O
H
O
Q
O
H
a
H
P
O
1
B
a
04
i
00
o
•k
§^
-55
^^
V 0«
N e9
.»
u .
C3 iT
^ «>
V J3
CS OQ
A<
a a
S s
a *
'^ s
o
CS
_: •• «
eS ^ ^
i-«©« 00
r3
o c ^
* S o
I
1
s
a
4
s
ee
I1
0
B
1
o
OQ
i
ti'J'
i
1
a
C
<2
§
O
to
o
§5
^ 2
CO
30
c
09
o
•2 '
g«
Q
e
o
§3
00 00
{2h
11
o
B 00
0 V
B
•^«
an:
OQ
t4)
a
o9
OQ
a
00
n
s
o
o
00
s
C4
s
THE POLTGENISTS. 477
Mr. Sharpe hence infers, that " the Book of Judges ends in the
^ear b. c. 1100, and begins with Joshua's death, about b. c. 1250 ; and
the Exodus took place about b. c. 1300. In this way, from the Exodus
to the building of the Temple, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign,
is 289 years. If, instead of considering the periods of time in part
contemporaneous, we had added them all together [(w did the
unknown writers of King9]j we should have had about the 480 years
mentioned in 1 Kings vi, 1. But the above calculation is fully
(x>nfirmed by the genealogies," &c.
In the topographical and coetaneous tabulation of these judges,
Few students will disagree with the learned author ; but, in a later
portion of his valuable work, Mr. Sharpe himself indicates the
iragueness inherent in all these Jewish attempts at restoring their
lost chronology:^ "The events, indeed, in the history, from the
EbcoduA to Solomon's death, can hardly occupy more than three
centuries, if we observe that the times mentioned are mostly in
round numhern of forty years e<zch, which we are at liberty to consider
indefinite, and only to mean several years."
Thus, if, on the one hand, new evidences from the monuments
ind the alluvial deposits of the ITile constrain Egyptologists to
;laim, for man's occupation of that valley, epochas so far beyond all
\t9tarie chronology (and no other deserves the name), as to eliminate
;he subject, henceforward, from any computation of the contradic-
:ory elements contained in Hebrew, Samaritan, Greek, or Latin,
>iblical codices: on the other, the parallel advance in Scriptural
exegesis has curtailed to rational limits the preposterous antiquity
brmerly claimed for the Israelitish nation.
Whether Usher (in the margin of kiig James's version) takes,
with Marsan, 480 years as the interval between the exode and
Solomon's temple ; or Bossuet, 488 ; or Buret de Longchamps, 495;
>r Pezron, 837; has now become a matter of no consequence.
* Three centuries," a little more or less, is the average between Mr.
3harpe*8 estimate and that of Lepsius, at about 314-322 years.®* To
"each nearer than that supputation is a hopeless task, upon existing
MBS. of the Old Testament, — each one being faulty.
Since it has been discovered that, before Rabbi Hillel, son of Juda,
tlie Jews had made no scientific attempts (whatever the Alexandrian
Qreeks may have done) to establish a "chronology" for their own
nation, no further dependence can be placed upon Hebrew numera-
tion. Hillel died about 310-12 ; and in such repute was his autho-
** Bktone NoUtf p. S2. Lepaios's argument to the same effect is oited in 7\fpe9 o/Moh"
km; pp. 706-12.
^ Chr9m€io^ tkr JBgypt^r, I, 885-7.
47S THE M0N06ENISTS AND
rity held, that St Epiphanius claims his previons conversion™ from
Judaism ! Hillel, continues Basnage, did three things which tea-
dorod him famous among Jews and Christians. One of them was*
^* It was that he fixed the epocha from the Creation of the World, and
rookonod the years from them. Different epochas were made nee oi
Wforv\ The departure from Egypt was the mra of some ; the Lav^
glvou at Sinai was that of others: one reckoned the years from tb^
IXHlioifcilon of the Temple ; another from the return out of captivity"-
some d;L:o i from Alexander the Qreai'9 .entering into Jerasaler:B.J)
wV.loI; :".Ay Kv»kod upon as a considerable event to the Republic
IV,:: <::'.vO the Gtmara was finished, they began to reckon the yea
frx^v.; :'::*: Cr<'ati>u of the world; and we are told that it was Hitf^^
wV. > i<;.;Vl:>bc J this epocha^ and transmitted it to posterity (for it :5*
*::U V Sfkrv-i.-vi : and, according to his calculation, Jem9 ChriMt w^^*
bcra i:: the year 3760." * * * The Jews sustained, however, tht^^^
^^^%*%4 C\rift is not the Meinahj since he came above 200 yea
Kr,^ro the end of the fourth millennium:" * * * on which Basna
vv:u::;ouTs that ^^Jesu$ Chri$t ought to be bom in the year 8910"!
"Varia^ v^piniones de numero annorum k creatione ad nativitatenr: ^
Christ! : et quid de fine mundi sentiendam," — ^is a statement illustrat
by Gatlarelli^ with a list of more than twenty authorities,
Taulus Forosemproniensis down to Malvenda, in which the dates fo:- '^^
the Creation range from b. c. 3760 to 6810 ! "Ex quibus concluditur.
neo dies neque aunos d creatione ad Christum absque pcculiari rev
latione sciri posse." To the above, his translator obligingly add^^*
five moiv estimates of the year of the Nativity, — ^between a. m. 8837
and A. M. 3970 : marvelling, with Clemens Alexandrinus (lib. I,
Strom. B), at the existence of persons, in his time, who (not per-
ceiving exactly, with our aeuter national Didymus, how chronology
••binds man to God") attempt precision in determining Jcsub's ^
\»irtii — "Sunt qui curiosius non solum annum sed diem addunt!"
And tliis erudite father of the Church was living (a. d. 192-217) ^
l^irv^ly two centuries after tiie occurrence of this the greatest (among "^
ourselves) event of events.
Mosheim^ honestly concedes that the year of Christ "has not
bivn hitherto fixed with certainty;" but adopts, as "most probable," *
-the vear of Kome 748 or 749 {MaU. iii, 2; John i, 22; tc.):" in- — -
^ \\\*\ u)K v^upnu not« 229), pp. 157-9:— conf. aIm Maokat, Frogrmt cf tk§ ImtOitt -^ .rt
*M ('■,'!.»<: J :.P /MaNifi7(7 d4 figurit Penarum Talumania9t Horoteopo Patnmrtkmnm ^ «f
i*^.iiwo.\'^>^i i\rWrAbus: Latin^operft M. Gregorii Miohalis; HAmbugi, 1676; «p. l^^~ I.
y\y 7. U S, ISV^*. SS7-40.
**> ^iv.'iM<j4«KMi' iiuiifry, transl. Maclaire; lit Ameriean ed., Phl1a<klphia» ]'<97; I, p. ^^^
THE POLYGENISTS. 479
forming ns, in a note, that '^ the learned John Albert Fabricius has
collected all the opinions of the learned concerning the year of
Christ's birth.*' To his work I turn:^ although the question be
not even settled at this day !^
Under the head of "Minuti® in chronologicis minus consectandse,*'
Fabricius enlarges upon the uncertainties of chronology; backing
assertion with citations of 141 different epochs assigned to Christ's
nativity by about 283 autharitiesj who begin at a. m. 8616 and end at
A. H. 6484, for this all-important event. Then, for those who
"Christum natum consent" in An. UrbU cond. (the year of the
building of Bome), they range between 720 and 756 a. u. c. If,
more particular, we ask — "Quo mense natus Christns?" a table is
presented to our sight in which difierent computators have agreed
upon the 6th January ^ or the 10th idem^ or February^ or Marchy or
the 19-20th Aprily or the 20th May, or June "XI Kal. Julias," or
Julyy or Augu9t "sub finem mensis," or September "die XV Septem-
bris, Jo. Lightfootus ad Lucse II, 7," or October "sub init," or the
6th November^ or the 18th of the same, or, lastly, the 25th December
— "ex communi Qnecse et Latinse Ecclesice traditione/'
Fabricius adds this singular coincidence — " Pulchre observarunt
Viri docti k Romanis die VIII Cal. Januarii sive XXV Decembris
celebratum diem natalem Solis invictiy initium nempe periodi annuse
et brumam: eamque solennitatem si Christianis opportune trans-
latam ad Natalem Solie Justitise."
Raoul-Eochette,^ in his erudite inquiries into the Phcenician god
Melkarthy as an incarnation of the Sun at the Winter Solstice — a
subject greatly developed by Lanci^^ — has carried these Roman
analogies back to a much earlier period in Canaan. He says — "We
know, through a precise testimony in the ancient annals of Tjo^,
the principal festivity of Melkarth, at Tyre, was called his re-birth or
his awakening^ iys^ii (Joseph., Antiq. Jud., VXTT, 5, 8) ; and that it
was celebrated by means of a pyre, whereupon the god was supposed
to regain, through the aid of fire, a new life (Nonnus, IHonyeiaca, XT.^
"* Biblio^aphia Antiquaria, iive Introduetio in notitiam Scrip forum, qui antiqvatet JTebraicai,
ChtBcatf Ramanas, it ChriMtiofuu seriplit iUuttraveruni ; 2d ed., Hambargh, 4to, 1716; pp.
18&.7. 193-8, 842-8, 844.
** See Db Saulct, <* Snr la date de la naissance et de la mort dn Christ,*' — controTerted
\f Alpbvd Maubt, "Snr la date de la'naissance du Christ" {Aihenceum Fran^ait, 1855, pp.
486-6, 618-4).
*■* Mimoint ^Arehioloffi$ comparif, Anaiigue, Oreeqw ei ^trutque. !'• M^m., '< L*Her-
«ii1e Assyrien et Phoenioien consider^ dans se^ rapports ayeo rHeronle C^eo;" Paris, 4to,
^848; pp. 26-7, 28, 29u^8.
**> ParaUpomtni aW lUustraiitme detta Sagra Serittura per Monumenii Fenico-Astirii ad
l; Parii, 1845, 4to 2 toIs. pattim.
>
480 THE M0N06ENISTS AND
898). The celebration of this festival, of which the institution
mounted up to the reign of king Hiram, contemporary of Solomon,
took place at the month Peritius; of which the second day corre-
sponded to the 25th December of the Boman calendar (Serv. ad -^35n.
Vn, 720 — Jablonsky and Zoega); and, through a coincidence that
cannot be fortuitous, this same day, viz : the 25th December, wag
likewise at Rome the dies natalie Solia invicti ; a qualification under
which Hercules was worshipped at Tyre and elsewhere. It was,
therefore, really the death and the resurrection of a god^Sun^ that ^^
was celebrated at Tyre, at the Winter solstice, through this pyre of
Hercules ; and already we seize, in its primitive and original form,
one of the principal traits of the legend of the Hellenic Hercules." ^ '^
* * * And this lamented scholar continues to show how Tf rrrmr ^
{Die Phcenicierj I, 38Q) proves that, in the time of Ahab (Ist Hings^-^^
AViii, 27), a "god deceased and resuscitated!' was a fundamental!^,,^]
idea in the Jewish theocracy ; as well as to point out the relatione _^
between this Semitic myth and that of the Phoenician god Adonis ^.
who is the Tham-uz bewept by Israelitish females, at the gate of th^ _ae
holy Temple, in the time of the Prophets {Ezekielj Viil, 14).
If we seek at Rabbinical sources for their various supputation^Kng
concerning the advent of their Jewish " Messiah," the most leame ^=^^
and critical of their standard divines, Maimonides, acquaints us th^^^^i;
— "the Messiah should have come in the XHIth century, in tH^i^g
year 1316. But as that has not yet happened, others refer the ei — -:^j
of their misfortunes to the year 1492, others to the year 1600, ar^^^j
others again to the year 1940:" * * * some even holding "that t!"^^^^
MeSAaiall hath been a long time born, and remains concealed ^lI
Borne until Elias come to crown him."^^
These few citations, confirmatory of my distrust, expressed in
last publication,^*^ of any chronological systems, suffice to establ
accuracy of fact and deduction. The toils of Sisyphus, or
pangs of Tantalus, seem nothing compared with those experien
by hundreds of chronologists who, rivalling in pertinacity the
crusian's search after the " elixir of life," have exhausted every e
dient, our patience and their arithmetic, to discover when our wczzDrld
had a beginning. The superstition as to the possibility of success ^ in
any such endeavors is now fast taking j^nk, among men of scie^xiee
with its extinct corollary — so miserably distressing to ourBoec^^/afl
ancestors, about the year 1000 of our era — viz: anxious cipher^ coy
as to the world's termination. On this phase of humanity's (Cyclic
*** Babnaor, op. eit.y pp. 874-6.
a« rj/pet of Mankind, pp, 667-62. * v.
THE POLYGENISTS. 481
liallucinations,'** it has been well observed by W. Rathbone Qreg,^
that " the error of Paul (1 Theas. IV, 15) about the approaching end
of the world, was shared by all the Apostles {Jame$j V, 8 ; 2 Fetevy
irr, 12; 1 John, n, 18 ; Jude, v. 18)."
JFrom Hebrew to Assyrian subjects the transition is natural ; if but
to observe that very trifling, as regards chronological determinations,
h&s been the progress since Layard's second Expedition, published
ia 1853.^ Col. Rawlinson's various papers in the Royal Asiatic
Sooiety's Joumal,^*^ together with his unceasing announcements of
'^O'^r discoveries, through the London "Athenseum** especially, have
not: been yet arranged into a "corps de doctrine:" so that, except the
nummary tables in the last edition of Mr. Vaux*s learned work,^^ there
^ little settled about cuneiform annals, whether in England or on the
Continent ; notwithstanding the enormous increase of materials, due
^ the local exhumations of Ross, Loftus, Fresnel, Oppert, Place,
-K^^sam, Jones, and other laborers around Mosul and Bagdad.
C^neatic students (as was in part the case 15 years ago with Egyp-
^^rt hieroglyphics, which possess clews that the others have not) are
®^ill struggling, not merely with the philology of three distinct
*^Ogue8, Semitic, Indo-Germanic, and Scythic, encountered in arrow-
«^«Mied inscriptions of diflerent epochas and at diflerent localities,
'>Ht; against the more arduous phonetic complications of the various
S^'Oups or signs in which archaic dialects of these three idioms are
^^I>ressed. In consequence, that which is read one way by Rawlin-
f^O in England, is, generally speaking, read in another by Hincks
^^ Ireland ; both are oftentimes obnoxious to the conflicting versions
' FosBBS WiNSLOW, <<0ii Moral and Criminal Epidemics," — Joum, of Psychol, Med,
Mental Pathology ^ April, 1856 ; Art. VI, pp. 251-2. Alfbed Maubt, Let Mystiques
%^M€s et Us StigmatisiSy — extrait des ** Annates Medico-psychologiqnes," Paris, 1855; pp.
'*^— 60. Also his reriew of Lblut^s Dimon de Socrate, in Alhen<Bum Fratifois, 1 Mars, 1856.
'^ The Creed of Christendom, London, 8yo, 1851; pp. 19-25, 181-8.
'^ Types of Mankind, p. 702.
*" Outlines of Assyrian History, 1852; — Notes on the early History of Babylonia, 1855.
*** Mmeoek and Persepolis, 4th edition, rcTised and enlarged — London, 12mo, 1854, pp.
^^^-9. While writing, I see by the London Times (Aug. 12, 1856) that, at the meeting of
^'^ Hrit. Assoc, for the AdT. of Science, just held at Cheltenham, Sir Henry Rawlinson is
to haye ** shown that the impressions on the bricks found at * Ur of the Chaldees,'
marked with the name of a king, which he thinks identical with the Chedorlaomer of
mBj and at least 2000 years before Christ," I have no doubt that, at the rate Assyrian
^^iifirmations" are going on, the contemporary history of Abraham himself would yet be
^^ii<l in cuneiform, but for a slight exegetical diffculty ; yi%. : the aye of the unknown
of the XIYth chapter of Genesis (J)fpes of Mankind, p. 604, note 111). [The aboTe
penned last Sept. Since then I haye read Col. Rawlinson's most interesting ** Dis-
99i** (Atheneeum, Loud. 1856, pp. 1024-5); and learn that the Assyrian empire was not
^^*^tiited before the 18th century, b.o., — a modem date to Egyptologists. When cuneatic
*^^ttiit8 in England are enabled, through arrow-headed typography, to riyal Oppbbt's
*^«imree8 in ** Imprim^rie Imp^riale*' {Bui. ArehioL Athen. iV., Mai, 1856), palsoography
^>^ plioe more fidth in their translations.]
81
482 THE MONOGENISTS AND
of Oppert and De Saulcy in France ; whilst, in Germany, the fether
of cuneiform decipherers, Grotefend, frequently prefers a reading of
his own. Out of this embarrassing state of afiairs, a feeling of mis-
trust has gradually arisen, especially at Paris, the centre of archseo-
logical criticism ; which has found voice, at last, in the pages of
Renan ;^^ than whom, amid masters of Semitish tongues and histoiy,
none are better qualified to judge.
" K one must feel grateful toward those persons who venture into
these unknown lands, whilst exposing themselves to a thousand
chances of error and of ill success, the greatest reserve is commanded
in presence of contradictory results, obtained through an uncertain
method, and sometimes presented without any demonstration. Is it
not excusable to doubt, in such matters, when one sees the man who
has made for himself the greatest renown in Assyrian studies, M.
Rawlinson, sustain that the Assyrians did not distinguish proper
names by the sounds but by the sense; and that, in order to indicate
the name of a king, for instance, it was permitted to employ all the
synonymes which could approximately render the same idea; — that
the name of each god is often represented by monograms differing
from each other, and arbitrarily chosen ; — that the same given cha-
racter was read in several ways, and must be considered in turns as
ideographic or phonetic, alphabetic or syllabic,^ according to the
needs of interpretation; — when one sees, I say, M. Rawlinson avow
that many of his readings are given exclusively for the convenience
of identification [as amongst one of the last beautiful "confirmations *
— DanieVs herbivorous Nebochadnassar !}; that it is often permitted
to modify the forms of characters to render them more intelligible:
— when, lastly, one sees, upon such frail hypotheses, a chronology
and a chimerical pantheon of the ancient empire of Assyria con-
structed ? What must we think of the inscriptions, called Medic,
which would be written, if one must credit the same Savant, in a
language wherein the declension would be Turkish, the general
structure of the discourse Indo-European, the conjugation Tartar and
Celtic, the pronoun Semitic, the vocabulary Turkish, mixed with
IV'i-siuu and with Semitic ? To this method I prefer even that of M-
N orris, who, persuaded, like MM. Westergaard and De Saulcy, that
tlio language of the inscriptions of the third species is Scytbic or
»*» Jlistoire ft Sf/iffime compari det Langue9 Simitiques, Paris, 1866; pp. 64-9, 70.
"^ It is novortheless true, that a siffn does often possess these different powers, and oo^
so be read, in hieroglyphics ; bat in the latter form of writing (whether enneatics pocs^
ituoh indices to the method of reading or not), the groups themseWes famish the ker ^1
which to know \U value. Conf. Lepsius, Lettre d RoteUini, AnnaG, 1887, pp. 81-47 :^Bt''
SKN. KgypCt Place, 1848, I, pp. 594-600 :~-Db Rouoi, M4moir§ iurUTombeaud'AAmn.l^^*
p. 17b:— and Biacii, Cryttal Palact Band-Book, 1866, pp. 222-9, 248.
THi: POLYGENISTS. 483
Tartarie (what I do not mean to deny), undertakes to explain them
through Ostiak and Tcheremiss, and claims to give us, with the help
of the inscriptions, a complete Scythic grammar. One must be pro-
foundly wanting in the sentiment of philology, to imagine that, by
assembling upon one's table a few dictionaries, the infinitely-delicate
problem can be solved, if it be not insoluble, of an unknown tongue
written in an alphabet in m^or portion unknown. Even were the
language of the inscriptions perfectly determined, it could not be,
save through an intimate knowledge of all the neighboring idioms,
that one might arrive at giving with certainty the grammatical ex-
planation and the interpretation of such obscure texts."
Taking China, on our way back to Egypt fix>m Chaldea, it is to be
remarked that, since the labors, hitherto unimpeachable, of the
Jesuit missionaries, 200 years ago, little or nothing has been done,
in that impenetrable country, by European criticism of their ancient
monuments or annals, to invalidate the sketch of Chinese chronology
borrowed fix)m Pauthier.^^ No preconceived opinions (or desires),
on my part, induce suppression of doubts as to the histiMric claims of
this Sinologico-Jesuit account of Chinamen's antiquity to absolute
credence. There are improbable circumstances about the re-finding
copies of their ancient books, after the destruction of libraries by
Chi-hoang-ti,^ about b. o. 213, — parallel with librarian auto-da-
te*3 elsewhere— on which some more positive narration might be con-
soling ; and Davis ^ has remarked how, in the flowery empire itself,
"a fieimous commentator, named Choofootse, observes: 'It is impos-
sible to give entire credit to the accounts of those remote ages/
Dhina has, ill fact, her mythology^ in common with all other nations."
3he had, also, at very early times, — ^hundreds of years prior to the
otrecian Thales — ^her astronomical observations. Among these (if
xny point seemed certain in Chinese or other histories) were two
eclipses of the sun, recorded as having taken place in ih^ reign of
rcHONG-KANG, whom Father Amiot's table places about b. c. 2159-47.*^
The former was computed, by Gaubil, to have occurred on the 13th
Oct., 2155 B. c. ; and by Freret and Cassini, during b. c. 2007 : the
Latter by Rothman, resuming Chinese supputations, in the Julian
year 2128. Now, it is unfortunate that, with the precise " Tables
A.br6g6es, composees par M. Largeteau pour fociliter le CcUcul den
tSffzygies ecliptiques et non ^cliptiques," neither this astronomer nor
*
« 7\fpe8 ofManJtindy pp. 695-7.
«• Pauthisr, Chvu, Pang, 8vo, 1837; pp. 222, 288L
** The Chinete, 12ino, London, I, p. 167.
**Pautuisb, Chine tTaprlt let doeumentt ehinoiSf Paris, Sro, 1887, p. rl80;*-« SUtoire
oiitiqae da Chon-king*'— Xivret Saer^ de F Orient, Paris, 8?o, 1848; pp. 8-(».
484 THE MONOGENISTS AND
M. Biot^ was, down to 1843, able to find that either of two solar
eclipses, which really occurred at that remote period, could have
been visible in China at all !
As to Hindostdn, the fiat of Klaproth^ stands unshaken by any
more recently discovered facts ; at the same time that the plurality
of later critics, out of Germany ,^ — a country where the aflinities
of Sanscrit with AUemanic idioms had, indeed, superinduced a state
of rapture that is beginning to melt away — corroborate the modern-
ness of its annalists: "We are ignorant of what was [only in the
7th century, b. c. !], in these remote times, the state of India." * * *
" The total want of materials has forced me to pass over in silence
the history and the antiquities of India. The political geography
of this vast country, even a long time after it had been inhabited by
the Mohammedans, is still very little known to us."
Prinsep*" shattered the alleged antiquity of Hindostanic inscrip-
tions ; nothing, throughout the peninsula, ascending within four or
five generations of the modem age of Buddha, — assumed at the
6th centurv b. c.*®
And, if art (vide Pulszky's chapter, IE. ante) be chosen as the crite-
rion, the previous investigations of Langl^s had ruined the fabled
age of India's structures ; " because, according to the judicious ob-
servation of Mr. Scott Waring {Hist, of the MahrattaSy p. 54), there
exists no authentic information anterior to the establishment of the
Mussulmans in the peninsula (before the 14th century of the vulgar
erak and it would be superfluous to seek for some historical docn-
monts in works written in Sanscrit." * * * The pagoda of Djogger-
n«uu bojnm in the 9th century, " is a new proof in favor of our
ojxinion ujH^n the modemness of the monuments of the Peninsula."
• ♦ ♦ Klloni^ by the Brahmans estimated at 7915 years old, was by
Muslim writorsi reduced to 900; and thus, says Langl6s, "the AoP^
\\f t^(K> ti'fc 700 year? seems to me more probable than that of 791^*
Tht^^ rook-tomplos present traces of Greek architecture: their el^
•» ^v^r%* A« Ci^if^ifil*. Pmris, 1843 ; 1' artiole ; tirage 4 part, pp. 4-a
•* ni.X;«>n«t ki$hvi^w* dSt FAm, Paris, 4to, 1826; pp. 2, 286.
*> l^K l\\»is(E\i\ y^im/^MHi d«9 Raeet^ II, pp. 101-8), has allowed himself to be somewl^
<>«m^ aw)i^T «» to Ari^m antiquity; bat his obserrations on old-sohool philologert (p. 10^^
elH^m to »♦ K» b# ciwrtct
«• J^mr^ i^f tk4 Ati^tk Soe, ^ Bengal; Calcutta, 1828; YII, pp. 166-67, 219-282:-^
anU STKUk J^»> JR^ Anmtk Soe., London, 1841 ; VI, Art 14, Appendix IIL
«• »mmmmu imcimt H moiitnm de rSmdotutan, Paris, foUo, 1821 ; I, pp. 117, 181 ^
11, 12-4t, 66-8. 7l\ 169—70, 184, 208. Of. also Briggs, Aboriginal Race oflndim, R. Asia^
Soc. June, 1852 ; pp. 7-9, 14. The Arian-Hindooe did not eren conquer the Dekhin muc^
before the 5th century of our era: — the modemness of Elephanta, Salsette, Ac, was tw/^
pected at sight bj the judicious obserrer Bishop Hsbbr (NarraUM ^ c J^mnug ti
tk§ %fftr Frvnnm o/India^ London, 4to, 1828; II, pp. 179, 192).
THE POLTGENISTS. 485
phanta were cat by foreign artists; and ^Hhe leaves of Acanthus
are badly drawn and capsized around the base of a pillar of Hindoo
style ; bo that this base gives the idea of a Corinthian capital turned
upside-down." The Hindoo zodiacs, too, are all Greek and modern !
We have seen that Palestine, Mesopotamia, and essentially Hind-
ostin, afford no stand-point for annual chronology, even to the year
B. c. 1000 ; and that, beyond the twenty-third century prior to our
era, at the outside, China fails to supply us with proofs of anything
more than a long previous unhistorical existence. There are no
other lands, except Egypt, whose historical period attains to pa-
rallel antiquity vidth the two first-named countries; notwithstanding
abundant evidence of Etrurian, PhcBuician, and Lydian, civilizations
of much earlier date than 2850 years backwards from our time.
Pelasgic Greece falls into the latter category. Whether as nomads
or errantBy as the ancient or the <?Zd,^ "the remembrance of these
most ancient inhabitants of Greece loses itself in transmjrthological
ages." Their successors on Hellenic soil have left us no determinate
chronology beyond the Olympiads, beginning with the foot-race won
by Coroebus in the year B.C. 776;^** and these victories were not
arranged in their present order for 500 years later, viz., by one
Timaeus of Sicily, about b. g. 264.
"The Pelasgi and the other primitive populations of Greece,"
continues Maury, "do not appear to have possessed any ancient
tnuUtion upon cosmogony and the first ages of human society.
They were, in this respect, in the same ignorance, in the same
vagueness, wherein the savage septs of Asia, of Oceanica, and of
the New World, are still found, who have not been brought into
contact with more enlightened nations. One encounters nothing, in
&cty among the primitive Hellenes, analogous to the cosmogonies of
Genesis, of the books of Zoroaster, or the laws of Manou. Which
sufficiently proves, that the intellectual state of these Pelasgic tribes
was very far removed from that of the Ismelitish, Persian, or Hindoo
peoples." Like these Asiatics, the Greeks of a later day anthro-
morphosized inventions ; or else made the proper name of a country y
a riveff or a hUly the primordial human ancestor of a nation.^
" Thus, in Elis, a personage whose name was taken from that of the
Olympic games, AethltoSy passed for the first king of the country,
and was regarded as the son of Zeus and Protogeneia.
" So, likewise, in antiquity, the name of pretended inventors of
** Alwmmd Mavst, Rteherchet tur la Religion et U CuUe dtt Poptdationt primitivu dt la
Oi^u, PurU, 8to, 1855; pp. 2, 20, 80-1, 201-4, 21G-24.
*^ AinHOK, JHUionary of Oreek and Roman AntiquUiet, New York, 1848 ; pp. 678-9.
"B T^ipm tffMonkmd^ pp. 549, 551-2, for parallel examples.
48b THE M0N06ENISTS AND
certain arts was forged througli the aid of words which designated
either the objects or the instruments of which the arts make use, or
even by the help of the proper names of these arts themselves. It
is thereby that Closter (KXwffr^p), that is, the spindUy was held to be
the inventor of the art of spinning wool. The art of strikiDg fire
from flint was discovered, it was said, by Pyrodes (nup€Wi>K), that w,
the burning, the kindled, son of Oilix {%ilex\ the flint. The ^pise'
{luteum (»d(/fcittm)'had been invented by Technes (T^x*^)> ^*^> "^^^'
rectly written Doeius in the manuscripts of Pliny ; the rule (reguk)
and not the tile {tegula), as one reads in some manuscripts, had bad
for its author Cinyrus, son of Acribeias. The name of this Cinynw
is derived from the root canna; and a &lse reading has substituted,
for the name of Acribeias {dxpi^sta, rectitude), that of Agriopas.
Chalcas (XaXxo^, brass), son of Athamas ('A^ofioc, Ju^rd metal}^ had
made the first Bucklers, &c.;" — just as, in king James's vereion,
TtUBuLKalN", literally, the Qod- Vulcan, has become transmuted
into ** TuBAL-CAiN, an instructer of every artificer in brass and
iron."^
*>* Oenesit W, 22: — conf. Qliddon, Olia JEffyptiaea^ p. 141, note.
ETory one knows that whether ** GOD appeared in the flesh/' or " who appetred in tk<
flesh," of 1 Timothy iii, 16, depends upon OC or OC in the Codex Alexandriniis at tbe
British Museom; which biliteral, through pions handlings, is now effaced I (Cakduai
Wiseman, Connection between Science and revealed Religion^ London, 1886 ; II, pp. 16S-9.
See also the same fact in Wetstknii Nov. Testament, ^ II, p. 864 ; cited in Bishop Miub'i
Miehcelis, I, p. 677, notes.)
<*The history of Saint Ursula and of the 11,000 Tirgins whose innumerable relies in
shown, arranged in one of the churches, at Cologne, owes its origin to an expressioD of
the old calendars. Vrtula et Uhdeeimellaj W. MM. ; that is to say, * Saint Ursula and Stint
Undicimella, Tirgins and martyrs.' Ignorant readers haye, as one perceiTes, singnliHy
multiplied the latter saint. Cont Brady, Clans Calendaria, t. 2, p. 884.*' (Altbbd MinT>
Ligendet Pieutes du Moyen-Age^ Paris, 8to, 1848; p. 214, note.)
Here is one Hebrew, another Greek, and a third Latin, example, out of hundreds at haixi
(in Hebrew especially), to illustrate historical metamorphoses. Where either instance does
not suit the taste of a Boeotian, it may that of an Athenian. But for the orientalist 1 1^
an inedited specimen, due to the kindness of a Persian scholar, my old friend Mijor-Oeotf*!
Bagnold, of the Hon. East-Ind. Comp.'s Service.
In the Arabic alphabet, adopted with slight modifications by Persians, the letter i^«
Z, is distinguished from the letter afe, R, only by a '* nuqta," dot, or point, placed abo^
the former letter's head. <* The author of the Anwarry SakeiUy jocularly eritioiies tbe osi
of points by an amusing couplet, which I translate almost Terbatim,and paraphrase:
* If Anwarry, within this world.
Could wish to liye without its Mihimut
(misery) '
Nature brings forth a filthy fly
To dung o'er the head of rIi in rihinmU
(mercy)
••
• M
THE P0LYGENI8TS. 487
** In the time of Pausanias, the people of Corinth, to whom the
circnmstances of the foundation of their city were totally unknowTi,
recounted that this city had been built by a king named Corinthus.
" All these personages of poetical fiction were attached, afterwards,
to the divers countries from which the Greeks fancied themselves to
have originated ; deceived as they were by resemblances of traditions
and the lying assertions of strangers emulous of being the parents
of their civilization. It is hence that PhoBnicia, Media, Egypt, Libya,
Ethiopia^ and India, were regarded as the cradle of these heroes,
all Greeks by their origin and their name, — ^traditions comparatively
modem, that have led more than one sch6lar astray, but of which
criticism has definitively ruined the authenticity."
In justice to my friend M. Maury, I ought to mention that his
foot-notes sustain every statement with irrefragable testimony. We
behold, however, in Greece, — a country about which we possess
more information than concerning any other on earth,— thanks to her
ancient historians and to modem archseologists — how human ori-
gines^ in one and the best-represented locality, are absolutely un-
known. K in storied Hellas such is the case, what must we expect
to find about man's primordial advent upon our planet, among less
historical nations ? The prefatory remarks to the "American Realm"
of our Ethnographic Tableau will illustrate another phase of this
argument.
The chronological deficiencies encountered everywhere else compel
a final return to the monuments of the Nile. Amid their petroglyphs
and papyri alone can we hope to weave a thread by which to measure
the minimum length of time that a type of humanity must have
occupied that valley. In our former work,^ a synopsis of hiero-
glyphical investigations exhibited how Egyptian chronology stood
in the year 1853. Four years have passed, and I have nothing to
alter. Correct then, the same views are accurate now ; for, with
the exception of an appendix to the Misses Homer's translation^
of his travels, Chev. Lepsius has not more definitively treated on
chronology; nor, up to the spring of last year (1856), had he published
Ina Book of Kings ; until the appearance of which, I have consistently
maintained since 1844, no professed system of Egyptian chronology
can, in the very nature of human things, possess solid or durable
claims to attention : — such as have recently appeared, worthy of respect,
being either like M. Bmnet de Presle's,"^ a re-examination of the classi-
cal sources ; or else like Chev. Bunsen's second volume {ubi supra), a
^ Typt9 of Mankind, 686-9.
"• Ltiterafrom Egypt , Ethiopia^ &o. (supra, note 198).
* Esamen eriiijui <U la Sueeeation dei dynattu* 4gyptimne$t Part I, Paris, 8to, 1850.
488 THE MONOGENISTS AND
labyrinth of arithmetical adjustments satisfectory to no one but
their learned calculator ; or again, similar to the useful but very
piece-meal coverings of a skeleton chronology by M. Brugsch,— "^
who, in the main, agrees with the time-measurements previously
laid down by Lepsius ; or finally, ingenious attempts at unsettling
that which had been generally agreed upon, by Champollionists,
through M. Poitevin's^ attorney-like process of detecting some sup-
posititious flaw in the indictment.
For myself, therefore, as before stated, I have no more precise
Egj'ptian chronology to oflfer than that already sketched in Tyfe% of
Mankind; and having waited some twelve years for Lepsius, it is
small hardship to extend one's patience for a few months longer:
because, as I had the pleasure of hearing from his own lips last year,
during our rencontre over the new treasures of the Louvre Museum,
the Book of King% must now be near the point of its appearance at
Berlin. The delay of publication, since its announcement about
1845,^ is not to be regretted. The Chief of the Prussian scientific
mission, upon his return from the East in 1846, had first to arrange
the periodical issue of the magnificent Denkmaler^ by no means yet
completed ; and next, in such standard works as the Chronohgie i/^
JEgypteVj followed by innumerable minor essays, to clear away errcr*
neous hypotheses whilst indicating novel fects, before the chronolo^^
cal frame-work, resulting from accumulated discoveries, could b^
filled up in method satisfactory to archeeologists.
Through such wise procedure, his Book of Kings will now embodj^
the enormous series of historical data derived (only since 1850) fronc^
the Memphite exhumations of M. Aug. Mariette — latterly ap^-^
pointed, by Imperial discrimination, one of the ConservateurB d^
Musie du Louvre.
With an outline of this gentleman's conquests in Egyptian
science, my addenda to the pages'"" of our last volume (wherein his
name foreshadows revelations, the extent of which none but himself
could then appreciate) may properly close. It was my good fortune
to arrive at Paris in Nov. 1854, within a week of M. Mariette's
return there, fresh from the scenes of his four-year's toil beneath
desert-ground with the superficies of which, around the PjTamidB
of Sakkara, I had been familiar from 1831 to 1841. Introduced to
him at the Institute by our collaborator M. Alfred Maury, nothing
*^ Reisberichte aus jEgyptm (supra, note 199).
3B8 Mimoire tur les Sfpl Cartouches de la Table d'Ahydot attrihuia d la XII* dynastie fyyph
ienne — Extrait de la Revue ArcMologique, 11* Ann^e, Paris, 1S54.
s» Gliddon, Appendix^ 1846, to all subsequent editions of « Chapters on Earlj Egyptian
History," p. 3.
"0 Typei of Mankind, pp. 676, 686.
THE POLYGENISTS. 489
could exceed the franknees and prolonged kindness of his bearing
towards an elder JSTilotic resident. M. Mariette is too highminded
for me to express more than a grateful acknowledgment of facili-
ties by him accorded to me ; not forgetting either those of his able
coacyutor at the Louvre, my fiiend M. T. Deveria.
The first reliable announcement of results of " Excavations at the
Serapeum of Memphis" appeared over the signature of a far-famed
arch6ologue, F. de Saulcy de Tlnstitut :^* but the treasures brought
thence by Mariette, were not arranged for public inspection in the
Louvre-galleries, until the 15th May, 1855, during the Exposition
univeridU, The facts are these.
Sent out to Egypt " en mission'* in quest of ancient Coptic MSS.,
the curiosity of our Egyptologist was excited at Alexandria, Aug.
1850, by the sight of numerous uniform Sphinxes of calcareous
stone, covered with Greek inscriptions, said to have been brought
from Sakkdra, the necropolis of Memphis. Following at Cairo the
advice of Linant-Bey, during a trip to the localities, M. Mariette
discovered, peeping out from the sand, one of this self-same kind of
sphinx in situ. For a man of his education and quick energy this
indication sufficed. Gangs of workmen were immediately employed
to clear away the sand which, since the days of Strabo — b. c. 15 —
had accumulated over these rocky undulations to a depth varying
fi-om 10 to 70 feet; and, by the 25th Dec. of the same year, an
avenue, in length above 6600 feet, was laid bare, flanked by the
remains of a double row of sphinxes, of which 141 were in good
preservation.
At the end of this alley, a little fiirther exhumation disclosed —
astounding to relate, in an Egyptian cemetery — a hemicycle formed
of Greek statues of Hellenic worthies; Pindar, Lycurgus, Solon,
Euripides, Pythagoras, Plato, ^schylus. Homer, Aristotle ! Thence
branched oflF a paved dromos to the right and left ; the latter path-
way to a temple built by Pharaoh Amyrtseus (about b. c. 400) in
lonor of Apis; the former straight to the long-lost Serapeum.
Two chapels, one Greek and the other Egyptian, intersected the
middle of this road on its left side ; and, in this last, large as a calf
at 8 months, was inclosed a most beautiful and perfect statue,
carved in white calcareous stone, of the sacred bull Apis! As
probably the one visited by Strabo, it now ranks among other price-
Jess treasures of the Louvre. Lifinite inscriptions, Egyptian, Greek,
and. even Phoenician, containing the proscynemata, votive oflerings,
of generations of foreign visitors to the holy shrine ; Hellenic and
J^haraonic bronzes, effigies, and monuments of many materials and
"1 L€ Conttitutionnel, Paris, 9th and 10th December, 1854; FeuilUtons.
490 TnP. MONOGENISTS AND
objects, in and around thie fianctiiary of SerupiB, were the reward a
eight months' fatigue; when, as usual in Ottoman lands, local in-
trigues and international jealousies arrested the works for a soaeoii ,
until the prompt interference of the French Govt-mmont, with a
grant of 30,000 francs for expenses, enahled the undaunted explorCT
to resume his active day-labore in Feb, 1852. Uis nocturnal re-
aearches were never abandoned however; and bis gallant defiance _
as well of falling blocks as of assiiBsi nation had been crowned, on,^-
the Liij^ht of the 12t!i Kov, 1851, by entrance into a fiubtorraneai^:^
city of death, — the vast aopulcbral cavea of more than 64 g-enera~.—
tions of Apiiea, covering a period of above 15 centuries, were nightl»^ ,
trod by Gallic foot: that is to say, more than 1600 years since th ,^_
last Gaulish legionary had stared at Apit dead, or that in *'"--i
sndria, about the tinioa of fit, Mark, there had been proclaimed tl^^
advent of Apia living: — ?u^» STtpxnfi^mv, "the life which comes;; ••
narrate tlie ecclesiastical historians, liufinus {obiil a.d. 408), So2.«>.
inun {obiit 450), and Socrates {flour. 440) ; the last of whorp, ae-
quainted with a book which, according to 8t. Jerome, Sophroniu«
had composed concerning the deatructlon of the Alexandrian 8eni.
peura, about A.u. 391, relates that — "The Christians, who regard
the cross as a sign of the salutary passion of Christ, thought tliia
sign [the crux ansaia, bieroglypbicfe ankh, "f — "life eternal" — found
iu that t«mple of Serapis] was the one which belongs to thorn ; the
gentiles said, that it was soniething common to Christ and to
Serapia"*'' — i.e. " IlaPI-IIeSntI (Osiris-Apis) great God who retidei
in AmctitJiiy the lord Uvinij fomver ;" as Sempia is addressed in
hundreds of inscriptions now at Paris.
These researches were vigorously pushed for about four ycara
along the Memphito necropolis, resulting, as will be seen prcscully,
in an immense accession of antiquities, from the earliest i'hnraonic
to the latest Itoraan times — a period of some 4000 years. Through
them, the ago of the colossal sphinx of Geezeh has been carried back
to the primeval IVth dynasty; and, for chronology, a collection of
funereal tablets (about GoO saved out of some 1200 found), now in
the Louvre, giving the genealogicB of individuals (one I saw go^
back, fathers and sons, about 19 generations), often with the dateH
of kings' reigns, year, month and day, of every epoch, will enable «
archaiology ti> till a thousand gaps in the time-nieasuremont of old ■#=
>" I.«Tao»K«, La Croix Aniit igi/pliennt (Mfim. do I'Acsd. des Iiu«rip., 2d ptrt|
•■Ungo i, part," Paris, 1846; pp. 24-20: citing tcxtnutl;, Buanm IT, e. 20 ud 29
Boiomen, Bitl. teeUi. Til, 16, p. T2& B — aud Socraton, V, 17, p. 270, A.B. f^--' ■'— ^^
Pa POTTta, Sulnrt in Chriilianumt. ^^
THE POLYGENISTS. 491
Egypt. The last catalogue of the Louvre museum^ enumerates but
few of these uncounted treasures. Science must wait patiently for
their co-ordination by their discoverer, when France publishes his
folio Monuments. Meanwhile, as De Saulcy says — "The names of
a dozen new Pharaohs have been found; and the 400 principal
steles, that are now deposited in the Louvre, are like 400 pages of a
book written 3000 years ago, which reveal to us a multitude of details,
heretofore unknown, about the life and the religion of ancient Egypt.
Furthermore, art itself has to put in her claims for a share in the rich
booty of M. Mariette ; and I limit myself to citing, among other
monuments, an admirable statue of a Bitting Scribe j dating certainly
4000 years before the Christian era, and which is a chefd'ceuvre of
the plastic art."
This Scribe is fac-simile-ed in our frontispiece, with other contem-
poraneous associates from the same tomb (Vth dynasty) in plates
n to "Vlll of this present volume. They are due to the complaisance
of my friends MM. Dev6ria and Salzmann (author of those* unsur-
passable joAofo^ropA^ of Palestine), who, with the sanction of MM.De
BougS and Mariette, kindly brought their instruments to revivify,
at the Louvre, the specimens first offered to the American public in
this Work. M. Pulszky*s practised eye has already assigned them a
proper place in the history of iconographic art (Chapter II, pp.
109-116, ante).
But Mariette must speak for himself.^*
"I estimate," says the explorer, "that the diggings at the Sera-
peum of Memphis have led to the discovery of about 7000 monu-
ments.
" But all these monuments are not relative to the same object, that
is to say to the worship of the God adored in the Serapeum. Built
in a necropolis more ancient than itself, the Serapeum held within
its enclosure some old tombs which the piety of Egyptians had
respected. Nearly all its walls were, besides, formed of stones bor-
rowed from edifices already demolished. * * * The clearing out of
the Serapeum has, therefore, really had for result the discovery of
the 7000 monuments already mentioned. But the monography of
Serapb does not count upon more than about 3000 ; — ^a very respect-
able cipher, if one recollects that few questions of antiquity have
ever reached us under the escort of a similar number of original
documents. * * * It is not, then, a treatise upon Serapis that must
be required from the little essay of which I am tracing the lines. If
"^ NotkM S^mmake (snpra, note 222).
"* <*Rei»6ignement8 sur lea 64 Apis trouv^s dnns lea souterrains du S4rap4um" — Bulletin
ArthMogiqu^ de tAiheiutum Frangais, Paris, May-Nov. 1855; Articles I to V.
492 THE MONOGENISTS AND
it be accorded to me some day to render a detailed account of the
operations of which the Serapeum was the theatre, I will endeavor
to show and to define the Serapis whom the classifying and interpre-
tation of the texts found in the temple of this god have revealed to
us. It will then be seen what Serapis really was. It will be seen
how Serapis was a god of Egyptian origin, as ancient as Apu, seeing
that after all he is but Apis dead. It will be seen how the Serapis
of the Greeks is only another amalgamated Grseco-Egyptian god;
and how these two divinities have lived at Memphis in two distinct
Serapeums, in each other's presence, without ever being confounded."
^^ It is known that the Serapeum is situate, not at Memphis, but
in the burial-ground of Memphis ; and that this temple was entirely
built for the tomb of Apis. The Serapeum is merely, therefore,
according to the definition of Plutarch and of Saint Clemens-Alex-
andrinus, the sepulchral monument of Apis; or rather the Serapeum
is the temple of Apis deady who, in consequence, must be distin-
guished from the temple of Apis livingy that Herodotus has described,
and which Psametichus embellished with the colossi of Osiris. Ap^
had, then, properly speaking, two temples ; one which he inhabited
under the name of Apis during his lifetime, the other wherein 1>^
reposed after his death under the name of Osorapis" — corrupted l>3
Greeks and Romans into Serapis.
" By way of risumSy the explanations which I have just given ha
already had for result to show us : —
1st. — That the Serapeum is but the mausoleum of Apis ; and th
that tlie principal god of the Serapeum, that is to say, Serapis, is b
Apis dead ;
2d. — That there had been at Memphis two Serapeums; on
founded by Amenophis IH. [^Memnon — XVIIth dynasty, 15th cen
tury B. c], in which the worship of the god of the ancient Pharaoh
preserved itself intact down to the Roman emperors [3d centur^
after C] : the other, inaugurated a short time after the advent of th
Greek dynasty at Memphis, and in which the Alexandrian Serapis,
result of a bifurcation [i. e. a separation of religious doctrine] ope-
rated under Soter I. [about b. c. 310], was more especially adored ;
8d. — That the clearing out of the only one of these temples that
liiis been explored, has produced 7000 monuments ; among which the
nionography of Serapis can merely claim the 3000 objects that, by
their origin, are relative to this god ;
4th. — That these 3000 objects come almost all from the tomb of
Apis properly so-called ; and hence that the collection of the Louvre
possesses a funereal and Egyptian character, quite different from that
THE POLYGENISTS. 493
•^i^hich it would seem a collection, drawn entirely out of the temple
of Serapis, ought to assume ;
6th. — ^Finally, that this tomb had been violated and sacked ; but
that, notwithstanding, the principal divisions of the monument and
the nature of the objects gathered from it have permitted the proxi-
mate re-construction of the ancient state of the localities, and to
establish, in a manner more or less certain, the existence of a mini-
mum of 64 Apises" — that is, of the hieroglyphic records, and some
remains, of at least 64 embalmed bulla dedicated to, and once buried
in this sanctuary of, the god Apis.
Mariette then proceeds to catalogue, by epoch and circumfitances,
the succession of these divine animals, in the most detailed and in-
teresting manner; for which I must refer to the luminous papers
themselves. Space confines my remarks to but one point bearing on
ekranoloffy.
Ancient writers cited by him ^ — all, however, disciples of the later
Alexandria-schools — affirm that the lifetime of the sacred buU Apis
was restricted to 25 years ; at the expiration of which the quadruped
deity was put to death by theocratic law, and a canonical successor
sought for and installed. This custom becoming assimilated to the
periodical conjunction, every 25 years, of the solar and lunar
motions, on the same day and at the same celestial points, had led to
modem astronomical suggestion of a famous cycle, called "the
period of Apis.** Nevertheless, the two ideas are proved by Mariette
to be wholly distinct; the luni-solar cycle of 25 years being used as
fiir back as Claudius Ptolemy (about a. d. 150) in his tables ; and the
supposed application of this cycle to Apis being derived from an inci-
dental and misapprehended remark of Plutarch, that — "multiplied
by itself, the number 5 produces a square equal to the number of the
Egyptian letters and to that of the years lived by Apis."*^
Did the Pharaonic Egyptians, in limiting, according to later Gre-
cian accounts, the life of Apis to 25 years, recognize therein the luni-
solar cycle in vogue among astronomers of the Alexandria-school ?
If they did, a most useful implement is at once found by which to
fix an infinitude of points in Egyptian chronology. Alas ! The fune-
bral tablets demonstrate that some Apises died a natural death before
the 25 years were completed, and that others lived " 26 years," and
"26 years and 28 days," or "25 years and 17 days."
" Hence the argument is positive. Our Apises die at all ages ; and
*" PLnrTy Tiii. 46: — Solihus, o. 82: — Ammlahus Marcbl., xxii. 14, 7: — Plutaboh, 2><
bidi^ e. 66; &o., &o.
"* See Also the anthorities in Lxpsius, Vbtr dm Apukreu, Leipiig, 1858: — and ChwuH
lofii dtr J^ppier, i. pp. 160-1.
494 THE MONOGENISTS AND
it is evident that if each end of a luni-solar cycle of 25 years liad
coincided with a death of Apis, the monuments would have already
told us something about it. On the contrary, they prove to U8 Uiat
our Apises were subject to the common law at the will of destiny,
without caring for the moon or its position in the sky relative to 4e
sun. The period of Apis seems to me definitively buried."
Thus, day by day, as Egyptology advances, we discover that many
of the scientific, theological, and philosophical notions, in most worb
of modern scholars (as yet unaware that hierogltfphics are translaUd)
attributed to the simple and practical denizens of the Nile, are the
posterior creations of Greeco-Judaico-Boman intellects at Alexandria
— more than a millennium after the whole economy of the Egyptian
mind had reached its maximum of development.
Definite cyclic chronology — ^they had none ! Their long papyric
registries of reigns {Turin papyrus, for instance), their unnumbered
petroglyphs recording dates, are marked with ihe civil year (of 365
days), month, and day, of each monarch's reign ; but without refe-
rence to any historical era, or to any astronomical cycle. " Sothic
periods," — "Apis-periods," and all other periods, are but the fo^
mulas through which Ptolemaic Alexandrians tried, after Manetho
(b. c. 260) — what we are still attempting, 2000 years later — ^to syste-
matize for Grecian readers the chronology of a primitive, unsophisti-
cated, people who, content w^.th the annual registry of events by the
reigns of their kings — as here we might date in a given year of such
a President, or in England they do in such a year of Victoria — ^were
satisfied with this world as they found it created, never troubling
their brains about the date of its creation.
Religious dogmas — they had many ; but the Funereal Ritual,^ of
Book of the Dead, now that we know its fanciftil and almost childislB'
contents, is more interesting to the Free-mason^ than to any other*'
reader, — except as phases of the human mind, and also for its ines —
timable value to the philologist. There is naught in it about cos^
mogony ; nor, have we any genuine Egyptian tradition of their ori^n
earlier than what little was learned by Herodotus in the 5th centuiy
B. c. — viz : that Egyptians reported themselves to be autochthones.'^
Diodorus's and all other notions on the subject are merely echoes of
the foreign Alexandria-school.
^ Bruoboh, Sat an Sinsin, nve Liber metemptyehosit veUntm Egyptiorum a duabut p^fyrit
fvneribtu hieraticis, Berolini, 4to, 1851 ; pp. 1-2.
*^Lepbiu8, Todtenbuch du jSlgypitty Leipxig, 4to, 1842: — In speaking of acqiiAintanee
with the doctrines of the Ritual, I would espeoially thank Mr. Birch for his generotitj in
furnishing me, long ago, with an autograph synopsis of each chapt«r and with tranalatioBt
of its more interesting colomnB.
«w Hkbod.
THE POLYGENISTS. 495
Philosophy — the very word is Greek !^
It might, therefore, be wise for future writers, if they do not choose
to avail themselves of the correct information accessible only in
works of the living ChampoUionists, when writing about the world's
hbtory, to give Egypt no place in it ; lest, by relying too much on
the absurd anachronisms of Alexandrine Greeks, they should expose
the ignorance of two parties.
Meanwhile, Egyptian chronology is being rebuilt stone by stone,
inscription by inscription, epoch by epoch. Already the structure,
in the hands of Lepsius, rears its head with Menes at 3983 years
before our vulgar era ; and if a skeptic should desire to behold the
constructive process in its perfection, I would refer him to Mariette's
restoration of the XXIId, or JBubastite dynasty*'®' — b. o. 10th and 9th
centuries — for the nee jiIvl% ultra of archaeological science in our time.
Having now laid before the reader a sufficient epitome of facte
and recent authorities to support those presented in our former work,
I am free to state that, in common with my contemporaries, I recog-
nize no chronology whatever anterior to the Old Empire, or the pyra-
midal period of Egypt ; neither can I find solid grounds for annual
computation anywhere prior to about 2850 years backwards from this
year — the LXXXth of the Independence of these United States;
nor, for centennary^ in the oldest civilized country, — ^the lower valley
of the Nile — for times anterior to the XVIIth dynasty, assumed at
about the 16th~18th centuries B. c.
Under this view, to which archseologists with other scientific men
«ure fast approaching, we have "ample room and verge enough," tor
<5arrying human antiquity upon earth to any extent that geology and
xiatural history combine to permit. The former science, at present,
restricts the possibility to the alluvials and the diluvial drift; the
latter, perhaps, warrants our taking a little more "elbow room."
lEither boundary will suffice for the continuation of our inquiries into
tumular remains of primordial humanity, and their relations to the
ascending series of man's precursors, the fossil and humatile simise.
"■* *< Pythagoras was the first man^who inyented that word" 4>I AOZ040S, pAt7o«<>pAer ;
Bkntlbt, Phalaris, Dyce*s ed., London, 8yo, 1886; I, p. 271.
"^ BuUeiin ArcKiologiqtu (supra, note 274) — "tirage ik part," Not. 1856; pp. 6-14, and
Tableau ginialogiqut,
[A recent obliging letter from Paris informs me that « M. Mariette a fait paraitre one
dissertation snr U mh-i eTApitt dtLns laqnelle il ^tablit qne les Egyptiens aTaient snr la
m^re d'Apis des id^es fort analogues II celles que les CathoKques ont snr la \^erge Marie,
et oh il retrouTe notamment le dogme de Timmacul^e conception." This I hare not yet
reeeiTed. When I do, it will be interesting to compare it with the masterly Sermon priehi
dam le Temple de VOratotre^ le 12 Novembre, 1854 (Paris), on **nn Dogme NouTeau non-
eemant laVierge Marie," by Athamask Coqtterbl.]
496 THE MONOGENISTS AND
PART III.
Have fossil human bones been found? The chapter entitled
" Geology and Palaeontology in connection with human Origins,"
contributed by Dr. Usher to our preceding work, answers affinna-
tively; and well-informed critics^ have conceded that his argument
is sufficiently powerful to arrest unhesitating acceptance of Cuvier's
denial, now more than a quarter of a century old. The subsequent
discovery of fossil simuey equally unforeseen by the great naturalist,
in Europe, Asia, and America, has put a new face^ on the matter:
"In fact," wrote Morton in 1851,^ "I consider geology to have
already decided this question in the* affirmative." So does Pro£
Agassiz.^
Now, either fossil remains of man have been discovered, or they
have not.
Archaeology no longer permitting us to trammel human antiqnity
by any chronological limits, — having, to speak outright, before my
eyes neither fear of an imaginary date of "creation," nor of a hypo-
thetical "deluge" — I approach this inquiry with indifference as to
the result, so long as errors may be exploded, or truth elicited: and, to
begin, it strikes me that here again, as above argued in regard to
"species," much ink might have been spared by previously settling
the signification of the term " fossil." I know*^ tiie alleged criteria
by which really fossilized bones are determined ; and have inspected,
often, palseontological collections of all epochas in Paris, London^
and at our Philadelphian Academy of Natural Sciences. On every
side I read and hear doubts expressed as to whether /o««i7 man exists';
yet, when opening standard geological works,^ I encounter, re-
peatedly, ^^ fossil human skeleton " in the same breath with ^^foai
monkeys ;" and then ascertain elsewhere (ubi supra) that the lattef
3^ Paul de Rf^MUSAT, Revue det Deux Mondea, 1 Oct 1854, p. 206 : — D*£xchtbal, BmUeti0
de la SociSl6 de Giographie^ Ann^e 1855, Jan. and Feb., p. 59: — Maurt, Athenctum Prmn^w^
12 A out, 1854; p. 741; Rioollot, Mimoirt tur detifnstrumentt en SiUxy &o., Amiony^ gT<v
1854; pp. 19, 20.
«» 7)/pea of Mankind, p. 826 —" Morton's ined. MSS." : — Hamiltoh Smith, UToL HitU
of the human Species^ pp. 99-102.
»* Op. eit., p. 852. «» Op, eft., p. 84«.
*^ Mantell, Petri/acdona and their Teaehtngt, British Mnsenm, London, 12mo, 1851 ; pp.
464, 483 ;— Ibid., Wonders of Oeology, London, 12mo, 6th ed.. 1848; I, pp. 86-90, 258-9;—
Ibid., Medala of Creation, London, 12mo, 1844; pp. 861-8: — Martut, Natural Hittory of
Mammiferout Animals, Man and Monkeys, London, 8to, 1841 ; pp. 882-d, 864-7, Sib
Charles Ltell {Principles of Oeology, London, 8th ed., 1850; pp. 142, 784), howeTer, makes
clear distinctions between **Gaadaloape skeletons" and **fofl8U monk^jt."
THE POLYGENISTS. 49^^
.re found in Europe back .to the tertiary deposits, — one feels inclined
0 aak, how a single adjective comes to designate two osseous states
lenied to be identical? "II n'y plus que les Anglais, ou T^cole de
[iondres," says Bou6,^ "qui s'^cartent souvent du langage claa-
)ique. Comme on juge T^ducation d*un individu par son parler, de
nSme on pent fetre tent6 de prendre le style du g^ologue comme
thermom^tre de son savoir."
It is, indeed, through popular currency of a word which, used
jxoterically when talking with theologers, implies that man is recent^
in the biblical sense ; or, when esoterically employed among scientific
oaen, means that man is very ancient in ethnological, alluvial, botani-
cal, and other senses, — ^that the real question of human antiquity upon
sarth has been obfuscated.
Thus, every one knows that the presence of " animal matter, and
Gill their phosphate of lime" (Lyell) in the Guadaloupe skeletons at
the British Museum, no less than in the Q-alerie d*Anthropohgie of the
Museum at Paris, combine with other data to invalidate their anti-
quity ; but, on the other hand, the presence of animal matter— even
to "the marrow itself — sometimes preserved in the state of a fatty
mbstance, burning with a light flame" ^ — does not the more bring
the Irish fossil elk {Elaphus hibemicus) within the limits of chrono-
logy, nor make the human body, bones, and implements, found with
this extinct quadruped, the less ancient.
As a contemporary^ with mastodons, mammoths, and camivora
[>f the caves and ossuaries in the ascending scale of time, and with
man in the descending, this Irish fossil stag links the elder and the
Did stages of the mammiferous series, amid which mankind possess
a place, uncert^n as to epoch, but certain as to fact.'*^
Nor is this fossil Hibernian stag (or elky which, Hamilton Smith
Bays, lived as late as the 8th century), the only instance of the extinc-
tion of " genera " and " species " since man has occupied our chiliad-
times-transforming planet. I refer not to JElephas primigeniuSy or to
rhinoceros tichorinus; neither to ursus or canis speheusy nor to bos pris-
cM$y equusj and many other genera ^^ among which human remains
occur : if their coetaneousness is recognized by some, it is contested
by others ; so here the cases may be left open : but such examples as
** Tojiagg Giolog,^ I, p.410:— Aihswobtb, Raearcha m Attyria, &o., London, 8to, 1888;
». 12.
*■ Cp, dL : — Mahtbll's Addrest to the ArehcBoIogieal Itutiiute at Oxford, 1860.
•AuPBBD Maitbt, Dn OMemens Humains ei dea Ouvraget de main d'Hommea enfouU dan»
t roeAfi H In eouehea de la terre, pour eervir d iclairer les rapportt de VArchiohgie tt la QiO'
9^ l*»rii, 8to, 1862; pp. 84-40.
fi^ what Dr. Meigs has quoted from a late py>er by Mr. Denny (n^a, p. 289).
"■* Hairltoii Smith, op. eiL, pp. 96-6.
82
498 THE MONOGENISTS AND
by the most rigorous opponents of man's antiquity — ^Elie de Bean*
mont, Buckland, Broguiart^ Lyell, Owen, and other illustrious pahB.
ontologists — are accepted. Since Roman days, bos hmgifrons no
longer roams the British islGs; even if lo% aurochs may yet have
escaped the yager's bullet in Lithuanian tliickets. Man and the
moa {dinomis giganteus) were formerly at war in New Zealand : the
dodo vanished, during the 16th century, from Tristan d'Acunha*
leaving biit a skull and a foot (if memory serves) to authenticate its
portrait in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. So too has the
dronte expired at the Mauritius. Of the epinomis we know not
vfhether living natives of Madagascar — that unaccountable island to
which, Commersan (Bougainville's naturalist) happily says, " Nature
seems to have withdrawn, as to a sanctuary, therein to work upon
other models than those which she had mastered elsewhere "— «ti]l
feast on its colossal eggs. And, taking again our oldest historical
country, and the one with which I happen to be somewhat ac-
quainted, where, in Egypt, is now the ibis religiosaj^ of yore as common
as Guinea-hens with us ? Who but an unconquerable botanist, amid
the fens of Meuzaleh, could point out the cyperus papyms; or any
where along the Lower Nile discover an indigenous faba JEgyjKi'
oca f Yet the former was once the main instrument of Pharaonic
civilization; being with the latter, the "primitive nutriment of man,"
and symbolizing "the first origin of tilings."^ Six hundred yean
have passed since Abd-el-Lateef deplored the extinction of tlie little
clump of sacred perseas languishing then at Shoobra-shabieh. Where,
before his day, there had been thousands, now curiosity doubts over
but one sample — in my time, withering in the garden of the Greek
patriarch at Cairo. Emblem of Thoth, minister of Osiris, guardian
of the plummet in the mystical scales of Amenthi, the cynocephaluM
hamadryasy if still an unruly denizen of Abyssinia, Arabia, and Per-
sia, no more steals in Egypt the sycamore fig : ^ hippopotami have fled
up to Dongola ; and wary crocodiles are not shot at lower down than
the tomb of Moorad-bey, last of the brave, at Girge. Like the wolf
in England, or his dog in Erin, one genus is extinct ; the other all but
so : or else, as within the territories of our vast Republic— compared
to which ^ " the domains of the House of Hapsburg are but a patch
on the earth's surface'* — the native rattlesnake flees before the im-
ported hog, the bison disappears before the face of starving Indians;
•2 During 15 years of a sportsman's life in Egypt, 1 never saw one alire. My old fiM
Mr. Harris has latterly been more fortunate. Cf. Proceedings of the Acad, of Nat, Scmm^
Philadelphia, 1850.
"• Hrbodotus, ii. 92: — Horus Apollo, i. 80: — Guddon, Otia jEgypHaca^ p. 69.
^ EosKLLiNi, Monumenlif for the plates. >^ Wkbstkb to Hulkbmax, 1861
THE POLTGENISTS. 499
and these last relics of succumbing savagism are melting awaj
before whiskey, Bowie-knives, and Colt^revolvers ; so paraUely, in
many branches — ^botanical, zoological, and human— of Natural His-
tory, the Author of Nature, within historical recollection, has ever
vindicated her eternal and relentless law of ^'formation, generation,
dissolution."^
The tableau of osseous and industrial vestiges of bimanes met with
over the world, supplied by Marcel de Seri'es,^ brings down fossil
discovery to some twenty years ago. Much of what has been done
since, particularly in America, is summed up by our collaborator
Usher. My comments, therefore, may be restricted, after indicating
fresher materials, to these and some few amongst the elder facts.
Nomenclature, as above shown, being passably vague, it may be
well to come to an understanding with the reader upon the senses
of some words in our terminology; taking M. de Serres for our
guide.*®
"These (geological) formations having, then, been wrought by
phenomena of an order totally different from the tertiary, one must
necessarily designate, under a particular name, those organic remains
foimd in them. At firat, it had been proposed to give to these ddbris
the name of sub-fossilsy so as thereby to indicate their newness^ rela-
tively to the truefosaiU. Preferable it has, notwithstanding, seemed
to us, to designate them under the term of humatiles ;^ a denomi-
nation derived from the Latin word humatugy of which the meaning
is nearly the same as that of foaailis; with this difference, that the
former expresses the idea of a body buried in an accidental rather
than in a natural manner."
It must be allowed that the last sentence somewhat establishes
"a distinction without a difference;** but I presume M. Serres to
** It. Pathb Knight, Inquiry into the SymboUc Language of Ancient Art and Mythology^
London, 8to , 1818; pp. 25, 107, 112, 180-1, 190, &c.: — ^bat especially in his Account of the
Remains of (he Worehip of Priapuey lately ezieting at leermiay Naples ; in " two Letters to Sir
Jos. Bankes and Sir Wm. Hamilton, London, 4to., 1786 ; pp. 107-22.
*v Enai tur lee Cavemee (sapra, note 132), pp. 194-7.
*• Op. cit,, p. 216: — see tables illnstratiTe of the chemical composition of humatiU and
€f/oetil bones, p. 98.
*• OoiLViB, Imperial Dictionary, EngUehy technological and edenitfic, Glasgow, 4to, 1858 ;
I., pp. 944-6: — (ffumue, soil) " Humus, a term synonymous with mould" — «« Humatb: a
oomponnd formed by the union of humut with a salifiable basis. The humns of soils it
wmmdered to unite chiefly with ammonia, forming a humate of that substance." — p. 790,
{J^tesH, foeeiUe, from fodio, foeeue, to dig,) *<more commonly the petrified forms of plants
Ittid animals, which occur in the strata that compose the surface of our globe*' — XL, p. 286,
" Organic remains." I have not met, however, with the form ** humatiW in works written
in our language.
r
sop TUE MONOGENISTS AND
anderstand, by accidental, disturbancea of a more recent and lo<S«]
character, such aa earthquakes, volcanoes, ruptures of raounfain
barriers, terrestrial Bubsidenccs, inundations of rivers, &c. ; aod bj
natural, those earlier coramotiona, cataclysms, and disruptiong,
known in geological history. Klee™ remarks — "One would con-
coive a false idea of fogails, if it were thouglit that they were
always remains of organic bodies, of petrified animals or vege-
tables. A fossil is oflunest nothing more than the mineral filling th
ipace originally occupied by an ori/anic body, vegetable or mineral, of
which the hard parta have been tuccesnvely penetrated and replaced hy
mineral lubstancet. Sometimes this substitution is made with sucb
precision, that those last have altogether taken the structure and
form of the parts annihilated; which has given to the mineral i
striking resemblance to the organic body destroyed."
In the following observations, however, by the term "fossil" are
meant only such bones as those truly fossilized; ez. gr., those of tie
megalosauruB, paloeotherium, megalonijx, iguanodon, &c., &c. By "hu-
matile," wo understand bones which, not having been subjected to
those conditions that incommensurable periods of geological time
have alone supplied, are uQcessarily more recent — containing mere
or less animal matter, phosphate of lime, and so forth; aceortlingto
their own relative ages, various ingredients, and several gmdotioDi
of condition. With ''petrifactions," of course wo have nothing lo
do ; because they are of all epochs — foggil as well as humafile—itii
can be mode in stalactite caves, such as those of Derbyshire or of
Kentucky; or manufactured by cliemicul procedures at any moment;
not to speak of the lost art of the Florontino, Sogato."'
With this definition, let the query be repeated — Are human foseil
remains extant ?
I have not yet seen Prof. Agassiz'a Floridian "jaws and portioni
of a foot;" but, so far as literary or oral instruction extend^ I an
find but one human fossil. Our Philadelphia Academy of Xatnrel
Sciences is its possessor, viz., Dr. Dickeson'a " trouvaille" of ihe
fragment of a pelvis at Natchez. Dr. Usher"" pleads for its autheE-
ticity as a/owiV; which condition neither human art, nor anyproee^a
short of Nature's geological periods, can, 'tis said, fabricate. 8ir
Charles Lyell, acknowledging the bone itaelf to he a fossil, suggests
that tliis same oi innominatum may have fallen down, from ft receut
*" Li D^lugf, Coruidtretiaru gteleffiqia it huterijua lur la Jermin caiatlfimt ik (7U^
P»ri«, 18mo., 1847.
■°' Hablam's tniDfiliitiDn ot Oanhal*'! EUfoiy of Embalminj/, PhiladelpU*, Std., INO;
26G.
M> TV?" 1/ Mankind, pp. S44, S49.
THE POLYGENISTS. 501
Indian grave^jard, among anterior fossilized relics of extinct genera
discovered with it, — some of which, together with the human fossil,
may at any time be beheld in the first case of vertebrated remains
in the lower room of the museum of our Academy, " Componere
litea," in matters of science, or for the increase of knowledge, wherein
agit€Uion really becomes the life and soul of progress, is a thing repug-
nant to my instincts. It remains (constat), therefore, that there is
but one human fossil bone in the world ; and that the causes of its
foBsiliftcation, not its fossilized state, are disputed.
This, thus far unique, instance eliminated from the argument — all
homan remains hitherto discovered in alluvials, caverns, or osseous
strata, are humatile; and so are Lund's callithrix primcevus and
protopitheetUj with other past simiadse found in South America, of
which the genus is not merely identical with the simiee platyrhinm
belonging to this continent, and wholly wanting elsewhere, but,
what is extremely noteworthy, their "species" is very nearly the
same^ as that of each of their succedaneums skipping about Bra-
jdlian forests at the present hour. There is a solidarity, a homo-
geneity here, of circumstances between monkeys and man, not to
be contemptuously overlooked.
Thus much established, is it, I would ask, through mere fortui-
tous accident that the Guadaloupe human skeletons, equally huma-
tile with Lund's American simicBy should, by Mantell,*** be assimi*
lated to the Peruvian, or Carib, indigenous races of America, seeing
that they present "similar craniological development?" or that
Moultrie,^ finds in the skull of one of them, brought by M. L'H6-
minier to Charleston, S. C, " all the characteristics which mark
the American race in general ?" Must we attribute, as Bunsen has
it, to "the devil, or his pulchinello, accident,"** a coincidence, that,
in the same deposits with humatile American rimissy Luud should
discover skulls of humatile American man f" " differing in nothing
from the acknowledged type?" Or, finally, is mere chance the
cause that, on this continent, by naturalists now recognized to be
the oldest in age, if among the 'newest in name, there should be
*■*** Referable to four modificatioiiB of the existing types of quadnimana*' — sajf
Maxtbll ( Wondert of Geology^ nbi sapra, I, pp. 258-9).
••* C!p. at, I, pp. 86-90.
*** MoRTOif, Phyncal type of the American Indiaru,
••* PkUotophy of Unitersal IlUtory, (sapra, note 16) I, p. 4.
** MORTOK, (7Vi>«« of Mankind^ pp. 293, S50), Proceedingt Acad. KaL 8oc., 1844: —
Jajhd himself {Lettrt d Jf. RafUy 28 Mars, 1844 — apud Elbe, Lt Ddugt^ p. 828) sajf-*
** Lft race d'hommes qui a t^u dans cette partie dn monde, dans son antiquity la phif
rfeul^e, 6tait, quant i son tjpe g^n^ral, la meme qui Thabitait au temp« de aa d^couTerte
par les Europ^ena.'*
502 THE M0N06ENISTS AND
found, in addition to Mantell's and Moultrie's humalile Caribe or
Peruvians, as well as to Lund's humatile Brazilian crania, Ist—
Meigs's humatile South-American human bones;*® 2d — Agassiz's
Ploridian " fossil remains" of human jaws and foot, embedded in a
conglomerate at least "10,000 years" old;** and 3d — ^Dickeson's/ofttl
fragment of a human pelvis ; unique, as such, in the world ?
It is true that, except in the above chronological estimate of Pro£
Agassiz (which falls very far below the geological realities of conJ-
formed Florida), the antiquity of these specimens eludes measure-
ment; but, the continent of America is older than that of Europe,
where Chev. Bunsen (ubi supra) insists upon more than 20,000 jean
since the advent of a single human pair upon earth. It is, Ukewise,
infinitely more ancient than the Nilotic alluvials of Egypt ; where,
as before shown, our monuments go back, at the lowest figures (Hid
dynasty), some 53 centuries; without yielding any chronohgied
boundary to anterior human occupancy. Hence, upon these pre-
mises, there exists no arithmetical limit to human existence in
America ; while it is a remarkable feature among the circumstances,
that, here, humatile men and humatile simiee occupy the same
ooetaneous "platform" — the former always Indians^ the latter ever
flatyrhinoe ; both being, as to their " province of creation," Ameri-
cans, and American only — neither types having yet turned up else-
where. And, in this comparison of simple facts, nothing has been
said about the possible antiquity of the "mounds of the West;'*
nor in respect to those antique monuments, concerning which the
same qualified explorer is clearing away mystifications, in Central
America. Being modem, in comparison with palaeontological buK
jects, the latter may be touched upon in a subsequent place.
Such, in brief, is the antiquarian state of matters on the cis-At-
lantic side. As successor in various geological phenomena, Europe
beckons for some trans-Atlantic inquiries.
Pictet,^" after giving a succinct account of researches upon fos^^^*
ized human bones, concludes :
" Ist. Man did not establish himself in Europe at the commea^^
ment of the diluvian epoch, &c. * * *
" 2d. Some migrations probably took place during the course ^
tliis diluvian period. The first men who penetrated into Europe p-^^
*(* Now in the Acad. Nat. Soo. — ''Of. Mbigs, Aeeouni of tonu human ionct, &e.
Am0r. Phiiot. Soc, Philadelphia, 1880; III, pp. 286-91.
•«» 7)/pe8 of Mankind, p. 852.
»»• Hquirr, Ancient Monuments of the Miuittippi Valley; 1848, 4to, pp. 804-806 :
^t J^^Hkind, pp. 287-8.
Ml J)raU4 d$ Paliontologie, Paris, 8yo, 2d edition, 1858 ; pp. 145-54, IM.
THE POLYOENISTS. 503
bapa still saw the cavern-bears, the elephants, and tlie contompora-
deons (animal) population. Some among them were victims of tho
same inundations."
Ten years of reflection upon newer evidences had led this judi-
douB palseontologist to consider the coetaneousness of mankind, in
Europe, with some extinct genera of mammifers {ursi^ apelasuSy &c.),
less improbable than when he first published in 1844.
" Nevertheless," with Maury,^** " let us not hasten to conclude.
The study of ethnology tends to make us think tiiat, at first, the
human race was very sparsely sown upon the globe. Its numerical
strength has not ceased to increase from the most ancient historical
times ; whilst, for many animal races, the progression has been in-
verse. At the time when civilization was yet unborn, when, con-
strained to live by the chase and by fishing, man wandered as does
Btill the North American Indian, or the indigenous native of Aus-
tralia, a thousand destructive causes tended towards his destruction,
and the difficulty of subsisting rendered increase of population very
dow. [The great development of population begins but with tiie
lomestication of herbivorous animals'^ and the culture of cereals.]
\f the first infancy of humanity, which was of very many thousands
rf years, corresponds to the tertiary period, there can then have ex-
isted but a very restricted number of tribes, spread over perhaps those
parts of Asia which the geologist has not sufficiently explored. * ♦ ♦
Let us here remember that geologists comprise, under the name of
tertiaryy all the layers [couches) which have been deposited since the
last secondary formation, that of the chalk. The tertiary systems
serve, in consequence, as points of junction between the present
animal kingdom and the animal kingdom past. F6r, the most
ancient eocene deposits contain remains but of a little number of
secondary species, and these species comprise a great number of
genera still existing, associated with particular types."
In confirmation of which we may refer to M. de Serres's remark,''*
that our domestic animals scarcely exist at all in tertiary deposits,
although they abound in the later cave and diluvial ; wherein, being
found with human remains, it seems probable that man had already
reduced some of them to domesticity. So, again, in the caverns of
Oard, there are two distinct epochs of humatile man ; first, the lower
»" Op. eil. (supra, note 289), pp. 42, 40: — Leonhard (apud Klke, Dfluge, pp. 328-6),
Kustains the coetaneousness of man with extinct genera of animals in European caTems,
with sereral examples.
1* See also my remarks on the eyidences of early domestication of Egyptian animalfl, in
TjfptM of Mankind, pp. 413-14.
n« Op. cU. (supra, note 132), pp. 61-2, 149.
504 THE MONOGENISTS AND
stratum, when he appears to have been a comrade of the extinct^
ursus spelasus; and, subsequently, the upper, when he was contempo-^
rary with present living genera.
We come now to fresh corroborations of Boucher de Perthes'a di^^ f ^
coveries of human industrial remains in French diluvial drifts citetj
by Usher.^^* They were considered sufficiently important by the I »r^
Acadimie des Sciences to warrant Dr. Rigollot's nomination as correg.
pondent of the Institute. Unhappily, this took place on the 4th of \f
January, 1855, the day of his demise : but his work survives.^*' In
company with M. Buteux, Member of the French Geological Societj-,
and M. E. Hebert, Professor of Geology at the superior normal
school of Paris, Dr. Rigollot explored tihe new excavations at St
Acheul and St. Roch; — the former contributing a "Note sur les ter-
rains au sud d'Amiens,** wherein he says — " The banks of silex and
of soil which cover them [these remains] are considered as diluvian
by nearly all geologists ; but, according to eminent savansj the authors
of the geological map of France, they form part of medium or upper
tertiary lands. *'^"
"Thus it is well established," adds RigoUot,^^® " and I repeat it,
the objects which we are going to describe, are found neither in the
argilo-sandy mud {limon)y or brick-earth that forms the upper
stratum ; nor in the intermediary beds of clay more or less pure, of
sands and small pebbles, of which a precise notion may be had from
the detailed sections joined to this memoir ; but they are met with,
exclusively/, in the true diluvium ; that is to say, in the deposit which
contains the remains of animal species of the epoch that immedi- j.
ately preceded the cataclysm through which they were destroyed. ^ f ^
There cannot be the slightest doubt in this respect." These* organic -^ (,
remains consist of succinea amphibia, helix rotundata, elephas primige- ^.
nius, rhinoceros tichorinus, cervus somonensis, bos priscuSy equus (smaller
than the common horse), catillus Cuvierij and cardium hippopeum.
Among these, some 400 industrial relics were found, during six
months — in majority of silex, wrought in the same stj^le with singu- —
lar skill — some apparently hatchets, others poniards, knives, trian —
gular cones; besides little perforated globes, seemingly beads for»
necklaces and bracelets, generally of calcareous stone, rarely of flints .:j- ^j^^
Finally, these vestiges of primordial humanity were unaccompaniedE> -^^j
by any remains of pottery, or other manufactures of Gaulish latex: ^^-^|.
times and art.
«* Types of Mankind, pp. 368-72.
•^* KiGOLLOT, M^moire sur des Imtrumentt en Silez troavli H St. Acheul^ prh d'Amien*
eonsid^r^s sous Us rapports gSolo^ique et archiologiquey Amiens, Syo., 1864 ; with 7 platet.
w^ Op. eit.y pp. 32-3. w* Op. ciV., p. 14, kjiA pattim.
er
MX
or
THE POLYGENISTS. 505
TTntil such well-attested facts be overthrown (how, it yet cannot
be conceived), science must accept the existence of mankind in Eu-
rope during ages anterior to that cataclysm which rolled reliquifls of
their handicraft, together with bones of now-extinct genera, amidst
the general "tohu vb bohu ** of French diluvial drift
Of what race were the men^'® whose manufactures were thus de-
stroyed?
Certainly not Caribs, Peruvians, or Brazilians, we might answer d
priori. The humatile vestiges of such belong exclusively to the
A^Dierican continent ; together with platyrhine simise of their com-
□aon zoological province. In the tertiary formations of Europe only
fossil catarrhiue monkeys arQ found ; of which, later species, now
li^ng, have receded into Asia and Africa. It would have been a
{violation of the usual homogeneity, well established,^ between ex-
tinct genera and those now alive upon each continent, were we to
find l^pes of humatile man incompatible, in craniological organism,
mth the existence of quadrumana in their midst. That is to say,
monkeys in Asia and Africa now reside within the same zones (See
Chart of Monkey 9 further on) as the lower indigenous races of man-
kind,— negroes, Hottentots, Andamanes, and various inferior Hindos-
tanic and Malayan grades : and one might reason (d priori always)
that, in primordial Europe, as was the case in primordial America,
and as are the analogous conditions of present Africa and Asia, fos-
sil remains of quadrumana should, in some degree, harmonize with
a lower type of humatile bimanes than those now living there, since
their precursors, the monkeys, have abandoned the European conti-
nent.
My valued friend Mr. Kenneth R. H. Mackenzie (translator of
Lepsius's Letters from Egypt^ and author of many works), to whose
extensive range of literary knowledge I have been often indebted for
information, read me some passages of a late German work.^^
Among them is this remark — "In 1833, there were actually found
in the caverns of Engis and Engihoul, near Liege (LUttich), in the
limestone rock, even human bones and crania, which indeed belonged
to the negro race."
Supposing no exaggeration, or error, in this strange circumstance,
It would be analogous to the now-altered geographical distribution
•>• Observe the language of Prof. Agassiz {tupra^ "Prefatory Remarks").
•* Cf. the remarks of De Strzelecki {Phya. Description of N. S. Wales and Van Diemfn*t
Land, 1845) on the organic remains of New Holland, or Australia, yielding only fossils
of MartifpiaUf and other animals peculiar to that zoological prorince.
•"* Eihnologie, Anthropologies und Staata-Philotophie ; Ester thiol, ** Anthropognosie," Mar-
mrg, 1851 ; p. 40: — referring to Schmerllng's Eecherckes for authority.
506 THE MONOGENISTS AND
of negro-races and the monkey-tribes ; neither of which have inha-
bited Europe since her history dawns, but both being now-&-da]f»
fellow-residents, from incalcidable ages, in Africa.
That the human crania referred to must offer some singularly
prognathous features, is evident from the following comments of
Marcel de Serres : *°
" The (human) heads discovered in divers localities of Germany
(in caves, or in ancient diluvial deposits) have nothing in common
with those of the present inhabitants of this country. Their con-
formation is remarkable, in that it offers a considerable flattening
of the forehead, similar to that which exists among all savages whcF
have adopted the custom of comproasing this part of the head^
Thus, certain of these skulls, and for instance those found in ther
environs of Baden in Austria, presented strong analogies with those
of African or negro races; at the same time that those from the
banks of the Rhine and the Danube offered some great resemblances
with, the crania of Caribs or with those of the ancient inhabitants
of Chili and Peru." Those at Liege " approach the Ethiopian type.
It suffices, in order to convince one's self of this, to remark the fix)ntal
region of their cranium, which is triangular, and not semi-circular
as it is in the Caucasian racTe. Thus, according to these facts, the
transportation of the numerous debris of animals observed in these
subterranean cavities, must have been contemporaneous with the
existence of this principal variety of mankind, which had not before
been encountered anywhere at the humatile stage."
" These events [the filling up of caverns with remains of extinct
and living genera] are so recent, that, according to the observations
of M. Schmerling, one meets, in the caves of Belgium, with human
remains of the Ethiopian race, mixed and confounded with dtbrit of
animals whose races seem to be altogether lost (This observation
confirms, otherwise, that made by M. Bou6, in the environs of Ba-
den, in Austria. This naturalist there discovered, in the diluvial
deposits, human crania which offered the greatest analogies with
those of African or negro races). Thus, at the epoch of the filling
up of these caverns, not only did man exist, but some great varieties
of the human species must already have been produced.
" Perhaps those who reject the unity of the human species may
wish to invoke this fact in favor of their system ; because it seems to
prove that the different races of our species remount to the very high-
est antiquity. But, whilst admitting this conclusion to be exact, one
must not leave out of sight that the question of the unity of the
•» Op. ciL, (supra, note 132) p. 22d.
THE POLYGENISTS. 607
human gouu8 depends, before all, upon the sense that is attached to
the word species.'*
The latest account of verifications is that of M. Victor Motschoul-
Bky » who visited Liege, where, at the University, Prof Spring
showed him these human palseontological relics, described previously
by Schmerling. They had been discovered in the caves of Gouffon-
taines and of Chauqui^re, in the neighborhood of Liege and Angers.
" They are composed of diflerent pieces of the skull, of teeth and
hands of man mingled with remains of the ursus speleeusy some
pieces of hyenUj of large felts, of staff, horse, &c. The pieces of human
skull show that the forehead was very short and much inclined ;
which, according to GalFs phrenology, would make one suppose an
individual and a race such as middle Europe never had, at least since
historical times. On this occasion, M. Spring observed to me that
the discovery of Schmerling was not isolated ; and that subsequently,
he himself had found many more analogous pieces in a cavern situ-
ate between Namur and Dijon. This cave is called le trou Chauvau,
and is found at 200 feet above the surface of the water of the Meuse,
in calcareous rock. The bottom presents an enormous heap of bones
of large ruminants, carnivora, and of man, in a limestone softened
by infiltration. In the earth, all these objects are soft and extremely
friable ; they are compressible and break very easily ; but exposed to
the air they soon harden, and present a complete calcareous petrifac-
tion. It seems that this cavern contains a great number ; and with
minute and regular researches, one would certainly get out of it
human crania and perfect skeletons. The samples which I saw, at
M. Spring's, present two upper parts of a skull, jaws with teeth, and
several bones of hands and legs. One of these skulls, according to
the opinion of this savant, seems to have belonged to a child of seven
years, and the other to one of twelve. The form of these crania
approaches more that of negroes, and not at all to present European
races. The lower jaw is squarer and broader, the inferior edge more
rounded, and not salient as in our European races : the occipital bone
is higher ; the lateral sides of the skull much more flattened and more
compressed than in any of those of our living races. In the same
palfieontological formation are found a flint hatchet and a few arrow-
heads," &c.
The latter circumstance, but for subsequent discoveries of Boucher,
BigoUot, and the Abbeville-geologists, might have been adduced in
order to lessen the antiquity of these humatile remains ; but being
9
*** EziraU du Bulletin de la SociStS ImpSricUe de* Naturaliatet de Moteou, Tome xxiv. 1851 ; —
Lttter to the Secretary, dated ** Li^ge, ce 16 FeTrier, 1851 ;" pp. 82-4. I owe oommani-
ettion oi this pamphlet to my friend I>r. John Leconte, of oar Acad. Nat Soi Philada.
508 THE MONOGENISTS AKD
also exhumed from the diluvial drift, rude flint instruments are no
longer criteria for depressing the age of bones found with them.
Primordial man was everywhere a hunter: his teeth and stomacli
are those of an omnivorous genus : his instincts still continue to be
essentially bellicose.
This is confirmed, whilst I am writing, by the foUovdng interest-
ing account of proceedings among men of science in England — ^which
is inserted as received :
"A paper has also been read, in this section, by Mr. Vivian, of
Torquay, on "the earliest traces of human remains in Kenfs Cavern,
especially flint-knives and arrow-heads, beneath the stalagmitic
floor." The peculiar interest of this subject consisted 'in its being
the link between geology and antiquities; and the certainty afforded,
by the condition in which the remains are found, of their relative
age,— the successive deposits being sealed up in iitu by the droppings
of carbonate of lime, which assume the form of stalagmite. Tbe
sources from which the statements in the paper were obtained, were
principally the original manuscript memoir of the late Rev. J.
M*Enery, F. G. S., which is deplored by Professor Owen, in his
Fossil Mammalia, and by other writers, as lost to science; but which has
been recovered by Mr. Vivian, and was produced before the section :
also the report of the sub-committee of the Torquay Natural Society,
and his own researches.
" We have not space for the interesting statements contained in
the paper, or the extracts which were read from the manuscript,
beyond the following brief summary of Mr. Vivian's conclusions,
which were mainly in accordance with those of Mr. M'Enery. The
cavern is situated beneath a hill, about a mile from Torquay and
Babbecombe, extending to a circuit of about 700 yards. • It was first
occupied by the bear {ursus spelasus) and extinct hyena, the remains
of which, the bones of elephants, rhinoceros, deer, &c., upon which
they preyed, were strewn upon the rocky floor. By some violent
and transitory convulsion, a vast amount of the soil of the surround-
ing country was injected into the cavern, carrying with it the bones,
and burying them in its inmost recesses. Immediately upon its
subsidence, the cavern appears to have been occupied by human
inhabitants, whose rude flint instruments are found upon the mud
beneath the stalagmite. A period then succeeded, during which the
cavern was not inhabited until about half of the floor was deposited,
when a streak containing burnt wood and the bones of the wild boar
and badger was deposited; and again the cave was unoccupied, either
by men or animals, — the remaining portion of the stalagmite being,
both above and below, pure and unstained by soil or any foreign
THE POLTGENISTS. 509
matter. Above the floor have been foiind remains of Celtic, early
British and Roman remains, together with those of more modem
date. Among the inscriptions is one of interest as connected with
the landing of William IIL on the opposite side of the bay: ^W*
Hodges, of Ireland, 1688.'
" In the discussion which followed, and in which Sir Henry Raw-
linson, the Secretary of the Ethnological Society, and others, took
part, the position of the flinta beneadi the stalagmite seemed to be
admitted, although contrary to the generally received opinion of the
moat eminent geologists, — ^thus carrying back the first occupation
of Devon to very high antiquity, but not such as to be at variance with
Scriptural chronology : [!] the deposit of stalagmite being shown to
have been much more rapid at those periods when the cavern was not
inhabited, by the greater discharge of carbonic acid gas. Without
attempting to affix with any certainty more than a relative date to
these several points, or forming a Scriptural interpretation upon
natural phenomena, which, as Bacon remarked, too often produces
merely a false religion and a fantastic philosophy, Mr. Vivian sug-
gested that there was reason for believing that the introduction of
the mud was occasioned, not by the comparatively tranquil Mosaic
Deluge^ which spared the olive and allowed the ark to float without
miraculous interpositiony but by the greater convulsion alluded to in
the first chapter [I presume this to be a misprint, for no Hebraist
can find such coincidence in the Text] of Genesis, which destroyed
the pre-existing races of animals — ^most of those in this cavern being
of extinct species — and prepared the earth for man and his contem-
poraries."^
There is yet another rather recent rumor of certain discoveries,
reported by Professor Kamat, of human skulls mingled with osseous
vestiges of the mammoth period,^ in the Suabian Alps ; but I have
not been able to obtain details. Nevertheless, whilst the antiquity
of man in Europe begins to be borne out on all sides, it is to be
regretted that these so-called negroid crania do not yet appear to
have been scrutinized by special cranioscopists ; who would proba-
bly detect, in their prognathous conformation, not a negro type, but
that of some races of man of lower intellectual grade than occupy
Europe at this day. In the scale of progression, monkeys should,
in Europe also, have been precursors (as they were in America) of
inferior races of mankind ; such as those we still encounter being
confined within the same tropical zones now-a-days co-inhabited
by the rimiadoe.
^ Londoo ** Times," Aag. 12, 1856— Brit Asaoe. Adr. Scieno^ Oheltenhun, Aug. 9.
« Fromdimgt o/ ike Qtrman Seimtific AuocuUitm: held at Tabingen, 1864.
10 THE MONOGENISTS AKD
It was not, however, frotn ratiocination upon such data» wluc\^
ire later sequences of palseontological revelations obtained oiil^
since 1837, that the greatest champion of the "nnily of the huma^^
species" (at whose equivocal dictum trembling orthodoxy clutch^-^
like sinking mariners at their last plank) draws his conclusion thib^'^
our first parents were of the negro type ; indeed, logically speakini
that "Adam and Eve" must have appertained to that same "
of black angels (caught) as they were winging their way to somcr::^
island of purity and bliss here ut>on earth, and reduced from theii
heavenly state, by the most diabolical cruelties and oppressions,
one of degradation, misery, and servitude."^
In 1813, Dr. Prichard wrote :^ "If there be any truth in th<
above remarks, it must be concluded that the process of Nature in
the human species is the transmutation of the characteristics of the
negro into those of the European, or the evolution of white varieties
in black races of men. * * * This leads us to the inference that the
primitive stock of men were negroes, which has every appearance
of truth. * * * On the \<^hole, there are reasons which lead us to
adopt the conclusion that the primitive stock of men were probably
negroes ; and I know of no argument to be set on the other side."
With regard to Prichard's now-forgotten view, that " tiie process
of Nature" is the " transmutation" of species, nothing can be less
historipally founded. To the facts established in our former work,**
and others in this essay, I would here add the authority of the ablest
polygcnist, no less than one among eminent comparative anato-
mists of the Doctor's time, viz., Desmoulins:'® "The species of the
same genus, and with stronger reason those of difierent genera, are
therefore unalterable throughout all those influences which hereto-
fore were regarded as the ever-producing and ever-altering causes
of them. It is, then, the permanence op type, under contrary
INFLUENCES, which coustitutcs the spedes. yhat which is called
* varieties* bears only upon differences of size and color : they are
but the accidental subdivisions of the species." Confirming it by a
later authority, Courtet de Tlsle,^ who after citing, like Morton,
*** Rlrdrob, Liberty and Slapery, Philadelphift, 12ino, 1S56; p. 54. Dr. LiTingstoiw.
however, according to newspaper report, has since found such angelie negroes in the centre
of AfHca. *• Nous rerrons."
•«» Rttearthet into the Phytieal Hittory of Man, London, Svo, Ist ed., 1818; pp. 28S-9
This curious chapter is expunged fh>m all later editions of his woriu ; nor did the leamc
Doctor ever refer, in them, to his early theory I
"• 7\/pea of Mankind, pp. 56, 81, 84, 466.
S3i Uiitoire Naturelle da Raeet Humamet du nord-ut de VEurope, de VAtie horfaU, H
VAfrique auttraU, Paris, Sto, 1826; p. 194.
"• Tableau Ethnographique (supra, note 1 in Chap. 11), pp. 9-10, 67-76; PL 26, 27, 31,
THE POLYGENISTS. 511
Nott, and myself, the testimony of Egyptian monuments to prove
that types have not altered in 4000 years, continues : " These facts
are, to my eyes, of the utmost importance, because they tend to fix
the opinion of those who might be tempted to believe that races
undergo, in the course of ages, such modifications as that the negro,
for instance, might be derived from the white man. All inductions
drawn from archaeology give to this opinion the most splintering
denial. The idea of the permanence of races is justified by all
known fitcts. Now, remarkable circumstance! in order that one
could admit the variability of types, it would require that, for three
or four thousand years, if not a radical change in races, at least a
tendency towards changey should have been observed; whereas the
&cts, far fix)m demonstrating any tendency of this kind, prove, on
the contrary, that the races of to-day are perfectly identical with
those of by-gone ages."
Discarding, therefore, as non-proven, such deduction as the exist-
ence of negro races in early Europe, there are other circumstances
which favor the probability that, even subsequently to humatile
man, inferior types of humanity preceded the immigration into (or
rather, perhaps, inferential occupancy of) Scandinavia, Germany,
France, Spain, and Italy, by high-caste Indo-Qermanic races. See
philological inductions of Maury [supra^ p. 43].
I have read somewhere, though my note of the work is mislaid,
that Prof. Retzius has met, in the peat-bogs and oldest sepulchres of
Northern Europe, with skeletons of a Mongolic or hyperborean (Lapp ?)
type, of an age anterior to the cairns and barrows wherein he and
Nilsson,^ recognize those of brachy-kephalic and dolicho-kephalie
races — ^these last being, to some extent, precursors of the historical
Norsemen, Danes, Swedes, Jutes, Saxons, &c., scattered along the
western Baltic coasts.
De Gobineau,^ notwithstanding some slight inadvertences due to
Telocity of thought and composition, joined to the use of the term
** finnique" (Finnish) in senses which I fancy to be historically un-
tenable,^ has certainly brought out some startling phenomena on the
•* primitive populations of Europe." To his brilliant pages I must
refer for sketches of early Thracians, Dlyrians, Etniscans, Iberes,
(ialls, and Italiots. They are painted by a master-hand. .
*> Skandmaviaka Norderu Urinvanare, &c., Cbristianstad, 4to, 1838; PI. D, pp. 1-18.
* InigaUti da Baea Humainet, Paris, Sto, 1855 ; III, p<utim, Chapters I-IV, and pp. 2,
19,28.
"* As Uralians in geographical origin, no Finru could have been in primitire France. Of.
the authorities in Dbsmovuhs, Raeet ffumametf pp. 53-5, 154 : — also, Klap&oth, TabUaitXf
p. 284.
0l2 THE M0N06ENISTS AND
The upshot is, that, in common with 06rard,''* another polygenist,
progressive ethnology must, sooner or later, face the question,—
whether primordial Europe was not inhabited by some indig^noos
Europeans; long before the historical advance, westwards (whence?),
of those three groups of proximate races denominated Celtic, Tea-
tonic, and Sclavonian? De Brotonne®* had prepared us for the
conjecture, that the above triple migration had overlapped, as it
were, a pre-existent population, Kombst and Eeith Johnston" have
beautifully illustrated the secondary formations of humanity in the
British Isles ; of which Wilson^ Indicates much material for inqui-
ries into the primary, Mr. Thomas Wright,** and other distinguished
antiquaries in England, by determining the cemeteries and artistic
vestiges of the Anglo-Saxon period, fecilitate our apprehension of
other remains to these anterior or posterior; while M. Alfred
Maury^ suggests, to national archseologists, the true processes
through which to recover and harmonize multitudinous fragments
of some ante-historical races of France.
Reasoning by analogy, it would (now that we are beginning to
understand better some of the ancient superpositions of immigrant,
or AUophylian, races, in other continents, upon aboriginal popula-
tions of the soil) become somewhat exceptional were Europe not to
present exemplifications of that which, elsewhere, is rising to the
dignity of a law. The Oagotty the Coltberts of Bas-Poitou, the
Chuataa of Majorca, the Mar arts of Auver^e, the Oiseliers of the
duchy of Bouillon, the Cacou9 of Paray, the Jews of G^vaudan,
&c., whose prolonged existence, and sometimes whose historical
derivation, are discussed with so much erudition by Michel,^ prove,
that all exuviae of such unstoried races of man are, sls yet, neither
obliterated nor fully enumerated; even in the World's most archaeo-
logically-prepense community.
Vain, at the same time, must be any eflfort to search for such
*M Hittoire des Races Primilives de V Europe^ depuis leitr formatum ju9qu*d lew rfnnmtr*
dana la Oault, Bruxelles, 12mo, 1840 ; p. 889.
•» FUiationB tt Migraiiona de$ PeupUa^ Paris, 8to, 1887.
^^ Physical Atlas, new ed., Edinburgh, fol., 1856; PL 88, and pp. 100-110, ••Ethnc
graphic Map of Great Britain and Ireland."
^ Archasology and Prehislorie Annals of Scotland, Edinburgh, 8to, 1861 ; pp. 168-87^
696-9.
'^ Anglo-Saxon Antiquities (Memoirs of the Hist Soo. of Lancashire and Cheakire),
Liverpool, 8vo, 1866; pp. 38-9.
'^ Questions relatives d VEthnologis Anriewne de la France, (Extrait de I'Annnaire de la
Soci^t^ Imp^riale des Antiquaries de France pour 1862), Paris, ISmo, 1868; pp. 22, 40-1.
•M Histoire des Races Maudites de la France et de VEspagne, Paris, 8to, 1847 ; 2 toIs.
passim. See also Prichabd, Nat, Hist, of Man, 1866; I, pp. 258-74; for other *' Abo-
rigines."
THE P0LYGENI8TS. 513
petty relics of lost nations in the terse nomenclature, or within the
geographical area covered by, the Xth chapter of Gene»is. No
ethnic indications, in this ancient chorograph, carry us, northwards
or westwards, beyond the coasts of the Euxine, Archipelago, and
Mediterranean (not even occidentally as far as Italy ; except in the
doubtful location of Tarshishy TeRSIS, — Tartessus in Spain? or
Tarsus in Cilicia?^* A document which, at every explanatory gloss
and in its local tendencf of sentiment, betrays Chaldcean authorship ;
and whose utmost antiquity of compilation cannot, without violating
exegetical rules, be fixed earlier than Assyria's empire at the apogee
of its might — being, I think, a sort of catalogue of Shalmanassar's,
or similar monarch's, satrapies — would be rejected, at this enlight-
ened day, as apochiyphal, did it exhibit phenomena foreign to its
natural horizon of knowledge. But it does not. Taking its first
editorship at between the 7th and 10th centuries b. c, its principles
of projection are in accordance with historical circumstances; which
certainly were not Mosaic.
"It is thus," observes Courtet de Tlsle,^ "that Moses could not
have spoken of Turkish, Mongol, or Toungouse populations, which
in his time were still concealed from view in the most oriental part
of Asia. The Chinese, especially, constituted already a very ancient
society, at the time to which the date of the Hebrew books may be
referred ; but, at no epoch whatever, do the traditions of Western
Asia embrace events relating to the Chinese." The same touchstone
is applied by this skilful polygenist to the Corseans, hyperboreans,
Americans and negroes; about whom he says — "In the posterity
of Kham [which is merely Khctmej Egypt] are particularly comprised
the indigenous populations of the southern part of the ancient world:
it is a swarthy {noirdtre) race, which it would be erroneous to com-
pound with the negro type. Everything, in fact, attests that negroes
are not contained in the genealogy of Moses."
I^ by way of example, for ethnic superpositions of higher types
over an autochthonous group of races, we appeal to HindostAn,
Prichard's own chart,^ together with the posthumous edition of his
**i l)fpe9 of Mankind, pp. 477-9: — Babkbb, Laret and Penates, CiUda and its Oovemore,
London, Sto, 1858 ; pp. 210-11. The determination of Tartessus, as Tarehith whence apes
{KepiAm, H Kings, X, 22) were exported, cannot be decided through Zoology. Ds Blaim-
TILL! (OtUo^rapkie, pp. 28-49) considers the species to have been the Fitheeus ruber of
Ethiopia : in which case Tarshish must have lain, like Ophir, down the Red Sea. Gbbvaib
{Mammi/ire»i p. 76) prefers the mapot of Barbarj ; and remores the difiioultj I suggested
{op. eiL 479) of '* cooks and hens," bj proposing ottriehea, QuATRSMkRi (Mimoire tur U
P<^ eTOpkir, M4m. de TAcad., Paris, 1846, pp. 862-75) thinks they were perroqueU,
MB J\Mstm 9lknograpkique du Genre Humam, Paris, 8to, 1849 ; pp. 78-4, 69.
^8u eUmagrapkieal Mope, with a theet of Letterprett, London, fol., 1848; Plate l8t» .
**Aaa," Nos. 10, '* Abori^ai mouniain-tribee of India,"
88
514
THE MONOGENISTS AND
last work,"^* furnishes many instances of surviving aborigines. These
have been more copiously and critically examined by Lieutenant-
General Briggs,^* whose conclusions ave the following :
" 1. That the Hindus [«. e. the Aryian, or white people's immigra-
tions] entered India fi^m a foreign country, and that they found it
pre-occupied by inhabitants.
2. That by slow degrees they possessed themselves of the whole
of the soil, reducing to serfage those they cduld retain upon it
3. That they brought with them the Sanscrit language, a tongue
different from that of the aborigines.
4. That they introduced into the country municipal institutions.
6. That the aborigines differ in every respect from the Hindus.
6. Lastly ; that the aborigines throughout Lidia are derived from
one common source.*'
Allowing this last conclusion to be correct, it becomes positive
that the source of this aboriginal group of races in Hindostkn must
be radically distinct from that of the later Sanscritic intruders,—
whose earliest monuments, the Vedasj trace them backwards to
Sogdiana, Bactriana and Persia, as their own primordial homesteads,
where their characteristics seem to blend into races of the Arian
group. Briggs enumerates, among extant indigenous tribes of
India: —
The Bengie* in Bengal,
" Tirhua in Trrhut,
" Kolet in Kolywara and Eolwan,
« Malaa in Malda and Malpur,
<* Dome* in Domapnr, &o. &o.,
** Mir» in Mirwara,
** BhiU in Bhilwara and Bhilwan,
** Mahars in Maha Rastra (Mahratta),
*' Mans in Mandcsa,
** G(mds in Gondwara or Gondwana,
** Garrotos in Bhag^lpur,
<* SonthaU in Cattack,
«* Bhars in Gorakpur,
** ChtrU in Ghazipur,
the Dhanuks in Behar,
" Dhert in Sagor,
** Minat in Ambir,
** Ramutit in Telingana,
** Bedart in Dekhan,
'* Cherumart in Malabar,
** Curumbai in Canara,
" Vtdart in Travanoore,
** Marawat at the South,
" KallarB in Tincrelly,
«* Pullan in Taiyore,
" Pallies in Arcot,
** Chenekia in Mysore,
" Cheneiwart of Telingana:
•** Natural History of Man (supra, note 172,) I, pp. 248-57.
■** Two lectures on the aboriginal race of India, as distinguished from the Sanseritie or //**
Race — R. Asiatic Soc, London, 8to, 1862; pp. 6. — Compare A Sketch of Assam^ wUhte^
account of the HiU Tribes, by an offioer; London, 8to, 1847, passim, for many other sboTi-
gines on the confines of Indo-China ; — and Hooker (Himalayan Journal*, London, ^^
1854; I, pp. 127-41), for the Lepchas &e., and (IT, pp. 14) for the Harrwrn-mos and other*-
For the affinities or divergencies of Dravirian idioms in relation to other groups of tongties.
the reader will be unable to find more masterly elucidations than in my friend M. HAVf^'
Chapter I, pp. 52-5, 74-6, 84, anf.
THE POLYGENISTS. 515
esides the Kannwargy Yel^iwarSj Barkiy Dondassi^ Bandipote, Talliar^
Qd others.
This arid catalogue of names indicates the number and variety of
aese seemingly-proximate races. With the exception of, here and
lere, more or less defective, sketches of a Qarrow, a Tuda, a Naga,
Siahpush, a Bhot'iya, or a Ceylonese, I have seen no authentic
ortraits of Hindostanic aborigines whence ideas about their several
haracteristics can be obtained. As for their crania, "ce n'est pas le
«nre" -among Anglo-Indians to preserve, for science, those they cut
ff; such men as Hodgson of Nepaul, and Cunningham of Ladak,^
•eing honorable exceptions. A succinct rSsumS of aboriginal families
f mankind known to exist within the "East Indian Realm" of
oology, has been compiled from the latest sources, with his usual
bility, by Maury .^^ Space restricts me to reiteration of the lament,
ver the ethnological supineness of those who ought to fill scientific
oUectorships in India, implied in his remarks : — "These indigenous
ribes, of which the ddbris still wander in the north-west of America,
bose insular septs that navigators have encountered in Polynesia,
)ceanica, and Indian Archipelago — of such, Asia even at this day
et offers us the pendants. At an ancient epoch, which it is im-
ossible rigorously to assign, the centre and the south of this part
f the world were inhabited by those savage races that Hindoo civili-
ation has pushed away before it, and which Chinese society has
jected toward the southern extremities of its empire. It is in the
Imost impenetrable defiles, which separate Hindostin from Thibet
nd from China, wherein these disinherited populations have sought
rfuge. There they subsist still; and there they will continue to
ibsist until English colonization [as in the pending case of the
'antalsy 1856-6] shall have forever blotted them out from the soil.
; is with races of men as with races of animals, which Providence
reates, and afterwards abandons to destruction. * * * Who can
>unt how many races have already disappeared; what populations,
r which we ignore the history, the very existence, have quitted
ir globe, without leaving on it their name, at least, for a trace !"
Only since 1850, through Amaud and Vayssifere,^ have we heard
' the Akhdhm (servants) of Southern Arabia; probably last degraded
ilics of the aboriginal Cushite, or Himyarite, stock ; to be added to
M* Ladiik^ phytieal, ttatistieal and hittoriealf with notices of the surrounding eountrieSf London,
0, 1864; pp. 285--812; Plates 10-11» 13-18, 22-24.
w Le§ Populations Primitives du Nord de VHindoustan — Extrait da BuUetin de la SocUti ds
w^rapkie; Paris, 1854; p. 89.
*** **htB Akhdim de TY^inen, leur origine probable, leurs moears" — Journal Asiatifue,
jia, April, I860 ; pp. 880-2.
516 THE tfONOGENISTS AKD
those more favorably known at M&reb and Zhaffir as speakers of
JShMli.^ " For the faciesy these Akhddm differ much fipom the Arab,
who dwells alongside of them; possessing, on the contrary, the
strongest resemblance to the Abyssinians and the people of the
Samhar [littoral Abyssinians on the Bed Sea] ; who, according to M.
Leftvre (Voy. en Aly99.\ * present the greatest analogy with the
Hindostanic race/ " These AkhdUm are pariahs, reputed "unclean"
by the Arabs, who despise their four castes with inveteracy. The
color of their skin is reddish, like the Himyarites (fix)m dhmar^ red),
and their congeners the Habesh; being entirely different to the
lighter complexions of their lords, the Semitic Arabs — although
both types have, from immemorial time, resided in the same climate.
But, amid illustrations that spring up on every side to fortify my
argument of aboriginal populations, I must refrain from farther
notice of more than one or two.
M. D'Avezac, and other ethnologues who have studied Gucmch
traditions and Portuguese accounts of the conquest of the Canary
Isles, prove satisfactorily that, despite such furious massacres, the
women were saved in large numbers by the invaders* The resul*^
was naturally an amalgamation, between the female Guanches and th^^
Portuguese settlers, that still underlies the present population,** — ^
into which, importations from Africa have since copiously infiltrated^
Nigritian blood of many varieties. Now, the same combination o^^
circumstances occurred in Cuba.^*
Discovered by Columbus, on the 18th October, 1492, this Island^ ^
according to his Journal, contained a somewhat civilized people,
timid and simple, already possessors of the dog ; who were " neither
black nor brown, but of the color of Canary-islanders, with women
whiter still." They lived in great fear of the Caribs, from whom
they differed in almost every characteristic;^ and seem to have been
of the same family as the Tgneri% of Haiti, and other isles of the
•*• Typet of Mankinds pp. 489-92. The disoorerer, my old friend and coOeagne in Egypt
for many years, M. Fulgence Fresnel, is now no more. Bagdad, last spring, was the tomb
of this enthusiastic orientalist, — in Arabio studies never surpassed.
Ko The only specimen of this mixed stock that I have seen, was a so-caHed mulatto,
exceedingly robust and intelligent, natiye of the Canaries, by name Narcisso; who, in 1851,
flourished at Bangor, Maine ; as my friend A. P. Bradbury, Esq., of that ilk, may remember.
Narcisso's red complexion and muscular rigor completely bore out the soathem specimens
of Dr. Nott (Typet of Mankind, p. 874).
^^ Bebtholbt, Essai hittorique tur Vtle du Cuba, &o., et "Analyse de I'oiiTrage de Ramon
de la Sugm"— Bulletin de la SoeUtS de OSographie, July 1846; pp. 6, 12, 20-26.
*> OossB, Diformationt artificielU$ du Crdne, Paris, 8to, 1866 ; pp. 102-6 ; dthig Di
Navabsttb {Relation* det quatre Voyages enirtpria par Chrittophi Colomht, Paris^ 1S28), and
Fb&dinand Denis {Revue de Pari*, LV. supplement). For the Caribs, bm D'Obbiovt,
U Homme Amfrieain — Voy. dans I'Am^rique du Sud, Paris, 4to, 1889.
THE POLYGENISTS. 517
Antilles, whose traditions dated back to the occupancy of Florida. At
St. Domingo, Columbus was particularly struck with the whiteness
of their sldn, as well as with their culture and inofiensive habits (no
weapons) ; circumstances which strongly contrast them with the red-
dish-olive hue and ferocity of the continental Caribs. Their posses-
sion of the doQy too, before Spanish communications, is an interesting
fiewt; but I do not know whether its species has been compared with
the enormous mastifis (apparently) of the Quanches,^ whose skele-
tons turn up, now and then, among mummied human remains at the
Canaries.
This original population of Cuba, by some writers exaggerated
to a million, and more reasonably estimated by Fray Luis Bertrah
at about 200,000, had been reduced to 14,000 by a. d. 1517. Las
Casas, Jos6 Maria de la Torre, and Yaldes, show that there were still
some extant in 1533 ; but Diego de Soto, in 1538, slaughtered the
remainder so effectually, that, about 1553, Gomara says there was no
longer a native alive. Bertholet, however, considers such complete
extinction over-stated; because, while many of the males were trans-
ported to the South American continent, the women were retained
by the Spaniards. Precisely the same destruction of native Antillian
life, — in order to make way for a bastard race since bred between
exotic Spaniards and imported negroes — occurred on other islands.
Thus, Priaulx observes, " Haiti, which, at its discovery, contained
1,000,000 inhabitants,— sixty years after, 15,000,— and in 1729, the
aborigines were extinct"^
A curious report to the Spanish court {Cartas de varone$ de Sevilla\
made by Fray Diego Sarmiento, Bishop of Cuba, 1550-1, proves the
Ceu^ whilst deprecating the reason. — "The Indians diminish and
disappear without propagating themselves; because the Spaniards
and the mkis [already numerous in 58 years] marry the Lidian wo-
men ; and that Lidian male who, at this day, could procure one 80
years old, is even very lucky. I believe [continues the charitable
IKocesan] that, in order to preserve and restore the population of
this island, it would be well to bring over some Indian females from
Plorida, for the purpose of uniting them with the Indians of this
country." Nevertheless there existed still, in 1701, some descendants
of the old stock at Iguani ; and Bertholet, quoting Milne Edwards's
law that, after several generations, the old blood will occasionally
** crop out," shows how this explains many ethnic points of Cuban
"■D'AvwAO. TsUtderAfrique; — Usher, Types of Mankind, p. 342 ; — ^Peichabd, Nat, Hitt,^
1855 ; I, p. 272.
"* Quautionet Mosaiecc^ p. 298, note, — citing P. BiAEOAT an P. di la NBuyiixa, Leiiret
JiijffMte, ToL VII
518 THE MONOGENISTS AND
physiology , jirecisely as in like manner, similar causes produce*! the
same effects at the Canary Isles.^
From Cuba^ to the Island of St Vincent the transition is natural.
Here we should still behold the aboriginal Caribs, but for their ex-
pulsion " en masse," in 1796, at a cost of one million sterling, by
English settlers, to the island of Roatan.*^ Already, fix)m 1675, the
shipwreck of a Guinea slaver near St. Vincent had infused so much
exotic negro blood into the native stock as to have divided the latter
into black and yellow Caribs. Transplanted again, by Spaniards, to
the main-land of Honduras, these mulatto-Caribs found themselves
in the midst of another population of half-breeds ; viz. : the Samhi
of the Musquito shore, formed there, since the 17th century, between
survivors from the wreck of another African slaver and the native
Indian tribes, amid whom, also, European buccaneers had not foiled
to bequeath many varieties of white blood. This infiltration of the
essentially-domesticable qualities of negro races into the less tame
able Indian (although the Central American approach the Toltecati
rather than the Barbarous^ tribes in social tendencies), has not beei^
without its good effects in producing a laborious population of mahO"
gany cutters : whereas, in the everglades of Florida, crosses betwee^
run-away negresses and the truly-barbarous Indian exhibit but in
nate devils for ferocity and hostility to civilization. Recent even
on the Panama isthmus^ confirm the deleterious consequences o
such intermixtures, prognosticated five years ago by Berthold See^"^
man.^
"Morton informs us, besides," wrote Dr. Qosse, alluding to a cha- —
racteristic African propensity for aping dominant races,** " that the ""
shipwrecked negroes at St. Vincent {Crania Americana^ p. 240) had
at first deformed their heads, in imitation of the Caribs, their masters;
but, so soon as emancipated, they continued it in sign of liberty. This
was already the opinion of Leblond {Voyage aux Antilles^ 1767-1802,
>w Bertholet, " Ouanehet" MSmoirtt de la SociSti Ethnologiqut^ Paris, 8to, 1841 ; Part
I, pp. 130-46, 1843; II, pp. 83-111. These intermixtures are unnoticed bj PucHAmv,
Nat. Hut. of Man, 1865; I, pp. 272-4; or in II, pp. 690, 638-640.
>M One cannot, of course, within 200 pages, discuss all the collateral questions beariog
upon the transplantation of races from lands where they were indigenous to countries where
they are not ; but, for an exposition of the present ruined state of the emancipated Antilles,
consult, above all, **0ur West-Indian Colonies:" Jamaicay by H. B. Evans, M. R.C.S., late
Surgeon superintendent of immigrants, Lucea, Jamaica; London, 8to, 1856.
»T Squieb, Notet on Central America, New York, 8vo, 1866; pp. 208, 212-17.
•M Morton, Physical Type of the American Indiana ; — Typet of Mankind, pp. 276-80.
»» Wkumuth, "A propos du massacre de Panama;" The American^ Paris, II, No. 76; 7
June, 1856.
•» Voyage of H. if. S. Herald, 1846-61, London, 8to, 1868; I, p. 802.
M^ Deformations artifieieUes du CrAne, p. 126.
THE POLTGENISTS. 519
p. 154) : * They felt,* says he, * that this ineffaceable mark would for-
ever distinguish them from the African race, who were being sold as
slaves in islands inhabited by the whites.' "
Heureux le peuple dont VhUtoire est ennuj/euae, might not, perhaps,
be applied by Montesquieu to the wretched peoples referred to ; but
fear lest its point should be directed to the above excerpta compels
me to finish with a clew to the philosophy of these complicated amal-
gamations. It is from the pen of one who, as regards American
archaeology in general, and Central American ethnology in particular,
has no rival amidst his many admiring friends at the present hour.^
** Anthropological science has determined the existence of two
laws, of vital importance in their application to men and nations.
" First. That in all cases where a free amalgamation takes place
between two different stocks, unrestrained by what is sometimes
called prejudice, but which is, in fact, a natural instinct, the result is
the final absolute absorption, of one into the other. This absorption
is more rapid as the races or families thus brought in contact approxi-
mate in type, and in proportion as one or the other preponderate in
numbers ; that is to say. Nature perpetuates no human hybrids, as,
for instance, a permanent race of mulattoes.
" Second. That all violations of the natural distinctions of race, or
of those instincts which were designed to perpetuate the superior
races in their purity, invariably entail the most deplorable results,
affecting the bodies, intellects, and moral perceptions of the nations
who are thus blind to the wise designs of Nature, and unmindful of
her laws. Jn other words, the offspring of such combinations or
amalgamations are not only generally deficient in physical constitu-
tion, in intellect, and in moral restraint^ but to a degree which often
contrasts unfavorably with any of the original stocks.
"In no respect are these deficiencies more obvious than in matters
affecting government. We need only point to the anarchical states
of Spanish America to verify the truth of the propositions laid down.
In Central and South America, and Mexico, we find a people not
only demoralized from the unrestrained association of different races,
but also the superior stocks becoming gradually absorbed into the
lower, and their institutions disappearing under the relative barba-
rism of which the latter are the exponents."
■* Sqcibb, op. dt., pp. 64-S. See, for the same argament, that the present fall of the
^INUiish race in America is to be chiefly ascribed to their proclivity (as. a dark fjpe) to amal-
gamate with any race still darker — D'Hallot {Raeet Hutnaintt, pp. 44-5). **We meet
indeed," well says Davis, ** with confusion of blood on a great scale, but look in ruin for a
new race. Nature asserts her dominion on all hands in a deterioration and degradation, the
liMal and depopulating consequences of which it is appalling to contemplate." (Crania Bri-
I, p. 7, note.)
520 THE M0N06ENISTS AND
With reluctance I must terminate these digressional noticee of
human autochthones in different zoological realms. " The ancients,"
well remarks Courtet de Tlsle,^ " unanimously professed belief in
autochthones. * * * Kow, this principle of indigenomneMj consecrated
among animals and plants,^ was entirely equivalent^ among the
Greeks, to the principle which the plurality of races establishes at
the present day." It is traceable in Homer, Hesiod, and Hippocrates.
Ephorus of Cyme sustained it when he divided mankind into f^ur
races, according to the four points of the compass ; and Aristotle
held it where he adopts three types, ^< Scythians, Egyptians, and
Thracians." The writer of Xth Genesis'" had previously spread
out his nations^ ettieSy tribes^ and countrieB^ into a tripartite ethnioo-
geographical distribution, symbolized by " Shem, Ham, and Japheth;"
which arrangement Knobel^ agrees with me in denominating the
gtUoWy the 9warthyj and the white types. The Egyptians, centuiieB
previously, had already divided mankind, as known to them, into
/oMT — ^the redy the yellow^ the white^ and the black races; calling
themselves, as men of the red or honorable color, by the tern
"rotu," EeT, race "par excellence:"^ and, about nine centories
subsequently, four nations — ^Lydian {Japethic\ Scythian (not alluded
to in Xth Genesis), I^egro {Africany and also excluded from that
chart), and Chaldsean {Semitic) — were carved on the rock-hewn
sepulchre of Darius : ^ while Linnaeus, 3500 years after the Diospo-
litan ethnographer, at first tried to classify human natural divisions
into fourj according to the four quarters of the globe.
Wholly omitted as such things are in the last edition of Prichard,
the anthropologist, in lieu of the preceding facts on hybridity, i«
favored with any quantity of "sentiment;"*'^ — mostly thrown away,
their ethnological bases being mostly false. Until science has
stridden over the threshold in these new inquiries of the Mortonian
school, we may say of sentiment what Father Richard Siition's Car-
dinal^ replied to an anxious theologer — "Questo h buono per la
Predica."
•* ThbUau Ethnographiquet p. 67.
*** See particularly, as the latest enimciatioii of loologioal science, the ftddresset of Vnt.
Afhssit before the American Association for the Adyanoement of Science, »t Albanj,—
rf ported in the New York Herald, 26, 27, 28 Aug., 1866.
••* Typtt of Mankind, Part II, pastim,
M« Dit Voikrrta/el der Genetit, Giessen, 8to, 1850; p. 18.
•« J^prs of Mankind, pp. 84-86, 247-9; wood-cuts, figs. 1, 162, 168, 164, 165:— to
which add, Dr Rouofi, Tombeau d'Aahmet, ehef det Hauionniers, Pam, 4to, 1851 ; pp. 41-2,
66: >-and Brugscu, Reiseberichte, Berlin, 8vo, 1855; p. 881.
••• PvLMKT, anU, Chap. II, p. 150, fig. 86.
•» Sat, History of Man, 1866 ; II, pp. 657-714.
*^ Ui9L crit. dt VAncien TettamenL
THE POLYGENISTS. 521
«0 ye mitred heads! lay not
Approying hands on skulls that cannot teach.
And wiU not learn.''
(COWPBB.)
Probably autochthones, certainly aboriginal, were the men of
prognathous and otherwise inferior type whose humatile crania, in
the caverns and diluvium of Europe, instigated my excursus in quest
of parallels. Of these, however, I have seen none of the true Bel-
gian or Austrian specimens : those pointed out to me in the magni-
ficent Qalerie d' Anthropologie at the Jardin des Plantes, by my friends
MM. Jacquard and Rousseau, being, with one exception, ancient
Gktulish, Keltic, or Etruscan. I obtained photographic copies of the
most interesting, together with that of the e^xceptional skull marked
"Cr&ne ((Jard)— 2V;?« eeUe. M. Serres." These ^^ I had the pleasure
of passing on, in London, to the cabinet of our obliging colleague Mr.
J. Barnard Davis, of Shelton, Staff. ; in whose hands, as joint author
of Crania Britannica, they may become really available to science,
through comparisons with the wide range of cognate British skulls
now undergoing his and Dr. Thumham's critical analyses. As a
specimen, merely, of the high scientific tone adopted by these gen-
tlemen, I cannot refrain from reproducing their opening sentences
on the Historical Ethnology of Britain.^
" It is now generally admitted that the plants and animals which
cover the surfiuje of the globe are to be regarded as forming groups,
each having a specific centre^ from and around which, within limits
determined by natural laws as to climate, temperature, &c., the
several species have been diffused. The plants and animals com-
posing the fiora and fauna of the British Islands are, however, not
peculiar to them, but are almost without exception identical with
those of different parts of the continent of Europe ; and thus the
existence of a specific centre for the isolated area of these islands,
or, in other words, any special creation of plants and animals within
their limits, cannot with any probability be admitted.
"The late distinguished Professor E. Forbes, by a remarkably
happy example of philosophical induction, has shown that the
terrestrial animals and flowering plants now inhabiting these islands
must have migrated hither over continuous land, which in the
course of subsequent geological changes was destroyed ; and that
this diffusion by migitition occupied extended periods of time,
having various climatal conditions, before, during and after, the
^^ Reduced copies of some of them have attracted Dr. Meigs's notice in his Chapter
m, figs. 29, 86.
*s CrmnUi BriUmniea^ Decade I, London, 4to, 1856; p. 44. Of. Muos's Chap. Ill, p
801, fig. 29^ «u«— for the oranioscopioal indicia bo far attained.
522 THE MONOOENISTS AND
great Glacial epoch. The characteristic and all the nniverBally
distributed plants and animals of these islands, belong to the Cen-
tral European fauna and flora^ or great Germanic type. But in
addition to this, the prevailing, it is shown that there are the remans
of no fewer than four other fl(»*a8 occupying more or less limited
areas in Britain, and each having its specific centre in some part of
the continent of Europe. Three of these belong to more southern,
the fourth to a more northern latitude or isotherme. The most
ancient of our floras. Professor Forbes considers to be only peculiar
to the west and south-west of Ireland, and which is shown to be
identical with that of the north of Spain ; a geological union or
close approximation with which country seems to be the only method
of explaining the presence of so characteristic a flora, including the
hardier Saxifrages and Heaths of the Asturias, and such plants as
Arabis ciliatay Pinguicula grandifioray and Arbutus unedo. The iso-
lation of this We9t Irish flora^ or Asturian type, probably took place
by the destruction of the intermediate land in the glacial period.
No traces of any associated fauna remain."
M. Maury's philological inductions {supra) equally corroborate the
view that certain inferior and indigenous races of man, in pre-historic
Albion as well as in primordial North-western Europe, were suc-
ceeded by conquering tribes of the "great Germanic type."
PART IV.
We may now reconsider some of the practical issues of this iu- ^
quiry.
It has been shown, 1st, that in America, humatile men and huma-^
tile monkeys occupy the same palseontological zones; — 2d, that,
whilst all such remains of man are exclusively of the American
Indian type, the monkeys called Hapale^ CebuSy CaUithriXy &c, are
equally "terrse geniti" of this continent; no bimane or quadrumane
examples of identical "species" of either being found, fossil, humatile,
or living, out of it ; — 3d, that, in their respective epochs of existence,
both, with the slightest modifications of so-termed " species*' on the
monkeys* side, have existed from the geological period of Lund's
Brazilian caves, coupled with the extinct genera of animals dis-
covered in them, down to the present day, contemporaneous; — 4th,
that, finally, permanence of type^ as well for humanity as for simiadse,
is firmly established in both genera, from the hour in which we ai«
THE POLTGENISTS. 523
liviiig, back to a vastly remote, if not incalculable, era of unrecorded
time. *
Now, were some ethnologist to inquire of any naturalist whether
he believed that genus Eapale, OebuSy or Oallithrix, had clambered
round from Mesopotamia, viS Bhering*s Straits, to Peru; or had
swum across the Atlantic from Africa to Brazil, if not, perchance,
athwart the Pacific from Borneo to Chili, as one alternative; or,
whether American aimice were created in America, as the other : I
presume such naturalist might, without committal, respond to this
query by propounding another to the ethnologist, viz. : "Don't you
think that, whichever way American man came to this continent, it
was along the identical route by which American monkeys had pio-
neered the track for him ?"
For myself, I cannot find out how either came. Here both are,
and have been, from the earliest ante-historical period we may guess
at Whenever an ethnographer will obligingly point out to me any
given primordial link, between human autochthones of the Old World
and aborigines of the New, that archaeological criticism is unable to
shatter, I may trouble a naturalist to acquaint me with some mode
by which old Oallithrix primsevus protopithecusy of Brazil, held inter-
course anciently with his elder Dryopithecus Fontani of France.
This is the name just fixed by M. Lartet, — the first discoverer of
fossil simice^ twenty years ago, and five years after Cuvier*s decease,
— ^to a new species of anthropoid monkey exhumed by M. Fontan,
from a bank of marly-clay, at Saint-Gaudens (Haute-Garonne) near
the Pyrenees.''*
It was about the same time last month ^ I commenced that part
of my present MS. which enumerated (ante, p. 459) the different fossil
monkeys hitherto disinterred ; and the coincidence of M. Fontan's
unforeseen exhumation of a larger and higher type, in Europe too,
than any before known, is so gratifying, that I prefer to let what I
had then written stand, and to avail myself here of M. Lartet's most
opportune improvements. It is to our collaborator Prof. Joseph
Leidy, that I owe communication of the "tirage k part** sent to him
last mail by M. Lartet.
"The pieces of this monkey," explains Lartet, "that M. Fontan
has charged me to present in his name to 'the Academy, consist in
two halves of a lower jaw broken at their ascending rami, added to
*<* Di Blaiiitillb, OtUographie.
"* Labtxt, Note 9ur un grand Singe foetUe qui ee rattache au group dee Singee eupSrieure —
Entrmit de« Comptee rendue dee Sianeee de VAcadimie dee Sdeneee ; Paris, tome xliii. ; 28th
Mj, 1856; with a plate, pp. 1-6.
>» 1 am writiiig at Philadelphia, od this 28th August, 1856.
524 THE M0N06ENIST8 AND
a fragment of the anterior face of this jaw in which the incisdrs were
planted. There was found at the same* time a humerus epiphjBized
at its two extremities," He remarks on the teeth also, — "This
would be a process of dentition intermediate between that of man
and of living monkeys, except the CHbbon Siamang^ in which I have
observed the same circumstances of dentition as in our fossil monkey.
(This gives me an opportunity to remember that the Gibbonsj and in
particular the Gibbon Siamang^ placed generally by zoologists in the
last rank of the tribe of SimianSj or Superior Monkegsj furnish not-
withstanding, through their skeleton, a totality of characteristics
approaching very much more considerably the human type than one
can find in the Orangy or even in the Cfhimpaneee.)*'
" In rSsumSy the new fossil monkey comes evidently to place itself
with some superior characters at certain points of view, in the group
of the SimianSy which already comprises the Chimpanzee^ the Orsng^
the Oorillay the Gibbons^ and the little fossil Monkey of Sausan {PU<h
pithecuB antiquusy Gerv.). It difiTers from all these monkeys through
some dental details ; and, more manifestly still, by the very-apparent
shortening of the face. The reduced size of the incisors being allied
with great development of the molars indicates a regimen essentially
frugiverous. The little that is known, furthermore, of the bony
structure of the limbs, denotes more of agility than muscular enei^.
One would be, therefore, thus induced to suppose that this Mon-
key, of very large size, lived habitually upon trees, as do the Oibbont
of the present epoch. In consequence I will propose to designate it
by the generic name of Dryopithecus (from drus^ tree, oak [found like-
wise amongst the lignites of the same Pyrensean region], and pith-
koSy monkey). In dedicating it as species to the enlightened natu-
ralist to whom palaeontology is indebted for this important acquisi-
tion, it would be the Dryopithecus Fontani.
" Six fossil monkeys, then, are henceforward to be counted in Eu-
rope, viz : two in England, the Maeactis eocenus^ Owen, and the Macor
ctis pliocenusy id. ; three in France, the Pliopitheeus antiquuSy the Dryo-
pithecus Fontaniy and the Semnopithecus monspessulanusy which is
probably the same as the Pithecus maritimus of M. de Christol.
Lastly, the monkey of Pikermiy in Greece, named by M. A. Wagner
Mezopithecus pentelicus. M. Gaudry and I propose, in our Memoir
on the fossil bones of Pikermiy which will be soon presented to the
Academy, to attach this monkey to the group of Semnopitheciy under
the name of Semnopithecus pentelicus.**
Bones of the Macrotheriumy RhinoceroSy Dicrocerus eleganSy 4c.,
were also collected at the same spot, by M. Fontan, and in the same
medium tertiary (miocene) deposits.
THE POLYGENISTS. 525
Thus, in one short month since this essay was commenced, advan-
nng science has added another grand link to the chain of organic
remains which now connects the fannse of the past old world with
those of the present. Already, from the previously known fossil
QibboHy not a fer remove from human likeness, we have mounted up,
in the graduated scale of organization, to the level of the highest
living anthropomorphous apes {Orang-utan^^ Chimpameey and G(h
riUa)f through this precious discovery of Dryopitheeus Fontani.
It will opportunely exemplify how prepared really-scientific men
are now, all over the world, for these revelations from " the Book of
Nature — which cannot lie," to present here aii extract from the ad-
dress of my friend Prop. Biddbll, delivered at New Orleans, on the
25th Feb., 1856 — some six months before M; Lartet announced at
Paris this astounding " confirmation."
" I must allude in very general terms to the recent progress of
Gteology. The philosophical views of Lyell, respecting the dyna-
mical causes that have produced the geological aspect of our planet
daring the lapse of past ages, are gaining more and more fully the
Bosent of the cultivators of this science. Instead of evoking, as a
probable cause, the agency of imaginary cataclysms, or general and
sudden convulsions of nature, to explain the origin of mountain
upheavals, terrene depressions, the petrifection of organic remains,
the extinction of successive races of animals and plants, the indura-
tion, crystallization, and disintegration of rock strata, Mr. Lyell
alleges that we have reason to suppose all these, and more, have
resulted from the long-continued agency of such dynamic causes as
continue to manifest their action at the present time. In some in-
stances, the effects produced are hardly appreciable during the brief
period of human life ; but we should remember that the stately hun-
dred years, which is rarely approached, and still more rardy exceeded
by man, when used as a measure for the probable duration of those
vast periods of time occupied in the production and modification of
the numerous successive geological strata, with their mineral con-
tents and organic remains, becomes, to our limited comprehension,
a mere infinitesimal ; a quantity too small to have assigned to it any
sensible value in comparison.
" The recent period, so called, now in progress, contains the relics
of animals and plants, of species essentially identical with those now
flourishing. It has been estimated, from data carefully obtained and
>"> In Malaj, *<0rang" mean9 only man^ and is prefixed to proper names of all nations;
"Utan," signifying vnld, designates the ** Orang-atan" as the wOcf man, which Ckawturo
[Mmlaif Cframmar and Dietionofy, II, p. 128) spells ** Orang-ntang,'* — its tme Malayan nam*
bfling "Miyas." Stm (p. 198), «'Utan" is giren as the qmonym for wiU, wkkmm.
526 TUE MONOQENISTS AND
unobjectionable, that our MisaiBsippi delUi, Boiitli of the latHade ot
Baton Rouge, pertniniug, of course, to the recent period, has occu-
pied no less a time than 120,000 years in its formation. Tbo parti-
culars of this computation I need not now trouble you with.
"It is a very common occurrence that sweeping asHertions are made
in paleontology, based upon negative data. Thitt is, becauao certaia
classes or genera of organic remains have not yet been found iu tlie
older foBsilifcrouB strata, therefore they did not tlton exist on the face
of the earth or in its waters. I thluk this practice is prolific in falw
induction iu science. The present tenants of our globe comprise per-
haps 600,000 spcciea of animals and pianta. Tlie organic spccicB
preceding these, in former ages, were in all ages probably just about ,^
as numerous. Palfeontologista have brought to light, from about 20 ^-j
different and successive fossiliferous formations, about 20,000 species —
of romains, nine-tenths of which, as from the nature of the case we ^^
might expect, are of marine and aquatic origin. Now, the planU r-^
and animals whose remains characterize those 20 formations, while ^^^.^
flourishing in their respective ages, were probably, in each of the 2(iW^.Q
cases, as numerous in species as those contemporary with us. Aver— -^,
aging the known fossils to the formations, each of the twenty woaldE:^ i
have 1000 species, which is only l-500th of what may fairly be sup — ^z^.
posed to have existed. Admitting this reasoning as valid, two os: «ur
three instructive conclusions would flow from it. 1st. That dotihi--^ -{.
less many species of animals and plants have heretofore existed a
well as at present, that from their habitat and habit were rarely or*
ever likely to bo preserved as organic remains. 2d. There is no pro
hability that geologists are as yet acquainted with all, or even witKl^Sth
a fiftieth part of the organic remains entombed in the various forma^^ jb-
tions constituting what may he called the rind of our globe. SdKz»^i.
Assume at perfect random any one species, as fur instance an anima'^-=» "/
analogous to the Ourang-Outanij, the prohahility i» 500 time$ greater tha^^^:^^
tuck an animal existed at any geological age, also assumed at random -^cz3,
than that his remains will, in our day, he found by geologists in the eor^
responding formations."^
Fossil man, of some inferior grade, is now the only thing wantin^^
to complete the paleeontological aeries in Eumpe, in order at once ti
exhibit bimanes and quadrumanes in parallel fossil development J
and thereby to plant the genera Semiadie and the genua ffomo on <
aud the same archajologieal platform. Lot us hope! We octoalljl
hold in our hands the short end of the thread, through the progn*.
«n Annual Addreu Tiad y/are the Iftw Orltani Aendtmy of fffimett, P*h. 25(h, l«5fl. \j \
Prot. J. L. RiDDKLL. Uniiemil; nf LoafslanB, Preiident of tlip AcnileDiy, p. 4. [tatvja^ I
Ulvdinmy Ma., at PMlulelphia, 26tb Jsd. 1B57.]
THE POLYGENISTS. 527
thous crania of inferior human races discovered, in the humatile phase,
over Belgium and Austria, Science now lacks but one, only one,
little fact more to terminate forever the question — "have human /o9«i7
remains been found ?"
Again, I say, there is margin for hope ! May be, that it is neither
in Europe nor in America that fossil humanity is to be sought for.
Perhaps, after all, the malicious aphorism whispered by Mephis-
topheles to Goethe in " Faust," that if humanity advances^ it is spi-
rally— might some day turn out to be as true in geographical palse-
ontology as it is often in ethics, and oftener in inventions.
Not a tenth part of Asia, not a twentieth part of Africa, has as yet
been explored by the geological pick-axe ; the inlands of Borneo,
Sumatra, New Guinea, have not yet been trodden by the white man's
foot, far less open to the palaeontologist. It is to scientific mining
and to rail-road operations, conducted only by the most civilized
races of the world, that, within the present quarter-centurj^ the earth
begins to yield up her dead, and display her riches in organic remains.
When the iron net^work, such as the "peace of Paris" already stimu-
lates, is spread from the Neva to the Amour, from Trebizond to Cal-
cutta, from Jerusalem to Aden, from Cape Town to Lake XJniam^si,^
and from Algiers to the Senegambia, perchance to the Gaboon river,
we shall doubtless possess many more fossil monkeys, and (why
not ?) a fossil man.
Upon the principle of representation in the successive series of the
&nn8& of each zoological zone, it should be about Borneo that we
may expect to dig up fossil analogues of Orangs and Dyaks ; about
Guinea and Loango those of Troglodytes niger and of Oorillargina^ no
less than of some human precursors of present negro races. And
yet, up to this day, ten years after their discovery, not a living
specimen^ far less a fossil sample, owing to inaccessibility of their
habitats, has been procurable, even of the Oorillay through French
or other colonists at the Gaboon !
Here, I may be allowed a digression, — not altogether irrelevant,
because it aids to clear up doubts as to the earliest contact of the
Saracenic Arabs, after their conquest of Barbary in the 7th century
3f our era, with Negro nations ; whom Arabian camels, then intro-
iaced on a large scale into northern Africa, first enabled the
PsTEBMANN, MUtheilungen cnts Justus Perthes* Oeographischer Anstall^ &o., GK)tha, 4to,
.856; pp. 18-^2; ancLhis **Skizze einer Earte * * * des See^s von Uniamesi;" — ^which later
i^xploren seem to doabt
*<• Is. GxoTTBOT St. HiLAiRi and Dubbau ub la Mallb, in AnnaUs des Sciencts NatureUes^
E^ttii, ni« s^rie, XVI, pp. 154r-217.
528 THE MONOGENISTS AND
Prophet's victorious "flroum-B" [Arabic for "levies" — literally jrf
ups] to reach athwart the Sahara-deserts. It will also show how
invaluable to ethnography are French translations of long-digro-
garded Semitic historians, not merely those of the chosen Israelitish
stock. Besides, the work is little known to the " reading public."
Ebn KhIlbdoon (or ETialdun)^ — the most erudite, philosopliic,
and unfortunate,*^ Arabian writer in Barbary during the 4th and
6th century — tells us how, "the MoUtthemeen [wearers of the
" lithS.m," muffler^ for the double object of keeping off sun and dust
in the desert, and of hiding the face from enemies — law of tie
DakUi/l]y^ a people of Sanhadjian [Berber] race, inhabited the
sterile region that stretches away into the midst of the sandy desert
[Sahara]. From immemorial time — fi^m very many centuries prior
to Islamism — ^they had continued to traverse that region where ihey
found everything that sufficed for their wants. Keeping themselves
thus far removed from the *Teir [Arabic^ hill, i. e.. Mount AtiasJ
and fi^m the cultivated country, they replaced its productions hy
the milk and flesh of their camels. Avoiding civilized countries,
they had habituated themselves to isolation ; and, brave as ferocious,
they had never bent beneath the yoke of foreign dominion." In
short, these Sanhadjians are the perfect types of old Roman Numi-
diatiBy and modem Touariksj — except, in religion, the adoption of
Isl&m for Africanized-Punic fetishism — in language, a great many
Arabic words of civilization absorbed into their Berber speech — in
zoology, the camel for the horse — in arms, the match-lock for the
bow. Such, too, were a cognate tribe, the Lemtouna.
"When the Lemtouna had subjugated the desert-regions, they
carried war amidst negro nations, in order to constrain these to
become Mussulmans [just as we, now-a-days, through missionaries,
are trying to make Christians of all peoples who are not — in most
cases, amongst inferior types'of man, only hastening their ultimate
obliteration], A large portion of the Blacks then embraced Islam;
*^ Histoire dea Berbires et de$ Dynattiet Mutulnanei de VAfrique Sepientrkmalt, tnuuiht^
from the Arabic by the Baron di Slani, for account of the ** Miniature de UGaerTe;"
Tol. I, Algiers, 1847 ; toI. II, 1851. My excerpta are taken chiefly from I, pp. 3^7, 5S,
184-6; — II, pp. 64-70, 104-5, 106. The history commences with the Arab conqnest of
Barbary in the 7th centnry, and ends daring the 14th.
*" Z^td-abd-er-RahmAn Ebn KhXlidoon was bom at Tnnis in 1882. After grvatlj
distinguishing himself at the courts of Barbaresque princes, be became Grand Qi^ct
(Judge) of Cairo under Ed-Ddher-Bargooq in 1884; when the Tessel, in which his fasuly
had embarked on their way to him, sunk, — ** Thus, one single blow depriTed me for
of riches, happiness, and children.*' He died in 1406.
1^ Latard, Nineveh and Babylon^ 2d Ezped., 1858, p. 817: — Fkxsnbl (Ar^m
CMamume, Paris. 1886, p. 86), shows how it was only at the ancient Arabian ftdr of
Ouk^sh, abolished in first century He^jra, that hostile tribes could meet m^m^fied.
THE POLYGENISTS. 529
but the remainder dispensed with it, by paying the capitation-tax
[equally satisfactory to the Saracenic missionary, who good naturedly
permitted those anti-Mohammedan back-sliders, or recusants, to
* compound (always in cash) for sins they were inclined to, by
damning those they had no mind to*].*'
Telagaguin, their king, was grandsire of Aboo-Bekr-ebn-Omar,
who commanded the Elmoravidian empire. His successor Tlloutan
conquered the Souddn, "marching surrounded by 100,000 dromedary-
riders mounted upon Maharie of pure blood ;*' and died in Hedjra
222 = A. D. 837. Another historian says that, in the 4th century
Sedjra, Ob^yd-AUdh had 100,000 camels, and subdued 23 negro
£ings. The Lemtouna even reached the Senegal, "We know,"
comments De Slane, " that this river continued, for a long time, to
separate the Berber from the negro race.^ In the year 1446, when
'ixB Portuguese were making their first explorations of the western
3oa8t of Afiica, the tribes of the Assanhagi [_Zanagay Sanhadja]
Inhabited the northern bank of the Senegal ; and the Yalof, or Wobf^
that is to say, the Blacka^ occupied the other. We must obseVve
that * Senegal ' is an alteration of the [Berber] word Asnagu^riy or
Zenagueuy plural of Zanag ; that-is to say, the Sanhaja"— one of the
great branches of the quinquegentani Berberi.^
Ebn Khaledoon continues — " As for those who remained in the
desert, nothing has changed their manner of being, and, even to-day,
they remain divided and disunited [as they continue now, 1000 years
later]. * * * They [the Berber tribes] form a species of cordon along
the frontier of the land of the Blacks, — a cordon which stretches
itself parallely to that which the Arabs form upon the frontier of the
two Moghrebs and of Ifrikla** :®* — thus demarcating in his time, with
"* See RAjf iNiL ( Voyaget dans VAfrique oeeidentaUj eomprenant Vexploration du SSnigalf
fto., 1843-4, Paris, 1846), for the best description of these Senegalian nations.
"« Otia^ "Berber Tribes," p. 146:— 7V/»«, pp. 510-26.
*^ Says Ebn KhXlidoon — " Because it mast not be thonght that the Arab nomades had
inhabited this country in ancient times. It was only towards the middle of the 6th cen-
tury of the Hedjra that Africa was inyaded by bands of the tribes of Hillah and that of So-
l^ym," — and then not further west than the Cyrenaica. No Arab settlers were [aside from
the Saracen soldiery] in Barbary prior to this immigration, — except in the confused Ye-
menite legends of " Tobba, an Arabian king, who gave his name.to I/rikta ; * * * * And
the reason was because the Berber nice then occupied the country, and prevented the other
peoples to fix themselves in it"
Now, this name I/rikta, borrowed from the "Africa" of the Latins, possessed, like
"Libya," a more restricted geographical extension formerly than in modem days. Indeed,
among the Arabs even now, I/rikta does not mean " Africa," but only the tract of country
from Cape Barca to Tunis, not even so far west as Algeria. Owing to ignorance of this
fact, and Frenchmen's poor acquaintance then with Arabic, the General who concluded the
** Treaty of Tafna " with el-Hadj Abd-bl-QXdbb, committed more diplomatic mistakes, in
MM line (the cause of all the troubles France had with this gallant chieftain till she cap-
84
I
090 THE MONOGENISTS AND
the greatest perspicacity, the same relative topographicftl pcmtiDH
ia which the indigenous Atlaotic ^Berbers, the exotic Arabti, and tlii^
negro lucee, stand towards each other at tliis day.
Perfectly clear also were this learned Arab's ethnic views aboi^
the diatiuetuess of negro nations from either Berbers or Arabs. K^t
"Iliatory of the kings of the negro peoples [^Sood^n, i. e. tl^
Slacks]" begins thus: "Tliis portion of the human species tliat ^
composed of negro populations has, for dwelling-place, the couutri^
of the second climate and of the first [His geography being that ^
Edbeesee, who, like the Greeks, imagined that the African coriij:
uent prolonged itself towards the east ; in order to form the soutlivr,,
limit of the Indian and China Seas]. * * • They occupy these terri.
tories in all their width, from the Occident to the orient. • * * T|)„
negro spoeiea subdivides itself into several races, tribes, and raruifi.
cations; ofwbich the best known, in the last, are the ^e/K^ (natives uf
Zanzibar and Mozambique), the Jlaboiha (Abyssiuiana), and the JVoiiia
(Nubians)." Ho deaeribcs some nineteen peoples of the black raw;
and relates two ourioua facta showing the danger of arming negroi's
as soldiers: — Ist, how inHedJra 252 = A. d. 866, the Ztm^j "alave«"
revolted at Basra (Bmaora, on the Euphrates) : — 2nd, how in Ilui^ra
468, the corps of Turkish Memlooka, in the aerviee of El-Mosiankkii,
had many sanguinary engagements, at Cairo, with the negro "slure"
troops belonging to the same Khdlif. The Ketamiam (i. e. Berber,
^ or Moghrabeo, mercenaries) ranged themaelves on the aide oflha
Memlooka ; and, in one of their conflicts, 40,000 of their black adver-
saries were alaughtered. The same troubles recurred during my
own time in Egypt, when Mohammed Ali imagined that he Muld
form a regular army of negro- aoldiers, imported as alavea from the
BeUd-ea-Soodin along the Upper Nile. Out of some 12,000 who
tured liim, und in ticno sent him to BmsAB. niid Bflflnrnrds, *hcro he resldei ooif, to ll»-
mBSCON) thiin nny Plenipotentiary eTer perpetrated befnrol Wilhnol the Anbl« Ull II
EkDDDt be mndc Tory olenr. but lioro it is from Paicit Duphat {Op. cU.. pp. WU). Tbi
irorda mn: — "rf Amter ABD-BL-QiDiB. giSri/ Aufon SeollSnat Frania j! A/rittrjia'—ay-
poied by ihe Frouch protocol-Dinker to mean, "^e Prinee Abd-et-EiuUr reoonnill le pf-
Yernemant da Hoi des Frnnyni' en Afriqne." Nothing of the kindl The aitula Btinpllt
OTBrranobed the Drsgomnn (intorpretor] in the two mnin points, — Irt, hj eettinf bhmlf
teoogoiied as nn Ameer, princo, nheo he was preriously but s mere Aik^V*. pilfrim to
Heocs; and 2nd, by rccogniiing French Boioreignty, not in Algeria at all. but Dnj ^
the eaitward (where neither party hrvd any rights) in Tunis, Tripoli, Sc. I Tlii" il 0"
literal BenBB — " tbe prince Xbd-el-QWer knows the goironiment of a kinj of Franw *"
Afiiktit/a I"
Rnnaln for a cpntory, Prtinco for twcnty-flTo years, England for some tw«nly-ftM ■«•*>.
find tho United SlnteB Eiccutiva not evan yol— hriTe oomproh ended that diplomatitU >ra(ii'
fn be fit least aoquainlod with the Torna*Ql»r of those oountrios to which, at enormoaiMsl.
and frequent inutility, they we aotnmlsBiuiicd.
THE P0LTGENI8TS, 531
irere drilled in Upper Egypt, 1823-6, all those who did not die of
consumption before the expeditions*^ sailed to the Morea (1824-6),
at « Haud obliyiscendom" by his first-born is all that need here accompany reference to ray
P!itli«r, — who unostentatiously manumitted, at Alexandria, erery one of our slaves, between
te yean 1821 and 1827. This is a fact I desire to speak upon.
JoHV OuDOOH— born at Exeter, DeTonshlre, 28th February, 1784— left England in 1811,
wtm m known Mediterranean merchant at Malta for seven years ; and thence settling in
Bgypt with his family (August, 1818), became not unknown for influential position and
pMitraB deeds during the apogee of Mohammed Ali*s career; especially whilst holding,
k«B 1882 to 1844, the hofwrary incumbency of the U. S. Consulship, first at Alexandria
lad aubsequently at Cairo. He died at VLtXXA-hdnneena — Sd July^ 1844.
£1 Bay '* honorary " U. S. Consul, for the especial purpose of contradicting, onee and for-
ifer, one of many other falsehoods printed last summer, vix : ** Our first Consul- (?«fi^a/ in
Rgypt was a Torkshireman, who owed the station to missionary patronage. He receiyed
ISOOO « ywir, and was free to continue his own Tooation as a merchant."
TIm anonymous, though by myself unmistakeable, signature of a *VTrayeIer*' more noto-
rious for ubiquity than for Teraciousness or discretion, — taken in conjunction with the
loineideDee that his Uea found utterance in a *' daily " whose bead manager and editorial
ptiiiaplaa are too Tile for durable adyertisement from my own pen — ^render it merely neee»-
here to record that, in the North American (Philadelphia, February 10, 1847), may be
I '* Letter" of mine, setting forth, then as now, all relations of Qunnon-prtnomina
irith the Tarious administrations of the United States during my lifetime, so far. Speaking
■vely as an ethnologist, I myself hare only read or heard of, and never cared about, whai
isseatiTe may have happened to strut, quadrennially, over the Washingtonian platforms.
Isioh of OS felt proud to serve the United Statu; none of us being ever minions of a faction.
IIm pending Congressional committee of investigation into <* Lobby " membership (amply
MMBmented on in the New York Herald, Deo. 1856-Feb. 1857), absolves me from adding
mj experiences of politioal probity in ** Uncle Sam*s " domain. I will, therefore, merely
AoUenge contradiction, at the United States' State Department, of these facts, vis : that
Wij Father for 12, myself for 8, my brother William for 2, my brother-in-law Alexander Tod for
I, and an of OS during 17 years that we upheld gratuitously the honor of the flag in Egypt,
iffor received compensation, personally, in a single United States' '<red cent." We have
MfTeimlly been the mere channels of payment (less than $500 a year at Alexandria, during
warkap* 17, — and far leas than another $500 per annum at Cairo during 8 years), to native
MBq>loj6s whom the State Department's 'Sprinted regulations" compelled us to maintain
md stipend for the United States' service in that Pashalio. On the contrary, there hang on
Ho, mX the State Department (as mentioned in the North American aforesaid), documents to
irore that, were equity in Congress not notoriously measured by the ratio of discounts to
ntarmidiaf '* Uncle Sam " really owes, and ought to pay, my Father's estate something over
^2000 mi this moment, interests for 20 years exclusive, — which claim, now as formerly, I
icroby abandon to the fate of **Amy Darden's horse."]
Wo landed in Egypt before the ** Emancipation Act," which has ruined the British West
In^os, was passed ; wherefore my Father then considered it no sin to purchase, for domes-
ieatioD, such slaves as suited our family requirements. The first was, 1819, Fdtima — nurse
)o mj lamented brother Charies (died suddenly of cholera at Dacca, Bengal, 27th Nov.
1840)— a redcUsh-black Galla-girl, rivalling the Venue de Medicie in form and strikingly in
(JMO, — but with long, soft, wavy hair, small mouth; in short, no ncgress. She was
(iroed and married out in 1821, dying shortly after of the plague. The next were, 1822,
f^tima and Se^da^ D^foor negressee, and a fine negro boy named Murffidn (i. e. MargaritU9f
wral). The former two were emancipated, downed and married out in 1828, owing to the
4spaHiure of my mother to place three of us at school in England. The latter, alter
tragbt reading and writing, baptised and vaoeinated, underwent, at the age of
532 THE MONOGBNISTS AND
none came back (1828), except a few miserable sukkat hdXeM (invalided
veterans) who, for a few years, lingered as household guards about
the hareem-door of Ibraheem Pasha at Kasr-ed-DoobAra, until the
plague of 1835 ("quseque ipse miserima vidi") swept them off
together with almost all the negro slaves and Nubians {BaTiLhera\
then in Lower Egypt^ During five months that (1828-9) I so-
journed at Navarino and Modon, skeletons of some of these unfor-
tunates, recognizable by tatters of their uniforms, frequently fell {in
continual rides and shooting excursions) in my way, while graves
of the remainder lay alongside the Modon road for miles.
K the opinions of those alone qualified to decide be taken, all
the families of Atalantic, or QsBtulian, stock are terrce-geniti.^
" The Berbers," says De Slane, " autochthonous people of northern
Africa, are the same race that is now designated by the name of
Kabtles. This word, which signifies *clan* [in ^ Arabic, plund
that oonstitational change from intelligence and gentleness to stupid ferodty ivhiehf is
Egypt, prevents everybody, bat Turkish officials who possess soldiery, from keeping tdnh
negro male slaTos in households. Mwffidn abjured Christ and turned Muslim, became too rei-
tive for mild control, — and finally (1824), becoming infatuated with a Nia^m-^nekd reginait
of negroes about to embark for the war in the Morea, my father gave him his fiberty. Bo
sailed and, like bis comrades, never came back. Four more neg^ girls were pnicbtsed oo
my mother's return to Alexandria (1826) ; but, being absent in England myself at thtl
time, I do not recollect the names of 8, and they were already free and married off on ny
return in June, 1827, — as was the fourth, Barbara, in July of the same year. Her plM
was re-filled by a Christian white slave, bought out of compassion from the Turkish soMierji
in the basaar, when hundreds of Greek captives were ravished from the Morea, to beoome,
in portion, rescued, through Count de St Leger and Captain Coddrington, 1828; as, indeed,
two others were by myself at Cairo in 1882, and sent home. Our lady's maid, Patq»ah,
free from the hour she touched my father's threshhold, married out in 1828; and thus n
that year ended our family connection with slavery ; although a silly tourist (Da. Holt
Tatbs), hospitably entertained by my father at Alexandria in 1828-9, has fabricated for
his book an affecting tale about the influence of an ** Abyssinian slave giri " over one of i>7
sisters!
In justice to my parents' memory I ought to state that, in common with others at thtt
emancipation-period, they then renounced the farther possession of slaves ** for oon«ei(B«c'
sake ;" — sentiments in which I never have participated ; because I consider it a ftf n<ff*
philanthropic act (whatever ** Exeter-hall" may think of it), to rescue by purebase tfj
human being — especially semi-wild negroes, when their hwnanizatum is the natural ooitf^
quence — from the brutal clutches of the geUHh (slave-fetcher), than either to abandon hi*
or her amid the horrors of an Oriental slave-mart, or to let him or her ran the risk of ^
i^taining a better master.
*< So then," as St. Paul {Ep. to the Rotnant, XIV, 12,— Sbarpi's N. T., p. 808) has dearly
expressed it, <* each of us shall give account of himself to God ;" nor is the Father aceoast-
able, in this case, for a difference of ethical opinions in his son.
*^ There is a note of mine on this subject in my friend Dr. Bartoit'b J?^porf ifftkt St^
tary Commitsian of New OrUanM, 1854. See also Nott's Chap. lY, p. 898, ante.
*" For all former authorities, see Gliddon, Oiia JEgyptiaca, 1849, '< Sxenrsoi on th«
origin of some of the Berber tribes of Nubia and Libya," pp. 116-46: — and J^ffm 4
Memkmd, 1854, pp. 180-1, 204-10, 610 <«Lud)m," to 626.
THE POLYGENISTS. 533
EaidtT], has not been employed to designate the Berbers earlier
;han about three centuries. The introduction of this distorted
[neaning must probably be attributed to the Turks,"*® — ^who entered
Algiers under Barbarossa at the beginning of the 16th century.
Inasmuch as great confusion prevails yet in the minds of other-
Brise well-informed ethnographers upon Berber subjects, and my
>bject being now to separate these races of the Hamitic type of
cnankind, entirely from any affinity with more austral negro nations,
unknown to the Berbers before the introduction of camels^ — a
few extracts fix)m the French "Exploration scientifique de I'Alge-
rie"*** are here introduced.
The uplands and the aborigines of Berheria (true name for
Barbary) are likened by Carette, in their geological phenomena and
their human vicissitudes, to an Archipelago subject to rising and
blling tides: — ^^the scarped islands are the mountainous masses;
the flat islands are the Oases ;^ the secular tides are the invasions.
All these islands represent different groups of the same nation;
whereas the wave that bathes them is by turns Phoenician, Roman,
Vandal, Oreek, Arab, Turkish," — and, at this moment, French.
All these have carried away some Berber, and left some foreign
words. Nevertheless, the old lingua Atlantica is still recoverable ;
at the same time (as I have elsewhere indicated) all its words of
moral and intellectual civilization, altogether wanting in Berber,
have been absorbed from the Arabic^ — from which the Berber
vocabulary and grammatical construction, by monogenists supposed
to be " Syro-Arabian," is now proved to be absolutely distinct.
Under the head of "Distinctive characteristics of the Berber
tongue," our Author points out that the strongest difference between
the Arabs and the Kabd,'il of Mt. Atlas lies in their languages —
"c'est U surtout qui en fiiit deux nations distinctes." Arabic words,
when adopted by Berbers, undergo great changes, and these people
understand as little of an Arabic discourse as a French one ; at tiiie
same time that it is easier for an Arab to acquire French than
"• Op. dL, preface, p. 1.
** Amplj eonfirmed, from the latest sources, by ViniN db St. Mabtiit, " L'Exploration
■dentiilqiie de TAfriqae centrale," Revue Contemporame, Paris, 16th Sept 1855, pp. 435-A.
■t «« Pendant lea Ann^s 1840, 1841, 1842, publico par ordre da GouTemement, et aTCC
la eoneonrs d'on Commission Acad^miqae," 4(o, many toIs., 1848-53, Paris, Imprim^rie
natiooale (now impdriale). My selections are made chiefly from Cabbttb, ^tudee tur la
KabOie yropremeni dtte (I, pp. 13, 20-33) — Pr/ot hiatoriqw (pp. 447-62) — and Reeherehee
Mr rOrifme it Ut migrations det Prineipalet TVibue de VAfrique SeptentrionaU, et partieulitre-
memt da PAlgirie (HI, pp. 18-25, 27-55, 301-6, 441. 476).
** Lucidly explained ft'om the accounts of Richardson, Barth, Otkbivbo, and Voobl,
IS regards the TripoUtan ronte over the Sahara, by St. MIbtiii, op. at., pp. 430-6, 440-6.
532
T H
.j^foetyis^s AND
none came back (1 ^
veterans) who, for :■
the hareem-door •»
plague of 183;") i •
together with nh
then in Lower ^'
joumed atNin
tunateSy recoL^;
continual riiU
of the rcmaif
If the o|-^
the families
"TheB.
Africa, an
KabtleB,
^jandiDeer, in bringing his produce
fafinbic than an Algerian Arab
that ooDstir:
Egypt, pn%
negro malo
tiTeforini:
of negrop-
iftiled aTii
my moth
time, T !
return i'.
wu ro-
in t}i(
in pi
two ..
that
Yaj.
iiii-
hi.H
\
eii>
h
'1
.-S^*!'
r*M?iri}0 present the bilinorual cLa-
^--«^af J^nneipal localities ahnost always
« -r^ 'Jiiii seems to announce that, up<:»u
- ire. iJii originally possessed the soil.
^ .^■■f-itiiTuaged popuhitions expre^^^,
•:^ rr r:snsition between the primitive
* jcv* riement, and th« alluvial stratum,
_^ _ -,.iT ir following, viz : prior even to the
^y_ - ifr r^inico-Canaanitish ?], there existed.
- .— jc .'.Ti?T. a people and an idiom differing
., ^ol all those idioms, which were to
.-?:;. i'"0 vears; and that, now-a-davs, the
^^. -^ic- ijiiTi. in this country, a people and an
-J* viieh preceded it."
-.I'^aitit of Dugga" contained 7 lines in
^«:. T at -nknown writing. At^er the French
.4-ttiac bilingual inscriptions were found,—
^.-^ ?anic ; but ever accompanied by the
otfsi'^s. The Berber alphabet, ohsen'ed by
ssT-v :vDe Saulcy in 1844, and reeoven'd hv
>,^ afr A:Jed to unfold a great fju-t, \'iz: "the
.^ j.\^n-ents leaves no doubt as to the cloi^e
^^j^ jtt^'twn the idiom of these antique inscrip-
_•,- W'-'Ci now being spoken from the Eiryptian
«:^-rsri?' to the shore of tlie Ocean, and (south-
. icHj7:-T*nean to the confines of the Soodiin
. ,^-5 iix s^^ular filiation of the Libyan toiiiriie hai?
-.lars* poor *"^d simple, of which the type h«5
- r^ present idiom of the Kahail athwart the
srz ^ vicissitudes of revolutions; without ai»y
•vaj ie surface of desert-rocks, without anv oth^r
^tuC ihan the v%9 inertiae of tnidition ; — now known
P^^sce? of Berbery Chaweeya^ or Kaht/le; whiih
.■»:;'^ Lar'oua in parts of the Sahara, and SU
pi^-^vsT &*ribiition of those claDs, seo the excellent "rirte -^^
^. -i^^afc- by Cabbtte and Warmer, Paris, 1840: — also, WimV*
A'Wf^^'^WAi?*''* " ^^^ V^y^ et \e» peuples * « * do la Utrttnt
f^» and Leipiig (Brockhaus and Avernnriua).
THE POLYGENISTS. 535
**The diflferent names under which this idiom presents itself are
recognized in a common appellative, as if forming branches of one
and the same trunk. The word Berber comprises equally the Kabill
of the littoral, the Chaweeya of the south-east, the Shilh^eya of Mo-
rocco, the Beni-M*zab, and the Touiriks : and, in the same manner
that,all these dialects offer but slight differences among themselves,
leaving no doubt whatever as to their community of origin, so the
peoples that make use of them must be regarded as the scattered
members of one and the same family." On the Jurjura plateaux
there is a tribe still called {beni^ Arabic for "sons*') Beni-KSbila;
another on the Aures is {otvUtdy = " children ") Oued-Shelihy or Shilr
hieya; and a third, Bent-Berber: and thus, without break in the chain
of nomenclature, we can now ascend, — in the same language, race,
and country — from the T-Amazirgy or Amazirg-Ty or "jfree-men,"
name given by this people to themselves,** through the Mazie-eh of
Arab authors, to the Qentes Mazicse of the Romans, — and thence,
finally to the Mogusc of Herodotus, in whose day they were jSapjSapoi ;
that is to say, not barbarians etymologically, but these same old JBer-
heroij our "Berbers."
From the earliest times, when they were the " Jotr-country *' and
the " nme-JottNCOuntries " of Egyptian hieroglyphics of the xiith
dynasty, 22 centuries b. c, through the period when they had become
the MtMulaniy SaboubareSj and quinquegentani of Latin writers, these
Berbers have ever been the same " unconquerable Moors {Mauri) ;"
to such degree, that their highland fastnesses amid the Atlas were
lesignated as "mons ferratus" by the Boman legions, and "el-
ido6wa" (the inimical) by the later Saracenic lancers —
"(Genfl) torra, ferox, procax, Terbosa, rebellia."***
My above allusion to the familiar hieroglyphics for Libyan nations
prompts reference to new inquiries that have just arisen as to the
ijuestion^ — How far did the pharaonic Egyptians push their conquests
into. Western Africa ? Manetho^ says that Menes (1st dynasty, b. o.
iO centuries) gained glory from his foreign wars ; and that under Nb-
CHBROCHis (ind dynasty), not very long after, the ^^ Libyans were
defeated by the Egyptians :" but, until recently, no corroborative tes-
timonies had been suspected, even, in Barbary itself. The first dis-
covery of such monumental analogy was made by the daring travel-
*** Hodgson (of SaTannah, Ga.), cited in Gliddon, Otia ^gypHaea^ pp. 117-29.
** As Gibbon somewhere says of the Armorioans : or, in the more explicit Castilian of
A wrathy old Spanish writer, not partial to Mussulmans, H^edo, — "Moros, Alarbes, Ga«
tmyles, y alg^nnos Tarcos, todos gente puerca, sozia, torpe, indomita, inhayil, inhnmana,
bestial ; y por tanto, tuTo por cierto razon el que da pocos a&os aca aonstambro ll^may ^
csta tierra Barbaria" (Pascal Duprat, Afrigw SepUntrionaU, 1846, p. 65^ note).
OS Text in Bunsbn, J^yy/»^« Place, i pp. 611, 615.
536
THE UONOGENISTS AND
lePB, Richanleon, Barth, and Overweg,™" in 1850 ; at a mountai
called Wadee Taldja, about iiiiie days' jouruey after Itaviiig Moar-
zook, the capital uf Fczzan. Here ia the accouut, iu the wonU o^
M. Vivien de Saiut-Martiu : —
"A little boiure rcauhiug tbe descent we have just described, J^(
the bottom of tbe viUley tlirough which one arrives at it, our Irave],
lere mado a singular discovery. They fouud some ligures engraved
in deep cuttings upon tbe face of tbe rock [a very Egyptian metbod
of recording oonquoata, aa at Wadee Magira, near Mt. Sinai, bj
tteUi]- The ancient people of tbe Eaut loved tbua to sculpture, apon
tbe granite, warlike or religious scenes : there exist tableaux of tha
nature in Assyria and iu Media, in Phcenicia and Asia Minor.
Those wbicb our explorers have discovered at the entrance of iLe
[Sahara] desert have a pecuHar character. They form several die-
tinct tableaux, of wbicb two arc above all remarkable. One offen
an allogorical scene, tbe other represents a scene of pastoral li&
In tbe first, one beholds two personages, one with the bead of a bird,
and the other with a bull's, both armed with buckler and bow, and
seemingly combating for the possession of a bull: the other showaa
group of hulls that appear descending towards a spring to slake tlicir
thirst. The first of these two tablets has a character altogether Egy^
tian; and tbe etitietiibU of these sculptures is very superior to wliRt
the nomad iubabitanle of tbe north of Africa could now execute [Sen
Pulflzky's Chap. II., pp. 188-192, on " Unartistical Itaces "]. Tbe
men of the neighborhood, moreover, attribute them to an unknown
people who, tliey say, poBseased the country long before them.
Barth copied with care the two principal tablets, and he sent bia
drawings, accompanied with a detailed notice, to the learned Egj-p-
toldgist of London, Mr. Birch; who will doubtless make them the
object of a serious study. Accoi-ding to the very competent judg-
ment of the traveller, the sculptures of Wadee Ttliasareb [name of
the place where they are found] bear in themselves the stamp of
jncuuteetahle antiquity. One is struck, furthermore, hy a chaructu^
ifltic circumstance, viz : the absence of the eamfl, which always hoiJs
nowadays the first place in the clumsy sketches [as at Mt. Siuoi]
traced, here and there, by present tribes upon other rocks in divers
parts of the desert. It is now recognized that the camel was intro-
duced into Africa by the first Arab conquerors of tbe Khalifate [lhi«
is not exact — say rather about the 1st century B. c], during the Vlltii
century of our era: more anciently tbe only caravan beasts of bur
then, between the maritime zone and Nigritia, were the ox and tiM
rill und OvfTicigt Uai
tSG2) — u cited liy SAiHt-MAXriK, (Bupri, n
Hnfi-StiM nocA dtn Tichad-
0) pp. ISJ-A
^rf^&Ti^l
THE POLYGENISTS. 537
horse. StraboTelates {lib, xvii.) how the Maurusians [only a dialec-
tic mutation of PharusianSy the PTfRSIM^ of Xth Genesis], in
order to traverse the desert, suspended water-skins under the bellies
of their horses. Among several tribes of the Sahara, the ox is still
used as a beast of transportation and carriage. Eichardson saw a
great number of them in a caravan that had just crossed a part of
the Soodiln.''
A sight of Earth's copy would suffice to establish whether a breath
of Egyptian art passed over the sculpture; but this narration is all I
can now learn about it. Isolate in itself, this &ct scarcely attracted
my attention before ; but here come some fresher coincidences of real
Egyptian monuments, still further west in Barbary, that shed some
plausibility upon these (by myself unseen) petroglyphs. An Egyp-
tian black-granite royal statue, broken, 'tis true, bearing inscriptions
with the name of Thotmes I (XVIEth dynasty, 16th century b. c),
has turned up at Cherchel, in Algeria;*^ and a Phoenico-Egyptian
scaraboBUS, brought from the same locality, is now in Paris.*"^ Now,
as the cited scholars both coincide, those monuments may have been
carried thither either by Phoenician traders, or by later Roman dilet-
tanti. Neither of them proves anything for pharaonic conquests in
Africa ; but we have lived to see, in the case of Egyptian conquests
in Assyria, such positive evidence grow out of the smallest^ and, at
first, most dubious indication, that I feel tempted to add another,
inedited, fact (long unthought of in my portfolio) to the chain of
posts — epochas left aside — now existing between ancient Egypt and
old Mauritania.
On the 26th Dec, 1842, my revered friend, the late Hon. John
Pickering — a most scientific philologist — of Boston, gave me an
impression*®^ of a fragment of true Egyptian greenish-basalt stone,
inscribed with some sixteen or eighteen pure hieroglyphical charac-
ters (without cartouche, but broken from a statue, part of an arm
being on its reverse, in good relievo). This was said to have been
picked up on the ruins of Carthage^ by an officer of the U. S. Navy,
daring the Tripolitan war; and brought directly to this country,
•• 7\/pe» of Mankind, pp. 618-20.
** Qrkbnk, Bulletin Arehiologique de PA thenctum Fran^ait, May, 1856» pp. 88-9.
*» Francois Lenobmant, op. eii., June, pp. 46-7.'
^01 Mislaid among old papers, I have no leisure now to search for it ; but, from an entry
made at the time in my ** Analecta ^gyptiaca," I can state that its dimensions were about,
length 7 inches, breadth 4^, and thickness 2. The hieroglyphics, intaglio, style Saitio, are
eat on a sort of jamb or plinth. Until production of my copy, let me terminate with a note
mude on its reception : — ** If it does not go in support of the conquests of the Pharaohs in
Barbary, it proves intercourte, at least, with Carthage" — that is, if found at Carthage, for
which I fear all proofs are now, after so many years, obliterated.
538 THE MONOGENISTS AND
where, wlien T saw it, the relic was in the poaaession of Mr. Qeorgtt
Folaoni, at Boston.
From tliia ai-chseological dlgreaaion, let ua return to Barbarceqoe
ethtiogiiiphy.
In the words of Ebn KhXledoon, M. Carette observes — "Thai
which is beyond doubt is, that, many centuries before Islaraism, the.^^
Berbers were known in the countms they inhabit ; and that they^:^
have always formed, with their numerous ramiBcatious, a aatior-^^
entirely diatiuct from every other." Adopting for himself the onl^-^
natural theory, that the Berbers were created for Berberia, Carctt-— ^
continues: — "Thus, it is an Arab writer, and the Dioat judicious <^^f
the whole of tliem, that has himeelf done justice to all the tatti;;^
invented by Us co-religioniata,*" and who reduces all the eyatem ^z:jf
Berber genealogy to two facts, viz.: the biblical datura, which h-^j.
quality of Mussulman obliged him to admit ; and the local tradili oo J
that he had been able to collect himself." The following tab*)^ I
specify the state of Berber actualities. |
DhlUI l)» HID 111 |*n of Jl)pc^ ^^
TuniK, Tilinill, «d tittnnm
To render more perspicuous these ethnic subdivisions of a grou]
of r.icea hitherto very imperfectly diacuaaed by Anglo-Saxon ethm
legists, I append, from another good authority, long reaident profe
flioually in military Algerian service,*" a curious specification of thef
several characteristics.
"> Tjipa 0/ Mankind, p. 612.
"* Bektukbamii, M4dieini tt Ej/gitnt dn Arahn, Fkria, 1956, p. 1T3. The midb oltMrrw
■dde, whan describing hair In the phyaical chnracUristiCB of these Ihrre tvpef (p 131/;
" Leg Arnbea sont ginfralmont brniis, les Sahsniouis blooda on tnieui obAtaio-ctiir, Iff
Kabyles oliHuia : iineliiues-aneii de Icun tribas ODDiptout drs fomilleB cntibreiDent btondM,'
Eqiully good HpBoiBanUuiu kr« in Pakiai. Dvfkat (op. dt.} panim.
I
THE P0LT6ENISTS.
539
BERTUERAND'3 diyisioh of tbb pbbsbht natiyb iivhabitakts of ALGERIA.
Tn ASAB, Thi"Ka5TLe,»
(Originallj AricMe,) (CorwcUy, Brber,)
lahabitB the " Tell,"* hillooks, and Inhabito the mountaiiM (Atlai).
plaiiu.
Thx **8abaeXwi,'*
(Man of the Sahara^)
InhabttA the Oases, and tbe
nndy landa of the south.
Ltrcs on eereals, meloiu, awmwi lata nany oilj eakes, and flmlts. Datea and milk,
(flonrpellets), and little meat
Tendstonameroosmarlcets;poa- Owns no /ondoo^s ; comes abore Always In motion abont tha
isnia /tmdodg$ (farms); cnlUTates all to the Arab's marUs baring few « Tell ;»* has no fomlooqs ; sells his
the eereals; has Taried merdaan- cereals himself ; works at minbag; dates; is generally poor,
dtoe, — coffee, sugar, soap, Aa makes honey ; traffics in fruits.
Bobbery abundant Grimee abundant
Ooenpies a country little wooded. Country fall of Ibrests.
Has always water.
Abore all, a plunderer.
Has no wood except in the Oasea.
nitby; often in need of water.
Has horses, herds of cattle, cows;
floeks of sheep and goats.
Dwells in tents.
BOkMo-Iymphatio; large-bellied
Agrlenlturist; laboring on the
had winter and summer.
lAtalUgenet— rezy ocdinazy.
Possesses diiefly mules.
Besides in ^oorM (mod horels);
hands erer in splash.
Bilioso-sanguineons ; women tall
and well made.
Arboriculturist; works during
the fruit^uurreat
Intelligence— applied to arts and
industry.
Tolerably dirty: oflcn in want
of water, eren for legal (MnsUm)
ablutions.
Owns camels and borsea.
Tiires in camel-hair tabsmadst;
earth-houses in the Oases.
Bilioso-nerrous; pretty women.
Horticulturist; gathers dates;
pafises lifi) in caraTans.
Great facility of conception— rery
lively Imagination.
"It is to be remarked, that tlie KooloogUea*^ [now fast running
out], product of unions between indigenous females and the Turks
[no longer encroaching colonists in Algeria since the Gallic occupa-
tion], are the strongest, the most intelligent [naturally so, because,
under the name " Turk" is included what little now remains there
of European captives, Circassian memlooks, &c.]: an important
question as regards the fusion, — on which certainly depends the
implantation of the French nation in Algeria."
Inasmuch, however, as my purpose is merely to direct ethnological
attention towards analysis of the several primitive stocks, out of
which the present Algerian population is compounded, I need now
only interpose a " caveat" in respect to the opinions of Dr. Berthe-
rand, and before him of Dr. Bodichon,*"* as to the ulterior benefits,
by both of these skilful authors supposed likely to become the
«i In their Frenohifiod cogqomen, philologists will he inclined to recognize the Osmanlee-
Tnrkiflh radical "oGLn," that is to say **son," — as in the LiLz-oglus of Nuhia. Pascal
DuPSAT {Afriqm SeptenlrionaU, 1845, pp. 288-9), while showing that it is as often pro-
noimced Courogli as Coulogli, derires it from the Turkish kooUh-oglUy ** son of a slaTo:" to
iHiieh maj be added from Rosn {Rigmee d^Algtr, 1838, II, pp. 272-92), that these Kool-
oogleea, neTertheless, are not half-breeds between Turks and Christian white female cap*
ItfMt *'bai children bom from natiye Mauresque women married to Turks."
«i Tn^ 0/ Mankind, pp. 10t^7, 110, 874.
540 THE M0N06EKISTS AND
future sequences of amalgamation between " types" so often repug-
nant, and amid ''races" not less (in zoological, geographical, and
historical, phenomena) diverse.
Thus then, Ebn Khaledoon recognized the same three distinct
types of man we find about North-western Africa now, viz., the
BerberSy the Arahsy and the negroes south of the Sahara. He dema^
cates the Berbers as follows :
"Now the real fact which dispenses with all hypotheses, is thia:
the Berbers are the children of Canaan, son of Ham, son of Noah ;
as we have already enunciated it, when speaking of the grand
divisions of the human species. Their grandfather was named
Mazyh [the Masici of the Latins, and the Maznis of the Oreeks];
their brothers were the Gergesians {Aghrikeeh)-, the Philistines,
children of Casluhim [here he likewise takes the Hebrew plural for
the ShillouJiB to be a man !], son of Misraim, son of Cham, were
their relations. * * * One must admit [he adds peremptorily] no
other opinion than ours."
Wiser than some modem ethnographers, our Arab author wholly
rejects Berber "pretensions to Arabian origin: pretensions that I
regard as ill-founded; because the situation of the places which
these tribes inhabit, and an examination of the language spoken by
them, establish sufficiently that they have nothing in common
with the Arabs. I except only the Sanhadja and the Ketama (but
God knows if this be true!), who, as tlie Arab genealogists say
themselves, appertain to this nation, — an opinion that accords with
my own.** The Berbers apostatized from IsUm twelve times: nor
was this religion implanted among them before Tarec (a Berber
chief, who crossed over to Gibraltar, gebel- Tarec, "hill of Tarec," a. d.
711) went to Spain. " These chiefs bore with them a great number
of Berber sh^ykhs and warriors, in order to combat the infidels.
After the conquest of Spain, these auxiliaries fixed themselves there;
and, since then, the Berbers of the Moghreb have remained faithful
to Islamism, and have lost their old habit of apostasy." A portion
of the Berbers, previously to that, had embraced Judaism; hut
"Idrees the First, descendant of El-Hassan, son of El-Hassan
(grandson of Mohammed), having come into the Moghreb, caused
to disappear from this country the very last vestige of tliese religions
[Christian, Jewish, and pagan], and put an end to the independence
of these tribes.
" We believe that we have cited a series of facts which prove that
the Berbers have always been a people, powerful, redoubtable, brave,
and numerous: a true people, like so many others in this world,
such as the Arabs, the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans. Such
THE POLYGENISTS. 541
was, in fiict, the Berber race. * * * From the Moghrcb-el-aksa
[extremest west] as far as Tripoli ; or, to speak more exactly, as far
as Alexandria ; and from the Roman sea [Mediterranean] as far as
the country of the blacks, the whole of this region has been inha-
bited by the Berber race ; and this from an epoch of which neither
the anterior events nor even the beginning are known," — ^wrote Ebn
Khaledoon, five centuries before the science of Ethnology even
possessed a name.
So much being settled, I proceed to indicate points of geogra-
phical contact between the Berber and the true negro races; ob-
serving only, that the possession of dromedaries and camels has—
since the 1st century b. c. as the earliest, and since the Vllth a. d. as the
best historical date for any large scale — spread the Berber tribes in a
semi-circle over all the northern confines of the Beldd-es-Sooddn,
ooantries of the blacks.*^"
It is from, the name of the tribe Aourtka that Carette, very reason-
ably, derives the name of "Africa;*' and it is also at the oases
Onaregla, Temacln, and Tuggurt, — grouped into one appellative,
Ouad-Bir^ (Moghrabee for Owldd-Righ) — that mixture of Atlantic
races and tongues with Arabian chiefly takes place. ^^Righ** mean-
ing "separation;" ^^OuadrRigK' signifies "the sons of the Righy' or
of $eparation.
"The Arabs come from the tribes [B^dawees]; the Berbers pass
as originating fiK)m the soil. It is, on the other hand, easy to recog-
nize them ; because the Arabs have the akin tanned like men of the
white race who have sojourned long in southern countries ; whereas
the Ruar'aj properly so called, or autochthonous inhabitants, have
the $kin nearly as black as the negroes^ and some few the traits of the
black race. Albeit, they differ still essentially from the Nigritian
peoples ; and, in the country itself they can never be confounded.
I have seen many Rouar'a [new French spelling for Roudghd]
Berbers very much resembling the negro, and yet who would have
considered it an insult to be confounded with the race of slaves.
[Amalgamation with negresses explains these exceptional cases.]
They characterize their color by no other epithet than Khamrij
which signifies ''brown' [or reddishj always the Egyptian color for
the Hamitic stock].*"'
" The autochthonous population of the ' children of Righ' (sepa-
ration) mark, therefore, the transition of the color and the features
M D'EsoATKAO DM Lautukb (Xtf DAert et U Souddn^ Paris, 1854) has written one of the
bwt books on this subject ; but, baring lost my copy, I am onable to quote an enterprising
traTdlflr who knows those regions so welL
M f)fpm i^Mankmdf pp. 688 : — Otia JEgypUaca^ p. 184.
542 THE M0K06BNISTS AND
between the white race and the black race. It is not the tint, mow
or less bronzed, of the white populations of the south of Europe: it
is a color altogether different, and which belongs to them, — much
nearer to black than to white. Nevertheless, they have, of the black
race, neither the flat nose nor the thick lips, any more than the
woolly hair ; although, however, these traits are not those of the
white race.
"It is an intermediary race, half-way between ; attached, at one and
the same time, to the two extreme races to which it approximates
and which it separates." Such, finally, is a prScU of Berber ques-
tions at the present hour; which cuts them loose, as another type of
man, from all other races of humanity, — excepting as concerns their
Hamitie source and their linguistic aflinities, on which M. Maury
(supra, p. 142-3) has sufliciently cleared up obscurities. In common
with the Hebrews, the Egyptians, the Chinese, the American abo-
rigines, and some others whose earliest locum tenena has not yet been
quite so sharply trenched in ethnology, the Berber$ represent an
especial and independent group of proximate races ; being the peal
human component of what Agassiz*^ has so conclusively determined,
in zoological distribution, as the "North African fauna'* of the
** European realm,** — populations to whom the appellative Atalm-
tiiite [the root of which is certainly Berber — a name for part of Mt
Atlas *^] would, etymologically, geographically, and historically, be
appropriate for convenience of ethnic classification.
The next step ou^^ht to take us to the basin of the Senegal, where
this rivor constitutes the dividing line between these Atalantid«
with their Arab companions, and those true negro races whose
habitiU has never voluntarily lain to the north of it. Of course,
boforo the camel reached Barbary, neither the Berbers nor the Arabs
i^>uld have traversed- the Saharran wastes to hunt the negroes; nor
the luttor have come across it northwards for the mere sadsfiu^on
of boooming enslaved by those superior types of man.
To do so properly, one should begin with the first discovery of
this rivor by Europeans, about the XlVth century, and trace throng
the works of Rochefort (1643), Gaby (1689), Labat (1728), Adak-
80N (1757), GoLBKRRY (1787), La Barthb (1785), Durand (1802),
MoLUKN (1818), Matthews (1787), and Laing (1825), the progress
of knowledge as regards its now varied inhabitants. Only in three
of tUo above tnivels have I been able to do it; but deficiencies are
*• ly^ «/ Mankmdy p. IxxTiii, and " Map."
«*$V^ (M\ th«» |m>Kabl« dmTatioQ of "Antilia" (Antilles) from Alhnti9^ tlie eksnntiif
»m4 MHvlilt^ di>«^)ui»ition of D'Atvbao, Let tlet Fanttutiqua de VOdon OecUaUml mm thft*-
THE POLYGENISTS. 543
tolerably well made up in the excellent work of Raffenel.*^ Under
the specific designations, — each people being also subdivided into
tribes, of Maure9 (Arabs), F<mlah%^ SarracoletSy BambaraSy MandingoSj
and Yoloffs — ^this accurate observer manifests their distinctions of
lype and character; proving, moreover, that the white man's intel-
ligence merges into Nigritian brutality in the same ratio that, step
by step, one travels south from the Sahara into negro-land ; and that
the color of the human skin is darkened by race-character, not by
imaginary "climate;" because, the Semitic Arab, who has been
there about six centuries, is no blacker than his ancestors or contem*
poraries were, or are now, in Arabia itsel£*" Luke Burke's argu-
ment*'^ bears out my assertion ; and I have since beheld, in the
Q-alerie AntAropologique at Paris, the beautifully colored portraits of
all the races alluded to.
"Let us now pass on to Africa. Here we find the negro races
occupying some of the most torrid regions, but not exclusively.
Arab races have been living in the midst of them for thousands of
years, and yet they are only brown. Some of them, indeed, are
nearly fair; for their blood has been repeatedly mixed virith that of
northern tribes ; and, where such is the case, we find that the climate
does no more than simply tan or freckle such parts as are generally
exposed to the light Still farther to the soutJi, — farther even than
the true region of the negroes — extend the tribes of the Galley who
have of late years conquered a large portion of Abyssinia. These
have for ages occupied the plains of Central Africa, almost under
the equator; an 1 yet they are, at the utmost, brown, and many of
them comparatively fair. But, more than this, there arc nomadic
&milies of the Tawrick race, who have wandered from an unknown
period among the burning sands of the great desert itself, and still
retain their fair complexions. They are, indeed, no more affected
by this torrid region than most Europeans would be after a residence
there of a few months.
"We have already spoken, in a former chapter, of the Kabyles of
the Auress mountains in Algiers, — one tribe of whom have not
merely a fiiir and ruddy complexion, but also hair of a deep yellow.
^* Op, cU., AUftS, colored likeness of "Manre de S^n^gal;" — who might be well oon-
trmgted with another good portrait fVom the Abyssinian side of Africa, ** I>j€lldb marchand
d'esolaTes da Cordofand/* in the Revue <U P Orient, Paris, 1854, PI- 81.
Ai Jbgpforolioii dtt Sinigal, dqnua SL Louis juaqu*d la FaUmi^ au deld de Bakel; de la
FaUmS, depute eon embouchure juequ^H Sansandig ; dee minee d'or de KSniiba, done le Bam-
houk; de* pays de Oalam, Bondou, et WooUi; et de Oambie, depuie Baracounda jusgu^d
rOeian, daring 184S-4; Paris, 1846, 8to, with folio atlas.
^** JSiknologkdl Journal^ London, No. 2, Jolj, 1848, — "Varietiefl of Complexion in the
Hamn BMe," p. 7d-7.
544 THE MONOGENISTS AND
Dr. Shaw, the traveller from whom we quoted, gives a still more
decided testimony against the theory of climate^ in speaking of the
Moorish women. His words are : * The greatest part of the Moorish
women would be reckoned beauties even in Great Britain, as their
children certainly have the fairest complexion of any nation whatever.
The boys, indeed, by wearing only the tiara, are exposed so much to
the sun that they soon acquire the swarthiness of the Arab ; but the
girls, keeping more at home, preserve their beauty till they are
thirty, at which time they are usually past child-bearing.* — (Travels
in Barbary and the Levant, fol. 1738, p. 120.) Here we perceive the
true effects of climate on the fair races : a temporary darkening of
the parts exposed to the sun, the children of people so darkened
bom perfectly fair! Who can tell the number of ages that the
Moors have inhabited the north of Africa ? Who can say that their
present region is not their original country ? And yet here they are
still, a perfectly fair race.
** Southern Africa also presents us with many striking illustrations
of the fallacy of the theory of climate. We shall content ourselves
with citing two of the most remarkable, viz., those presented by the
physical peculiarities of the Hottentots and Bosjesmans. These two
races have been considered as one ; but only by those who believe
in the great modifying power of circumstances. They are evidently
distinct The Bosjesmans are pigmies ; the Hottentots, where pure,
tall and large. Persons of intermediate stature are, of course, met
with; because two races so much alike in most respects, residing
near each other, must necessarily have intermarried in the course of
ages; but there is no conceivable reason why, except as distinct
races, the one should be active, restless, comparatively brave, and
of a stature seldom exceeding four feet nine inches, while the other
is tall, large, timid, and exceedingly sluggish. In most other respects
their organization is similar ; and they differ from all other portions
of mankind in the nature of the hair and in two remarkable pecu-
liarities in the female structure. They are in the midst of races
widely differing from them, — negroes on the one hand and Caffi^
on the other ; both black, while the Hottentots and Bosjesmans are
simply of a light yellowish brown. How can these fects be accounted
for except as differences of race ?"
A view of some curious analogies, d, propos of the Gaboon river-
land, may here be given.
The chart (further on), illustrative of the distribution of the nmtois
in their relation to that of some inferior types of man, with the text
accompanying, suggests a few hints to ethnographers. Among them
THE POLYGENISTS. 545
is the fiact, that the highest living species of Monkeys occupy pre-
cisely those zoological provinces where flourish the lowest races of
mankina.
It is well known, that all negroes found in Algeria (where their
lives are also curtailed, as in Egypt, by an uncongenial climate), are
brought over the Sahara, by the inland caravan-trade, chiefly from
the neighborhood of the Niger and Senegal rivers. This shall be
made evident in elucidating the Saharran fauna of the African realm
on our Tableau. From the Senegal, Gambian, Joliba, and other
streams, as well as from around Lake Tchad and its affluents, there
is, and has been, ever since the Arabian camel was introduced, about
the 1st century b. c.,^^^ a ceaseless flow of nigritian captives to the
*^ Dksmoulins, op. eit., Mimoire tur la Fatrie du Chameau d vne Botte, et tur rSpoqtie <U
torn introduction en A/rique; pp. 859-88: — I am acquainted with the objections raised by
Qoatrem^re (MSmoiret de VAcad. Roy. da Inscriptunu et Belles Lettre^y XV., Paris, 1845 ; pp.
398-6. -^) ; but Egyptological reasons, by him disregarded, lead me to deem them incon-
oliunTe.
A word here about "Camels.'* Mention was made {Typea of Mankind^ p. 729. note 610),
of a BIS. memoir of my own, entitled ** Remarks on the introduction of Camels and Drome-
daries, for Army-Transportation, Carriage of Mails, and Military Field-senrice, into the
States and Territories lying south and west of the Mississippi, between the Atlantic and
Paeifto coasts — ^presented to the War-Department, Washington, Oct. 1851 :" — and dedicated
to the HoM. Jsrr. Datis, then U. S. Senator, — who had previously, at my instigation (Nat,
InteUigeneer, Wash., D. C, 27 March, 1851), introduced a camol-bill into Congress.
It is known to oTerybody in this country that the United States Transport ** Supply *' has
abeady made two trips, one to Alexandria, and the other to Smyrna, and brought oyer to
Texas some 80 of these animals, in good condition. The undertaking could not fail to be
saccessfnl, — 1st, because the ship was commanded by my old friend (welcomed **chez moi*'
at Cairo as far back as 1835), Lieut. David Pobtbr, U. S. N. ; — and 2d, because the War
Department has merely carried* out (with but one solitary exception) every detail — down to the
most minute^of my ** Remarks" aforesaid, in regard to the importation of these animals.
Following the maxim — ** je reprends ma propri^t^ oti je la trouve" — I claim here the credit
of chalking out the lines upon which these Camels reached America ; confident that if (and
I hardly think such contingency possible after the instruction the party in charge had from
myself), there should be any failure in developing the unbounded utility of these quadrupeds
after their landing, such eventuality can proceed solely through United States* official mis-
aanagement.
Meanwhile, I presume my above-mentioned MS. has become mislaid at the War Depart-
ment; because I see that Mr. Marsh, in his very nice little work (Boston, 1856), on the
** Gamel," whilst gratefully acknowledging the various documents on the subject lent him
by the War Department, with honorable mention of the Authors of each paper, has nowhere
aBuded, either to myself (who planned the whole affair for them in writing, 1851-6), or to
B^ said *« Remarks."
Now, whether my MS. (bound in red morocco, too) be or be not in existence at the War
Department, it so happens that, knowing perfectly well the sort of principles current at
Washington — District Columbia, — I had taken 8 precautions to ensure preservation of my
ideas therein ; 1st, by having a fac-simile copy made by the hands of a third party before
transmitting the original from Pittsburg, Pa., to the Department; 2d, by securing sufficient
dollateral evidence of my connection with that Institution from first to lost ; and 8d, by
^ffssening, in a patent Salamander safe, my MS. copy, with every scrap of correspondence
85
546 THE MONOGENISTS AND
slave-marts of Timboctoo, Moiirzook, and other oases ; whence they
become distributed, by Toukrik and Arab gelUibSy throughout Maroo-
chine, Algerian, Tunisian and Tripolitan, territories. Now, the
various negro populations of the above-named rivers are by no means
the most austral nations represented in these cities' local slave-markets;
because such distinct stations are, in their turn, re-filled by caravans
from the interior; whose ^^exploitation'* of nigritian prisoners stretches
backwards to Ashantee, Benin, Dahomey, Adamoua, &c.: whither
again converge endless radiations of still more inland slaves, whoee
hunted-grounds reach southwards to an unknown extent, but ccr
tainly as far as Congo. The consequence is, that in Algeria, as at
Cairo, numberless varieties of negroes, from many countries, are
represented, in human slave-basaars.
Among these, a peculiar type is frequently seen even now, but was
far more abundant prior to the abolition of that piratical Beyship, by
the French in 1830. Of this race I clearly remember two huge and
ferocious specimens working about Mohammed Ali's arsenal at
Alexandria for a. long time, between 1827 and 1835; when I think
they must have succumbed to the great plague of the latter year. They
had been landed from the crews of an Algerine frigate and a corvette
that, sent as quota to the^^sha's squadrons against the Greeks,
rotted their hulks out in our western harbor, after the fall of their
quondam owner at Algiers. Witness for years, and once assistant
retributor, of the brutality of these two Algerine negroes, their phy-
siognomies are ineffaceable from my memory ; being besides totally
distinct from any negro race brought down the Nile to Cairo.
It was, therefore, with satisfaction that I lately recognized the fea-
tures of my old acquaintances, in two plates, wholly distinct in ori-
gin, representing the same type abiding in French Algeria : with the
only difference that the men I knew were almost black in color.
The profile of one is fac-simile-ed in No. 26 of our Tableau under
the name of " Saharran-negro ;*' partly because this individual, or Ws
parents, must have been brought across the great desert, and partly
between myself ami others', — from Deo. 1850, at Philadelphia, down to June ISdS, at Pftn»-
relative to this grand experiment of nataralizing the Arabian camel, amidst its homogentvo
climatic and other conditions, in the sonth-westem States and Territories of the United
States on this continent.
I hope soon to have a little more leisure than just at this moment ; when it wiU afford ■<
great pleasure, the public much entertainment, and the Honorablb Mm. Marsh ptcoHtf
gratification, to show how easy it was to ** see through a millstone, after somebodj had Bid*
a hole in it," as concerns the successf^il importation of these Caill6ls — no less thantliis
genUeman's astounding mesmeric clairroyance in guessing at erery fact and id«a eontainid
in that fac-simile copy of my ** Remarks *' aforesaid, during the period that it lay locked
up in a patent Salamander safe. Philadelphia, 10th Febniaiy, 1857.— O. B.O.»"(fo^
merly) United States Consul at Cairo."
THE POLYGENISTS. 547
sause numerons historical analogies lead me to infer, that it is
vards Senegal that his typical family should be sought for. Its
^nal colored drawing, much larger in size, being one of about
ty beautifully-executed portraits taken on the spot by the Commit*
n Metentifique dCAlgSrie^ is now suspended in the Oalerie Anihropo-
*tque of the Parisian Mu86um. Published by the Chief of that ex-
dition, the late Bory de Saint-Vincent,*^* my copy has been traced
on Btone directly firom Bory de St. Vincent's plate, in my posses-
>n. He thus briefly describes this head's history : —
** lS*o. nL, finally, is the Ethiopian type. This head was that of
bandit native of the Sooddn [negro-land], killed in the Sithel [At-
ntic slopes towards the Sahara], where one of the sabre-cuts with
bich he was smitten shows, over the left parietal, how much more
•nsiderable the thickness of the bones of the cranium is in negroes
an in other men. * * *
** In disposing," proceeds our author, "the bony cases [skulls] that
present to the Academy, upon the same plane one after another,
B are first struck by the manner in which, on starting from the At-
ntic type [or Berber^ see a semplar gradation in our Tableau, No.
!], wherein the facial angle is almost a right one, the gradual pro-
inence of the upper jaw becomes considerable. This elongation is
ch in the Ethiopian, that the resemblance of his skeleton to that
the large monkeys becomes striking [ubi supra'] : at the base of a
fliciently-high, but laterally compressed frontal region, the supra-
bital ridges project almost as considerably as those of a middle-
ed Orang. Otlier bony prominences, not less marked, crown the
nporal region at the attachments of the temporal muscles ; a very
>nounced depression exists at the root of the nose, of which the
nes proper are also the shortest, and so disposed forwards that
Ar situation becomes nearly horizontal. Certain airs of animality
lult from this osteological ensemble ; and, the facial traits not being
8 strange, the breadth of the nose with its widely-open wings, and
3 prodigious thickness of the lips, whose lower one seems to be
asi-pendent, impress upon this Ethiopian's profile the aspect of a
rt of muzzle."
Following this famed anthropologist's suggestion, I now submit,
the reader's inspection, four wood-cuts (A, B, C, D, on next page).
Few remarks suffice to establish authenticity. The palpable ana-
M 8ur V Anthropclogie de VA/rique Fran^aise (read at the Acad^mie des Sciences, 80
le, 1846)— extract from the Magatin de Zoologie^ d*Anatomie eompar/e et de PalSontologU ;
•ia, Oct 1846; pp. 18-4; and Plate Mammiftres, PI. 61, figs. "No. III. Type Sthio-
m,** BoRT DM St. Vikcent is the well-known polygenist; author of U Homme (Ilomo).
m woDlogique tur U Otnre Humain ; of which I am only acquainted with the 2d edition ;
Ast 2 Tols. ISmo., 1827.
I TUE HONOGENISTS .A>'D
logics and dissimilitMilttg, between an iuforior ijfO of mankind Bad »
Buperior type of nionkej, require no comraent.
m ef analkir Aigtn
JVotK vine of our IMarrm-mfjn. r«-
BiekrM."*"
pare bis llorcd ptvfilt in So. » rf nr
■■ Eibnopraptio T.bb!*B."-fc«» B *
Si. V.-B pUle.
GerillfOina, Is. OiiofT. Traglwlyta-Tihigo,—
Va<i. (Tiircc-quBrl»r riew.)"*
•>* Oaltrii Soyaii it C«ilMma, folio, aoloiwl, Puia (Aubort & C".
Ro. 29]; "PorlGor ft AlKcr." PI. IS.
"• Annala iu Sritnea .VaiurtlUi. S~ tirii), Xtslogit. P»ri«, 1861 i rri. PI VTL, J
S: and pp. \M-92. — Ct. nUo. Ulvkiuiot, Ci/ti^tu rtmbu A rjetd. 4
Xll»i. pp. 624-80.
THE POLYGENI&TS, 549
Pig. B — as above stated, is the front view of the " Saharran Negro "
of whom our Tableau^ No. 26, gives the profile. The color of the
original is a livid tawny black, chiefly due to drainage of blood after
decapitation ; f6r it was drawn on the field of the skirmish. By com-
parison with the profile, its Simian expression will be the better per-
ceived.
Fig. A — has no history, beyond the reference that his name was
"Biskry," and that he happened to be a "Porter at Algiers:" but
nomenclature identifies the route by which he, or his progenitors,
reached -Algeria, in the Oasis of -BwArra.*" I infer that this was his
nick-name (soubriquet); because, in Arabic as in Hebrew,*^® the
snffiz Tft, ee (tod), to a geographical appellative indicates the " being
o^" OP, "belonging to " a locality ; so that our BiskrIie, from Biskrd,
means in English the Biskr-ian.
Hence we learn the road of his transit over the Sahara. In the
original plate the color of his skin is a blackish-rod brown ; and we
know that almost evei*y shade, from a dirty yellow to a full ebony, is
to be met with among aborigines of Africa — on which hereinafter.
I have purposely chosen this sample, which is wholly independent
of Boiy de St Vincent's, to substantiate the existence of such par-
ticular types in North-westem Africa. Thirty-three years have
passed since, as a boy, I saw the bronze " Mori " (Moors) in the Ar-
senal of Leghorn. I stand corrected if this man is not one of the
same types.
Figs. C and D — are front and profile heads of the specimen, as yet
unique, of a perfect adult Gorilla ; which, preserved in spirits, was
sent to the Parisian Musium d*Histoire NaturelU, in 1852, from the
Gaboon River, by Dr. Pranquet.
If hypercriticism*" should object to renewed selection of extreme^
^ Pbtus d'Aybhhbb's Retme OrimtaU et Algirienne, Paris, Sto., 1852; i. — Pbax, <*Com-
Bimieationfl entre TAlg^rie ei le S^ii^gal,"pp. 276-95, and ifa/y.*— also Oampmas, ** Oasis
dsBiskn;" pp. 296-^08.
^ T^pe9 of Mankind^ pp. 581-2.
^>* Th^ London Aihmoeum (Jane 17, 1854), in reTiewing onr last work, did not like the
ooatrMts afforded bj placing the Apollo BeMdere, an African negro, and a Chimpaniee,
on the same plate. It was shown in the next nomber (Athenctumt June 24), that they were
copied from the aoenrate designs of an English artist—'* William Harvej, the pupil of Be-
wick."
MLuia BuEKB (Ethnoloffieal Journal^ London, New Series, No. 1, Jan. 1854; p. 88)
happUj saTS^" The beat means of treating man properlj is to treat him as we do the most
clearly-defined portions of general soology. Shonld we not, for instance, better promote
our knowledge of the dog, by carefully noting the most aberrant of his forms, than by any
ieleetion of aTcrage skulls T And why should it not be so with man also ? We would,
therefore, take the liberty of suggesting to all engaged in pursuits of this kind, that the
best mode of consulting the interests of science is to think less of aTorages and more of
ladiTidiiaUtiet."
550 THE MONOGENISTS AND
samples for proper illustration of a zoological subject ; and perad-
venture exclaim that a decollated negro, upon whose features are
stamped the last agonies of violent death, is not a fit exponent of the
type I call " Saharran-negro " until its natural province be made
known, my rejoinder would be simply this: — our Biskreeany ftom
the same regions and in " species " identical, seems to have been in
full blossom when his portrait was taken at Alters ; and, on the
other hand, I claim that some allowance of similar kind ought, b
fairness, to be made in behalf of a poor homicided (7art72a, whose
facial expression alcohol has doubtless distorted and contractei
Surgeons and physicians, when elaborating facts in their medical
publications, habitually leave aside "sentiment" as merely obstruc-
tive to knowledge. It is time, I think, that ethnographers should
imitate such example.
The disquisition accompanying our Monkey-chart explains some
geographical coincidences between species of the simiadsB and some
races of mankind ; but, by way of anticipation; it is remarkable that
this type of anthropomorphous apes actually dwells in Africa not a
thousand miles from the region inhabited by the above type of negro.
But there are still lower forms of the negro type precisely in those
regions around the Bight of Benin where the two highest species of
African anthropoidee, viz., the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee^ overlap
each other in geographical distribution. The best of authorities on
the latter subject, Prof. Jefiries Wyman, of Harvard University,*"
wrote long ago :
** Whilst it is thus easy to demonstrate the wide separation be-
tween the anthropoid and the human races, to assign a true positiou
to the former among themselves is a more diflScult task. Mr. Owen,
in his earlier memoir, regarded the T. niger as making the nearest
approach to man; but the more recently discovered T. gorilla, he is
now induced to believe, approaches still nearer ; and regards it as
'the most anthropoid of the known brutes.' This inference is derived
from the study of the crania alone, without any reference to the rest
of the skeleton.
"After a careful examination of the memoir just referred to, lam
forced to the conclusion that the preponderance of evidence is un-
equivocally opposed to the opinion there recorded ; and, after placing
side by side the different anatomical peculiarities of the two species,
there seems to be no alternative but to regard the chimpanzee as
holding the highest place in the brute creation."
*** Crania of the Eitgi-ena (Troglodytes goriHa, Sarage) from Gaboon^ Afnea, irad before
the Boston Society of Natural History, Oct. 8, 1849; — from the Ameriean Journal t/SeioM
and Arttf 2d series, toI. ix ; p. 9.
THE POLYGBNISTS. 551
On the other hand, Prof. Agassiz remarked, in our former work;^®
'^The chimpanzee and gorilla do not differ more one from the other
than the Mandingo and the Guinea negro: they together do not
iiffer more from the orang than the Malay or white man differs from
the negro:" — and again, in the present [" see Pref. Rem."] : "A
!K)mparison of the full and beautifully illustrated descriptions which
Owen has published, of the skeleton and especially of the skulls of
these species of orangs, with the descriptions and illustrations of
the different races of man, to be found in almost every work on this
subject, shows that th& orangs differ from one aoother in the same
manner as the races of men do ; so much so that, if these orangs are
lifferent species, the different races of men which inhabit the same
sountries, the Malays and the Negrillos, must be considered also as
listinct species."
For evidence that, in the same west-African localities, there exist
Iflferior grades of negroes, lower than anywhere else known, there
is an unexceptionable and recent authority, in a good ethnologist,
the missionary Wilson,*^ who describes these "degenerate branches"
— a sort of negro-gypsies — with great unction and precision.
But we possess still later information, and from a daring and
reliable naturalist, M. Duchaillu, — deservedly lauded in Dr. Meigs's
chapter [sujfra, p. 324, note 243]. I was present at that meeting of
>ar Academy, and fortunate enough to hear Mr. Cassin read Du-
^haillu's long and very matter-of-fect 'report An interesting discus-
don then arose, opened by some critical comments of Mr. Parker
B'oulke, among the members present ; whence two facts were elicited:
Lfit^ that, near Cape Lopez, Duchaillu had shot both Gorilla and
OhimpanzeSy the skins, &c., of which are on their way to the Aca-
iemy ; and, 2d, that he had just visited (his letter bears date Oct.,
L856), up the Muni river, north of the Gaboon, two extraordinary
negro-tribes, viz., the Pauein (whom Wilson calls the "Pangwee" —
different from the M'pongwee) and the Osheboy whose habitats are
divided by that stream. As Mr. Foulke observed, they are the first
historical instance of cannibalism elevated into marketing traffic;
for the Pauein do not eat their own dead, but exchange them, across
this river, for the carcases of the Oshebo! M. Duchaillu quietiy
observes that he could n't eat meat in that country.
*» f^HPM rf Mankind, p. Ixxr.
^ Ananymtnut <*£thnognipkio View of Western Africa," a pamphlet of 84 pages. New
Tork, 1866 ; p. 28. It is from Dr. Meigs's chapter (supra, p. 82G) that I learn the name
of tkis derer writer; who inadTertently qnotes, as if he had foand^ in the excellent works
of Mr. W. B. HoDOBOH, what he can find nowhere else than in my Otia ^Igi^tiaca, and in
mB t)ff§a of Mmikind,
552 THE H0N06EKISTS AND
Now, whilst these lowest tribes of negro man-eaters dwell in the
same zoological province as the black GorUloB and Cfhimpanzea. is it,
[ would ask, through fortuitous accident that, where the red oranga
of the East Indian Archipelago roam the jungle, there should exist
a cannibalism almost parallel, although not mercantile, — as shown
in the reddish B'hattcuy &c., who, some years ago, devoured two
English missionaries, amongst other instances ?
It is to be remarked, however, that, as voyagers observe, can-
nibalism in Polynesia, and also in New Zealand,^ does not seem so
much to have been an instinctive craving among Maori nationB, as
to have gradually grown into a habit of luxurious feeding among
nautical wanderers who, in their vicissitudes of navigation, from
island to island, were often compelled to eat each other.**
It is time to arrest the course of these remarks ; the object of
which chiefly is, to eliminate from further discussion some objection
that the unavoidable brevity of the ensuing sections will compel me
to pass by unnoticed. Confined within some 200 pages, my contri-
bution to the present volume must fall very far short of the materials
collected for its elaboration. I apprehend, nevertheless, that readers
of the preceding commentary are now prepared for the assertion
that a current phrase, "the unity of the human 9feeie%^' if it possess
any real meaning, leaves us in utter darkness as to the scientific
question of mankind's lineal derivation from a single pair; or as to
its counter theory, the plurality of origin from many pairs, situate
in different geographical centres, and possibly formed at diflerent
epochas of creation or of evolution. Chronology we have found to
be a "broken reed** for any event anterior, say, to the 15th century
B. c: so that there exists no positive limit, determinable by ciphers, ^
to human antiquity upon earth, save such as palaeontology — ^a science
commenced by Lister in England, Blumenbach in Germany, and
founded on true principles by Cuvier in France — may in the future
discover. To talk of years, or hundreds of them, in the actual state
^ "Ces abominable coquinsl" — as the gaUant CAPiTAnii Laplaci (Vcyafft auttwri*
Monde, &o., tur la corvette la ''Favorite,** 1830-2, Paris, 8to, text, 1886, IV, pp. S-51)
indignantly exclaims, after witnessing the morality of their women and the human rep^s^
of the men. The same pages give an excellent idea, too, of the missionaries in that remoM
island.
^ ** It will probably be found, on further examination, howerer, that, with the exeeptioa
of the disgusting practice of eannibalum, the black color, with crisped hair, common to tH
there are as many points of difference between the lliegrUlotl different islanders of tht
group, as between any two races in the Pacific," says EasKuri {Journal of a Crmtt, fte., «
B. M. S. " HaTannah," London, Svo, 1853, p. 16). He confirms also Laplaoi on minios-
aries; as does Dn Petit Thdars ( Voy, autour du Monde, &o., frigate la *^Vmm,** 188<V-9t
Paris, Sto, text, 1843; I, pp 817-36; II, p. 378; IV, pp. 70-88); not to mentioo M<nifl-
HOUT {lelet du Grand Ocian, Pans, Svo, 1837; I, pp. 216-867; II, pp. 288-822, 516).
THE POLTGENISTS. 553
of this science, is simply absurd, — a mere illustration of what Greg^
properly stigmatizes as "the humiliating subterfuges resorted to,
by men of science, to show that their discoveries are not at variance
with any text of Scripture." Other conclusions the reader will draw
for himself.
On the majority of these problems my own opinions assumed
definite shape between 1845 and 1850; but, inasmuch as it is custo-
mary for authors to utter, at some time or other, their individual
"profession of faith," I may here be permitted to recall, as mine,
some passages of the third lecture on "Egyptian Archseology," de-
livered*" in my last course at this city, more than six years ago.
They have since remained inedited; and the only value I attach to
them accrues from the circumstance that, written at the suggestion
of my honored friend the late Samuel George Morton, they have
become to me a memento of past interchanges of thought with one
of the noblest of men.
" Creative Power has veiled, equally, from, human ken the origin
" of man and his end. If any argument were required to impress
"upon my mind the beneficence of the Creator • towards his crea-
" tures** — any fact, that in the brain of a human being of cultivated
" intelligence, and which, whispered to each of us in the * still, small
" voice ' of conscience, proves the goodness of Deity, not merely to
"mankind, but to all animate substances created by his will, — it is,
"that, like every other animal, Man knows not the hour of his birth
" or of his death ; can discover, by no process of retrospective ratio-
" cination, the moment when he entered this life ; nor ascertain, by
" anticipation, the precise instant when he is to depart from it.
" An example will illustrate my meaning :
" Leaving aside, in this question, those traditionary legends of our
** respective infancies, which, in themselves, may be true — although
** received, as inevitably they must be, on the "ipse dixit" of others,
**to us these accounts of the cradle and nursery are not certainy^ —
" each individual's memory can carry his personal history back to the
4>* Creed of ChritUndom^ pp. 2, 4&-61.
^ PhiladelphU, Ohineae Museum, 6th January, 1861 : — '< North American and Gaiette/'
Jin. 7.
<» Beyond all works, that of mj yenerable friend, M. Hbroulb Stravs-Dubokhbiic
{Thiologu de la Naturej Paris, & toIs. Syo, 1852) contains the ablest demonstration of Crea-
tiye wisdom and bencTolence through the science of comparatiye physiology, in which the
tnthor of *« Anatomic descriptiye and comparatiye du Chat," is known by naturalists to be
m unsurpassed adept
<a* Vioo, Sekfoa Nuova (translated by " TAuteur de TEssai sur la formation du Dogme
OathoHque,'' Paris, 12mo, 1844; pp. 41-4) — Axioms IX-XVI; on the distinction between
the •' troa,** and the •• certain."
554 THE M0N06ENISTS AND
'' period when logical inductions^ from facts aquired by himBelf in
'^ maturity, can determine that he must have been about four or five
^^ years old. Some persons' memories can recede fieu-ther, and recol-
« lect events coetaneous with their second year of in&n(^» Beyond
'^ that, all is blank to personal reminiscence. iKTow, it is from this
" feet — a commonplace one, if you please— that Creative benevolence
'^ resiles as a sequence : because, human science might possibly attiun
" to such perfection (arguing her future triumphs from her present
^' conquests over the past), that, could an individual determine the
^' precise instant when his body had been quickened by the sparic of
'^ life, he might, as a chance-like possibility, be able to deduce from
^' it also, beforehand, the moment of his decease. Sope of life in thu
" world, beyond such given point, being thereby extinguished in his
"breast, every stimulus to exertion, moral or intellectual, would
" vanish with it ; and such man would rapidly sink, through mere
" physical indulgences, to the level of the brute. That misshapen
"precursor of astronomical science. Astrology y — which, originating
" at least 2500 years ago** in Chaldaic Magianism, sat, for centories*
" like a nightmare upon the torpid intelligence of our own * middles
"ages' — really dared, with Promethean boldness, to cast man*^
" horoscope, and to determine the instants of his nativity and death^^
" through deceptive manipulations of an astrolabe : but this hoar^'
"imposture, with its Egyptian sister. Alchemy^ and their cousim-
" Vaticinationy deludes now-a-days no educated and sane mind.**^
" Why do I weary your intelligence with such truisms ? Simply,
" in order to posite before it one syllogistic deduction, as an incontro-
" vertible point of departure in strictly-archseological inquiries into
" human origineSy viz : that, inasmuch as the beneficent Creator has
" slirouded, from each individual man, knowledge of his personal
" beginning and his end ; and, as all !N^ations are but aggregations of
" individuals, it is, ergoy absolutely impossible to fix, chronologically
"speaking, the eras at which primeval Nations, whose existence is
" antecedent to the human art of writingy severally were bom.
"Geology, offspring of the XlXth century, can define on the
"rocky calendar of the earth's revolutions, the particular Btratum
" when humanity was not : but, the intervals of solar time existing
" between such stratification and our erroneous year*^ Anno Domini
^ Db Rouof, **Nom8 ^gyptiennes des Plan^tes," Bulletin Arehiologigne dt FAthi
f)nm^ai$t Mara, 185C — shows how the system was deyeloped in DSmoHe times.
«*> ** The Boienoe of the Aruspieet was so eminently absurd, that Cato, the Censor, used
%K\ »ay h(« wondered how one Aruspex could look at another without laughing out:"-'
MoOiatoii, Impartial Exposition of the Evidmca and Doetrinei of tk$ CkntHam JUkpna,
miilinore, 8yo, 1836; p. 65.
m f^ ^ Matikind, pp. 666-7 ; and tuj>ra, p. 479.
u
THE POLYGENISTS, 555
" 1851, cannot be expressed by aritbmetic ; is attainable through no
" known rule of geometry ; and, to the time-measurer, presents no
" element beyond incalculable and incomprehensible cycles of gloom
^^ — ^the depths of which, like those of .the ocean, his plummet can-
'^not fathom.
'^ What ultimate goal remains, then, for our aspirations in pursuit
"of knowledge about * the beginning of all things,' when the initial
" point — ^modern, in contrast with invertebrata, or more inform ves-
"tiges of Nature's incipient handicraft, discerned in the 'old red
" sandstone ' — of mankind's first appearance on this planet lies
" beyond the reach of our contemporaries' solution ; and, according
" to my view, of human mental capability, past, present, or to come ?
"What can the Historian hope to achieve through disinterment,
from the sepulchre of by-gone centuries, of such fragments of hu-
manity's infantine life as, preserved fortuitously down to our time,
" archseology now collects for his examination ?
" In the minds of many colleagues in Egyptology, whose philoso-
"phical reiuUs it becomes my province to lay before you ; if we will
" consent to figure to imagination's eye the aggregate histories of the
" earth's nations as if these were embodied pictorially into one man
" — ^that is, were we to personify humanity in general by one indivi-
"dual in particular, — the world's history, like the lifetime of a per-
" son, will classify itself naturally into something like the following
" order : presupposing always that we symbolize our idea of the pend-
" ing XlXth century, by the figure of a man in the prime of life, fast
" approaching the acme of physical, mental, and moral, perfection —
" say, with the old physicians, that we take him at his * grand cli-
" macteric ' ** of five times seven years, the thirty-fifth of his age.
"Inquiring next of our symboUc man his individual history, we
"find that, without efibrt, his memory will tabulate backwards the
" events of his manhood, twelvemonth by twelvemonth, for fourteen
"years, to his traditionary twenty-first birthday; when he attained
legal rights among his fellows. He will equally well narrate the
incidents of the preceding seven years, during which he had served
" apprenticeship, finished a collegiate education, or otherwise deve-
" loped, in this interval of adolescence, the faculties allotted to his
"share: but he will candidly acknowledge how little he then* knew
of the great world he was preparing for, and how completely sub-
sequent initiation into the higher mysteries of manly life had altered
* the preconceptions of his noviciate. Seven years still farther back,
"from the fourteenth of his age, his recollections will carry him; and
M Flovbuts, LongifriU (vidi wpra, note 162) :— Luoab, EMdUi^ I, pp. 264-M.
it
u
556 THE H0K06ENISTS AND
" schoolboy-days are vividly stamped upon the leaflets of memoTy.
" Youth, however, merges insensibly into childhood ; but beyond Iub
" seventh year even the child's remembrance fedes away into infency.
" Here and there some circumstance, more or less important in his
" awakening history, flashes like a meteor, or flits like an ignis fatwUj
" across his mind. Of its positive occurrence he is morally sure ; of
" its date in relation to his own age at the time, onwards perhaps
"from his third birthday, he knows nothing; except what he may
" attain through inductive reasoning guided by the reports of others
" — ^his own self-accredited reminiscence of the event being more fre-
" quently than not, but the reflex of what may have been told him,
" in after life, by witnesses or logopoeists.*^ His cradle-hours ante-
" date his own memory : their incidents he has gathered from domes-
" tic traditions, or infers them by later observation of nursery-eco-
" nomy with other babies. Ask him now — * When were you bom?*
" Our man knows not. He accepts his first birthday upon faith, *the
"evidence of things unseen ;'^^ its epoch he receives upon hearsay.
" The accounts he has heard of his infantile life, from nativity to his
" second or third year, may be true enough ; but, to himself tiiey arc
" anything rather than certainties.
" Now, * the life of nations is long, and their traditions are liable
" to alteration ; but that which memory is to individual man, histm^
"is to mankind in general.'** Viewing our Cosmic man, then, a^^
" the symbol of the history of all humanity ; and sweeping our tele-^
" scopes over the world's monumental and documentary chronicled
"extant at this day; at what age of humanity's life do the petro--^
"glyphs of the oldest historical nation, the Egyptians^ first present
"themselves to the archaeologist? — that is, was the earliest known
" civilization of the Nile's denizens, as now attested by the most
" ancient stone-records at Memphis, infantile, puerile, adolescent, or
"adult? At which of the five* stages of seven years, mystically
" assumed by the old philosophers to be preliminaries of their * great
" climacteric,' do we encounter the first Egyptian^ at the Illd Mem-
"phite dynasty, taken with Lepsius about the 85th century b. c,
" or some 5300 years backward from our present hour ?
" You will find, after examination of the plates ^^ before you, which
«* Maurt, UgmdSs Pietuet du Moyen-Age, Paris, Sro., 1848; pp. 289, 252-8, 261-77.
*^ ** A conviction of things unseen;*' Paul, EpittU to the ffebretpt, xi. 1 : — Sharpi's JVnf
Teitament, p. 406.
*^ De Brotonnk, Filiationt et Migration* des Peuplet.
^7 Lbpsius, DenkmaUr atu Mgyptm^ Abth. I, B. 1-40 ; or thereabonts, which, with other
tableaux, were suspended in front of the audience. Cf., also, some dedactiona fyom their
study, deyelopcd in the snme lecture, in Typn of Mankind^ pp. 412-4 : and add now cndlesi
confirmations resulting through Mabikttk's later discoveriea (supra, p. 489^94).
THE POLYGENISTS. 557
' are authentic copies of the oldest sculptures of man now known
* upon earth, that neither infancy nor childhood is represented by
* these most ancient of records, hardly even adolescence ; but that the
* first Egyptian beheld on these archaic hieroglyphs, leaps at a bound
* fix)m out of the night of unnumbered generations antecedent to his
* day, a full-grown, if a young, man — endowed with a civilization
* already so advanced 6300 years ago, that it requires an eye most
* experienced in Nilotic art to detect differences of style between
* these primordial sculptures of the Hid, IVth, and Vth dynasties,
* and Hiose of the more florid Diospolitan, or Augustan, period of
* the XVnth and AViiith dynasties, carved twenty centuries later,
*and during Mosaic times in Egypt !"
Such a practised eye is the gift of our erudite collaborator M.
Pulszky ; and to his paper (antey Chapter IE), I beg leave to refer the
reader for accurate details ; closing, for myself, further definitions of
chronology with the philosophical comment of A. W. von Schlegel : *^
" Time has conveyed to us many kinds of* chronology : it is the
business of historical criticism to distinguish between them and to
estimate their value. The astronomical chronology changes purely
lieoretic cycles into historical periods ; the mythical makes its way
mpported by obscure genealogical tables ; the hypothetic is an inven-
ion of either ancient or modern chronographers ; and, lastly, the
locumentaiy rests upon the parallel uninterrupted demarcation of
events, according to a settled reckoning of years. The last alone
icserves to be called ^chronology* in the strictest sense; it begins, however,
nuch later than is commonly supposed. Had this been duly consi-
lered, we might have dispensed with many an air-built system."
Egypt, oldest of historical lands, representing, therefore, but the
* middle ages" of mankind's development upon earth, typified by our
cosmic man, arrived at one-third of the "three-score and ten years,"
magined by Hebrew writers to be the average of post-Mosaic**
laman longevity, it follows that, at the Hid dynasty, say 5300 years
igo, the Egyptians at least, among, very likely, other oriental nations
vhose annals are lost, had long before passed through their periods
>f adolescence^ childhood^ and infancy. If we reflect that, since the
all of Grecian culture — itself built upon thousands of years of ex-
>erience acquired by preceding Eastern nationalities already, during
lie palmy day of Hellas, in their superannuation or decrepitude —
t has required some 2000 years of knowledge accumulated upon
knowledge, of inventions heaped upon discoveries, for our civiliza-
«• DartUUung d$r JSgypiitchen MylhologU ♦ ♦ ♦ und Chronologie (Prichard's) Vorrede,
ionii, 1887; pp. xIit-L
^ Tgpm of Mankind, pp. 706-12.
558 THE MONOGENISTS AND
tion to reach the noon of this XlXth century ; what longer extent
of time must, I ask, be allowed for the Egyptians to have attained to
that 80»iial development attested by the kingly pyramids, princely and
aristocratic tombs of the IVth Memphite dynasty,** when, — unlike
ourselves, who have improved the patrimony, by them, their contem-
poraries, and successors, bequeathed to us — they seem to have begun
life without precedents : and, consequently, having had to grope
through their anterior stages of adolescence^ ehildhoody and mfanegy
before reaching the manhood of their first monumental recognition
by us, must have found each civilizing acquirement the more ardaons,
exactly in the ratio as, retroceding in antiquity, their national lifid
approximated to its nursery.
Yet the Egyptians dwelt upon purely alluvial land, bounded on
either side by rocky deserts ; and the river itself betokens, at eveiy
period of its flow into the Mediterranean, the ever-tranquil operation
of the same laws that constitute its organism at the present day.
"Linked, through its perennial rise at the summer solstice, with
the astronomical revolutions of the divine Orb of day at the acme of
his ardent power, and most glorious effulgence, — marked, in the
sky's cerulean blue, during the period of its increase, by the heliacal
ascent of SiriuSj — each monthly phenomenon of tiie deified river wm
consecrated by sempiternal correspondencies in the heavens ; at the
same time that, to the mind of the devout Egj'ptian, Hapimoou, the
numerous waters, "Father of the Gods in Senem,"*** appeared to be
the most ancient of divinities, in his capacity of progenitor of the
celestial Amuny himself "a great God, king of the Gods;" who,
through a mythical association with Nouf^ was the " Father of the
Fathers of the Gods, period of periods of years." In fact, as the
benign inundations of the river necessarily preceded, in point of
date, the formation of the alluvium^ the Nile seemed, to the first
human wanderers on its sedgy banks, to be the physical parent of all
things good and beneficent
"Exalted, in the sacred papyrus Book of the Deadj to the heavenly
abodes of Elysian beatitude, the Celestial Nile was supposed to re-
generate, by lustration, the souls of the departed Egyptians, and to
fertilize, by irrigation, the gardens of happiness tilled by their ini-
mortal spirits, in Amenthi; during the same time that, on earth, the
Terrestrial Nile, by its depositions of alluvion created, while ite
waters inundated, a country so famed aipong Eastern Nations for it*
boundless fecundity, as to be compared (in Gen. xiii, 10,) to the
^^ It is taken for granted that Lepsius's DenkmaUr^ the onfy oompendiiim of doeoD'^^
ooot4incon» with theso primitiTe times, is known, at least, to the doabting eiitie.
^ Birch, GaUery of Antiquities, part II, pp. 25, 10, 2; and PL XUL
THE POLYGENISTS. &^9
"Gkrden of leHOwaH, like the land of Mitzraim:" — ** that is, tho
two Mus8*r'8, the two Egypts^ upper and lower ; or else, MitzriteSy the
Egyptians; over which the androgynous Hapimoou crowned with
the Lotus and Papyrus tiaras, in his duplex character of the Southern
and the Northern Niles, annually spread out the prolific mould and
the nourishing liquid, through which he was at once the Creator and
the Nurse of Egypt
"Thus, renowned from immemorial ages as the gift of the Nile,
Egypt issues from the womb of primordial time armed cap-a-pie, like
Minerva, with a civilization already perfected at the very earliest
epoch of her history, hieroglyphed on the monuments of the Did and
rVth dynasties, prior to the 35th century before the Christian era.
But, the River itself, — origin, vital principle, and motive cause of
that wondrous civilization, has flowed on unceasingly at the foot of
the Pyramids; its Sources a marvel, an enigma, an unfathomable
mystery, to above one-hundred-and-sixty consecutive human genera-
tions, which have * lived, moved, and had a being' since the lime-
stone clifl& of Memphis were first quarried into tombs.**^
Hence it is legitimately to be inferred, that those geological cata-
clysms and volcanic dislocations which, in Europe, filled caverns
and ossuaries with bones of extinct genera mingled with those of
man, and rolled silex-implements of human industry into French
diluvial drift [supra\ occurred at an age anterior to the settled quiet-
ness of Nilotic economy ; because, a few decades of feet, caused by
such convulsions, added to the historical level of Mediterranean
waters, would have left abundant marks around the Memphite pyra-
mids; whereas, nothing of the' kind is to be seen there, or elsewhere,
throughout monumental Egypt.***
It becomes, therefore, next to positive, as a corollary to the pre-
ceding chain of facts, that man's presence, also (judging from the
rudeness of his silex-arts) then in his childhood's phase, must, in
Europe, antedate even human infancy on the Nile's alluvium. What
vistas of antiquity ! Archaeology, having herein suflSciently blown
away the historical fogs and scud that, in nautical phrase, obstructed
his vision, now cheerfully resigns a clean spygla^ into the hands of
the palseontologist.
^'^ Nabh, ** On the origin and derivation of the term Copt^ and the name of Egypt ;"
Bumnt's Elhnoiojfieal Journal^ April, 1849; pp. 490^96:— TVpet of Mankind, pp. 498-6.
^■* Qliddoh, Handbook to the Nile, London, 8to, Madden, 1849 ; pp. 34-5.
*^ See Lspsnu, Chronohffie, I, p. 24 — how Herodotus and Plato saj the Egyptians had
BCTcr heard of the Hebrew flood.
TUE MONOGENISTS AND
W
" Adtm, ante mcrlm g'lu, eoniMnavit omnttfiliot n
'iiii viranim aiigw nuUeribai."
I, qui (rani ia niOMrtlT
According to the Hebrew and the Samaritan Texta,** Adam wu
onij 130 yeara old at the birth of Solli, his third son ; according to
the Septuagiut Version, and to Josejjhus, hie age was then SSO."
lu either case, the preciae year is fixed liy Archbisliop Uaber at B.c.
3874.*" "And the days of Adam aftur he had begotteu Seik were
*" Phiuiwmhtk. p. 87.
t" Rrv. B. D. Elliott, A. M.. ffora Apotalyjittca, L.Hidoa, Bto, ]81G; IV, p. 2G*;--Hii.
noou's VoH UuiiLKK, tnlTodvelion In Oenaii, II, pp. 9T-S,
**' Ktng Jamn'i viriian, Otnait, V, 8, 4, 6.
M>Wa hiiTe leen (aupm, noto 263) that Tubul-Cnlii ia the God-Valeani ani] now j
it i* BMf to recognise, tbrongh Josephus (Aniiq. Jud., I, 2, ftc), uid ibo dialectic matallaa
or S into T alpirattd, the Qod TeT of the EgjrptlviH, ■' author of IslMra" (B[iK«Kli, Enft§f
Plact, I, pp. 393<S}, olhenrise ruufiM, or Thoth; not to be an; lunger ooaTotiiiJH), ■• bi
has bBoa by aooie, with SET or Typboa. See Lhe argument of ALrailii Mai'RT ("Fenonafi
de U Mort," AfDua Archloiogiqui, 16 Aont, 1B47, pp. 826-6). ll hni beta formn-lj indicaisd
{Typa of Mankind, p. &&1) thai Iha mother of Sath, bororc ehe was nHmcd Etc (1. «. "KAit'kU,
bBcauee she wun the mother of all liTing," KAala; Obi, III, 2U) had been ckUmI AiSteH,
ISE, or liit, who was ramod as >' the aniTorBa! mother." It bas beeo likewise ehown prt-
viouily (T!/pti of Hankind, p. 6-14), why the patriarch Bmo* is only the "God of the mlgar."
If ptymalogirs are to be innctionod in the eiplanalion of primitive myths, the abOT* four
examples of Vulean, Thoth, hit, and Eaot, oow ideoliGed among the aDtedilaiian progenilan
of mankind, will be found more Busoeptible of bistorio and patieograpbical jnitiSoation than
the learned Mr, Osburn's anique diBCOveriea {Munvmeiilai Uitlory ef EgypI, Loodon, I(tM,
I, pp. 2S1M0, 24S, 839-44} of Adam, Noah, Hum, and Miiraim. in Egyptian blcroglypUoi I
Not merely (p, 222) ore " Scripture Patriarchs identified with Egyptian Deities," bnt, in
his Ingenious and pious hook, (he very " names of Q'idd esses. recorded apon Ibe maDumants,"
are declared to be " those of the mna of the palriorahs ;" although this eicelteni oritio
allowB that " they are not preserred in the Bible."
To the same elans, engendered by a similar monomania for <■ oonSraintioiu," in defiance
of roaauu and hislorioal truth, belongs the alleged discovery of the naino and ciploits of
Mom in contemporoneoas hieratic scrolls (Rkv. D. J. Hsatu, M. A., Tht Bzodiu I'^yri,
London, 185S), — as if the English translation llaelf. utterly foreign (o ancient or uiiHleni
Egyptian ideas, did not safEciently betray an Englishman's imposition during the prosanl .
century! As for the Rev. C. Forstib'b last (J Sarmeng of I'rimanial AlphabiU). wbnvio i
tbere is not a single hieroglyphic drawn with even childish coTTTClnesa. nor a solitary pho- -■
netio value exact, they fall (together with his tTimyarilic, Sinaic, and Atiyrian interprelationa, ,
lie.) into a simpler category, — that of downright imposture. The self-deoeptiona, or per —
haps "canards," of H. Daxboi* (Daelylogii el Langiutgt PrimiHf ttUilu^t ^aprt* In JVn«- —
mtntt, Paris, 4(o, 1850). have hoaxed even His Holiness the Pontiff (f^telvr* luitraU difm
Bi/reglgptti il dt> Canii/orma, Paris, 4b), 1868 ; p. SO) : but being hamdus pa9i|tiina(Ik«^
of a gentleman who pays liberally for the publication of his own books, as well as for any^
olever cheat (Pulaiky'e paper, lupra, note 17, Chap. It) that " Chevaliers d'indDslrie" msy-^
foist upon his credulity, tbcy really beeome suhlime, viewed in compuisoD with tome of lli^s
Inctanoes of fraad or hallucination above cited.
THE POLYGENISTS. 561
eight hundred [LXX, 700] years ; and he begat sons and daughters ;
— and all the days that Adam lived were nine hundred and thirty
years ; and he died:" leaving a rather large family, if we credit the
biography, above cited, that his children numbered 15000 men beaidei
the women. From what sources his second biographer gathered these
statistics does not appear, any more than whence the so-called Mosaic
compiler obtained the other Adamic particulars recorded in Genesis.
The earlier biography, assuming Archbishop Usher's dates to be in-
contestable, must have been written (Deuter. XXXI, 9, 26,) about b. c.
1461; or some 1623 years after Adam's decease, — an event which,
taking place 930 years after the Creation, ascertained to be b. c.
4004, occurred in b. c. 3074. The author of the " Life of Adam and
Eve" lived, it is true, in a. d. 1460, or 4634 years aft;er Adam's death;
but any one who believes that anecdotes of the protopatriarch's long
life could have been preserved, for incorporation into the Pentateuch,
during 1623 years, cannot reasonably deny extension of the same
possibility (1451 + 1460) for 2911 years longer.^
We need not be astonished either at the number of Adam and
Eve's children during 800 years ; because, while, on the one hand.
Cardinal Wiseman** and the Rev. J. Pye Smith **^ teach how physical
causes were in more vehement operation before the "Flood" than
after; on the other, the multiplication of the Jews in Egypt, during the
430, or 400, or 215, years of their sojourn, when post-diluvial physical
causes were precisely the same as at present, is equally formidable,
and possesses equal claims upon credence. Jacob and his family, in
number 70,*" or 75, persons, settle in the land of Goshen ; and their
descendants issue forth " about 600,000 men on foot, without the
children, and a mixed multitude"*® — or GouM-A5RaB, Arab levy or
horde. Commentators vary in their estimates of the number of souls,
Gx>m 1,800,000 to 3,000,000; nor is the duration of the sojourn itself
at all settled;*^ but the latter point is unimportant to my present
argument So is also the disproportionate area in Eastern lower
In making these assertions upon mj own responsibility, there are two courses left open
to the reader who cares about verification ; 1st, to inquire of the hierologists in charge of
the Paris, Berlin, London, or Turin Museums, whether they do not support these repudin-
tions ; or 2d, to defray the printing expenses of a thorough analysis of each work by myself,
ilthough I think " le jeu ne yaut pas la chandelle."
«" I am merely following, with a little more minuteness, the orthodox example of Dk. Hall,
Analjftieal Synopnt, London ed. of Piokirino's Races, 1861, p. xxxt.
^*> Connection between Science and Revealed Religion.
^^ Relation between the Holy Seripturee and Geological Science, 8d. ed., London, 12mo, 1848;
pp. 185, 248, 801, 840.
^ Oeneait, XLVI, 27 : — Cahbh, La Bible, trad. nou9. I, pp. 162-4, notes.
^ Bxodtu, XII, 87, 88:— Qp. a/., II, p. 60, note 87«
** LiPSius, Cknm. der J^fypter, I, pp. 816-17.
86
562 THE MONOGENISTS AND
Egypt where this vast population of bondsmen is supposed to have
dwelt. Now, simultaneously with the Israelitish bondage, their
Egyptian masters embraced at least 5,000,000 of population ;*" the
latter were the oppressors ; the former oppressed, — ^to such an abject
and inconceivable degree, that they allowed even their first-bom to
be butchered without armed revolt. Nevertheless, they " multiplied
exceedingly;" in consequence, as Father Kircher states,** of the
fecundative properties of the Nile. A simple rule of three will test
the relative ratio of increase.
If 75 Jews, in a given number of years, notwithstanding the moet
atrocious and attenuating despotism, multiply so as to leave Egjpt
in number (say the lowest figure) 1,800,000 souls ; what, during the
same period, in the same climate, and favored by their comfortable
position as slaveholders, instead of being slaves, was the statistical
augmentation of 5,000,000 of Egyptians ?
There is no reason, therefore, to be appalled at the Babbinical es-
timate of the number of Adam's children by the "universal mother."
Whatever the numerical amount may have been, their antediluvian
descendants were drowned in the Flood. Noah, Shem, Ham, and
Japhet, with their wives, in all but eight individuals, being the only
persons who landed — B.C. 2348 — from the Ark upon Mount Ararat^
to become the second progenitors of Mankind.
From these four couples, after a considerable lapse of time down
to the middle of this XlXth century, have proceeded, according to
(population op thb world.)
Balbi 739 millions.
Malte-Brun 800 "
D'Halloy 750 "
Reynolds's Chart 852 "
Ravenstein's Chart 1,216 "
Inasmuch, however, as we are yet ignorant of the interior topo-
graphy of at least one-third of the earth's surface, whilst we abso-
lutely know little or nothing about myriads of human beings in-
habiting such portions, it is probable that Dr. Qustaf Kombst's
beautiful sheets**^ contain all attainable information, and to these I
*** Gliddon, Otia JSgyptiaca^ p. 78.
^B* (( Undo foemince non uno, dnobus, aat tribus oontentn, sed sex, septem ant octo foetm
nnioo partu ; quod et Hebrai in Exodnm oommentatores memorant, sabinde effoBdebtot
Nemini igetur minim esse debet, filiomm Israel spatio ducentomm prope amiorom, qo^
^gyptum incolcbant, immensam fuisse propagationem :" — (Bd^ui JEgyptmcui^ Rome, fol-i
^e62; Tom. I, p. 62.
<S' ** Ethnology, or the different nations and tribes of Man, traced aeeording to lUce,
Language, Religion, and Form of Govemment'* — ^reTis«d and extended to 1854 ;— Johxsto^
Phyneal AUaa, new ed., Edinburgh, 1856 : PL 81, with six pages of deeoriptioiL
THE P0LT6ENISTS. 563
beg leave to refer the reader for collateral BtatisticB bearing upon our
"Ethnographic Tableau."
The difficulties experienced for many years, both in the capacities
of lecturer and author, to popularize some branches of archsBological
and ethnographic discoveries, had convinced me of the inadequacy
of oral or written explanations compared with the rapid and convin-
cing manner in which audiences, or readers, appreciate knowledge
when accompanied by pictorial illustrations. It was my intention,
therefore, upon undertaking, in 1854, to collect in Europe materials
for my contribution to the present volume, to furnish an Ethnological
Map, through which the differences and similarities, the divergencies
and gradations, of the best-known races of men could be seized by the
eye at a glance. Taught also by travel, comparison, and study, that
systems and classifications, hitherto advanced under the sanction of
eminent names, are open to the grav6 objection of being premature in
'he present stage of knowledge, most of them having been conceived
>y anticipation of the facts, my purpose was to avoid them all : and
leither to take the word " Caucasian"** as comprehending number-
ess distinct types of man, stretched out geographically from Scan-
linavia to the Dekhan ; nor the still more misapplicable term " Tou-
anian,"** through which a modem linguistic school agglomerates,
nto one unaccountable mass, the 1001 different languages that happen
o be neither Semitic nor Indo-Qermanic. It is through the misuse
>f well-defined specific appellatives, and their transposition into
generic senses, coupled with a sort of philological "thimble-rig,"
)vbich strives to conceal individual ignorance, — when, in reality, this
^orance is universal — that the "public mind," uncritical and spell-
3oand by authority, as it necessarily must be, consoles itself with the
[lotion that the " unity of the human species" is demonstrated, partly
because Cuvier arbitrarily grouped all humanity into three grand
classes, Caucasian^ Mongolian^ and Ethiopian ;^ and partly because
the excellent Sanscrit scholar, Prof. Max-Miiller, chooses to divide
^■* Fint used by Blumenbach, for conyenience' sake, in crsnioscopio subdiyisions.
^w InTented fint and applied to ethnology by Prichard, I believe (Rnearcha) ; it is time
^^t this onlaeky term should be brought back to its primitive historical meaning.
••Caucasiah, from Kauk-Aiot^ means only the ^* mountain of the A*i," or **^«i of the
noim/tfifi;" referring to a special nation (As, Os, Ossetes) on the Caucasian range. Mongol
meftnt " brave, haughty," and was the peculiar honorific title of the golden horde of Ginghis-
khin. Ethiopiah, from Aitkiopt, signified only a «* sun-burnt face," and, in Homeric times,
indieaied merely all nations darker than Greeks ; to the exclusion of negro races, at that
p«riod unknown to the fair-skinned Hellenes. To classify Egyptians, Dravidians, nnd
Basques, as if they had ever been one family, instead of three distinct types, under the name
«* Ckoeasian," which in no respect suits any of them ; — to include Lapps and Siamese within
tfi6 designation '* Mongolian,'* foreign and remote alike from both ; — or to embrace under
te ftppeDatioii of ** sun-burnt faces*' (tliat is, only tanned or swarthy) African Negroes,
564 THE HONOGENISTS AND
languages in general " into three families, which have heen callei
the Semiticj the Ariauy and the Turanian.*'^
In order to explain the grounds of ohjection, one must digress
for a moment upon these three terms. With the reservations of
Renan,**^ and as the synonym of Syro-Arabian in its application to
languages alone, the name " Semitic" is probahly the best discover-
able ; but, when applied physiologically^® to pure Nigritian ferailiep
on the Mozambique no less than on the Guinea coasts, its adoption
is delusive, because it extends the area of true Shemite amalgama-
tions with African tribes ifar beyond legitimate induction; and
suggests intermixture as the cause of really -insignificant fecial
resemblances between some races of negroes and the Arabians,
without taking incompatibilities of color, form, hair, and endless
dissimilar facts, into account. The law of gradation sufficiently
explains these very questionable analogies,*** upon which mono-
genists alone lay stress, — ^more frequently fix)m sentiment than from
evidence.
With the word " Arian," as employed by Prof. Max-Miiller, it
would ill-become me to dissent when selected by so great a master
in Sanscritic lore. On the contrary, science is unanimous in its
adoption, which his learned note^^ amply justifies ; but it is with
the wide extension given to "Turanian" that my quarrel lies. What
is its origin ? What its meaning ? What its antiquity ?
In the trilinguar inscriptions of the (a.d. 223-636) Sassanian
dynasty,** the Persian monarchs assume in Greek the titles "Kings
Apiavcjv xai Avapiavwv" — t. «., of Iranian9 and non- Iranians ; equivalent
Ooeanio Papuas, and American Indians, — Buch nomenclature leads to nothing but niTstifiei^
tion in the study of Man. I might likewise note the vagueness of Negro, Pafuan and Moai
in ethnography.
^ Laftguagt» of the Seat of War, 1866, p. 28, 86-96:— and in Bcrwsiii's OutlmtM, 1854, 1,
pp. 238, 842-486. In the former work, our erudite linguist actually speaks of the '^deecdxl-
ants of Tur (p. 87)" ! In the latter, the biblico-Kur'anio harmonixings of Aboo l-ObixM
about ** Tur and Japheth" are accepted as historical! Compare Tgpet of Mankind, p. 476.
^^ Langue Semitiques, 1 855, p. 2.
^ NoBBis, in Prtehard'9 Nat. HUt., 1856, pp. 420-7. Sbb&bs, Raeet ntgret it rJ/nfi"
Orientate, Comptet Rendut de VAcad. des Science*, XXX, June, 1860, pp. 7-8, 18. I baw
seen some of M. de Froberrille's casts, and must protest against M. Serres^s Report that
they are of a type " m^tis semitiques:" nor, in view of my twenty-years' familiarity with
Semitic races and their hybrids in Africa and Asia, — and fifteen years of observation of
mulattoes in America — am I disposed to accept the ** ipse dixit" of an Academician, wbo
never had opportunity of seeing a dosen living specimens of ** m^tis s^mitiqaea'* in aU hit
life, against my own experience amongst thousands.
*^ Typet of Mankind, pp. 180, 186, 191, 209-10.
^ Op. cU., pp. 27-9 : — Compare Bkbomakh, PevpUt PrimHtfi d$ la Ran it Uf^
Colmar, 8vo, 1858, pp. 10-20.
<* Db Saot, Mimoirt iur divenet Antifuiiit de U Peru, et siir let MSdmilm dm Rm dt U
THE POLTGENISTS. 565
3 Persians and those who were not Persians. Nine centuries pre-
iouslj, in the cuneiform inscriptions of Persepolis/*' Darius speaks
f Sariva^ Aria, — calling Persia, Parsa; but at neither period does
he word " Tur" yet figure as the equivalent for non-Iranian : nor
.oes it occur in earlier writings than Firdoozee's Shah-Namehj
'Book of Kings" composed in the lOth-llth century. Conceding
hat the immortal bard was versed in traditions that survived the
neck of Persic literature after the fall of Yezdegerd, it will hardly
•e claimed that '^ Tur" is an historical personage instead of a mythic
»erBonification of Scythic, f.«., non-Persian, nations.*" Oriental
nriters understand, by Arians, or "people of Irin," the inhabitants
f lands enclosed by the Euphrates, Persian Gulf, Indus, and Gihon ;
nd by Tourdnians^ barbarians,. — "4djem" or foreigners, like the
folm^ gentiles, of the Hebrews : so that Airdn and Aniritn^ or Ir&n
nd Tourdn, signify only Persia contrasted with Turkest&n. "Moul-
ih Firoze, a learned Parsee of Bombay,^ explains the name of ^«ran
► be derived from that of Believer ; and that of Anairan^ meaning
nbelievers."*® The same senses may be gathered from the Zend-
wVesta and the Boun-dehesch-Pehlvi,*'** wherein praises and vic-
►ries are the appanage of EerienS Veedjoy the "Pure Irdn;" curses
Ci4 defeats that of Tour&n. But these Parsee codes themselves are
ot of high antiquity.
If Firdoozee's grand epic be consulted, which purports to define
le history of Persia from the tauro-kephalic Ka'iuraurts during 3600
ears down to the Saracenic invasion, a poem itself also replete with
Iterations by copyists,*^ one perceives at once how the mythical Fe-
idoon divided the empire among his three sons, — "To S61im he
ave Rum and Khdwcr; to Tur, Turin; and to Irij, Irin or Per-
puutiet det-Sauanides^ Paris, 4to, 1793 ; pp. 12, 81, 64, PI. Inscrip. A. 8 ; and pp. 47, 56-60,
88. '*Ir&n we Tur&n" does occur among Persian inscriptions at Tchehil-minar ; bat
timr date is Hedjra 826, a. d. 1428, — or long snbseqnently to Firdoosee. '
^^ Rawlimson, BthitiUny 1846, pp. i-xxxix.
4>* ** Iran ant Ilan est Persia culturi xoroastrico addicta, orthodoxa ; Aniran 8. AniUin
ant proTincisB extrauesB, Sassanidanim imperio subjectsB, quae quoqne nomine 7V«ran, i. e.
'imoBOxana, a scriptoribns orientalibus appellantor, quarum incolss ab igaicolis vel bsB-
etieif yel irreligiosi habiU sunt:" (Ttchsin, De Cuneatit Irucriptionibut FertepoUtanit
uarbratiot Rostock, 1798, p. 41, note).
^* KxB PoRTiB, Traveh in Oeorffia, Pertia^ &c., London, 4to, 1821; II, p. 189: —
ompare Richa&dsok, Dictionary ^ Pernarij ArabiCf and Englith^ London, 1806, I, p. 818,
oee *« Turin."
«• Amqdktil du Pbrron, Zend-Avetta, Paris, 4to, 1771 ; I. Part 1, pp. 16, 20, 26; IL
ir6face, p. 848 seq. : — compare, for significations of ** Air&n," St. Martin, Mimoire* Mtto-
iqueg tur r ArmSnie^ Paris, 1818; I. pp. 271-8.
«" OrsiLST, Travels, ^c. in Penia, London, 4to, 1819; I. Preface, p. Tiii., end note 6—
'upon an average thirty different readings in every page."
.]
Bia."*" Hence it becomes ob\TOue that tlie Poreian poet, like tlit
Chaldican chorogrnphcr of Xth Genesis, in all his ethnic personitin.
tioas, anthropomorphosized a country currently known as "Tniin"
into an ideal king Tur. His translator ohsen-es that, ancient Serthia
embraced the whole of Tur^n, which appellative was but ad earlj
eynonym for Turkestan; in this, coinciding with DHbcux.*" Tlie
Bame legend, slightly varied, reaohea us through Mirkaveod,*" wk
died about Hedjra 908=A. d. 1498, viz : that Ttir received Ttirkestin
as liis patrimony from Feridoon, and then conspired with Scleeni \d
murder their brother Ir^j, king of Irdn-Shehr: alluding doubileu,
through an Oriental allegory of three men, to simultaneous uttaeb
of Semitic and Scythic invaders upon the lion-standard of Persia.
Being Persian designations, "Ir^n and Tourau" must recma
Bohition through Arian etymologies;'" and these are furnished iix
one paragraph by Bergmans, *" who as a favored pupil of Eugene
Bumouf inspires evety confidence.
"Thus, in the same manner that the ITiudoos, particularly at !>»■
aacerdotal point of view of the Brahmann, called their country by tl»
name of Ary$. (IFonorable), or of Ary^vartta (Honorable country), i :*>
opposition to the heretical countries named TQiyfi (Persian UttSry^^U
"■ Tht Shah-Namth of Firitawit. Trnnsl. Atkimhon. Lotnion, 1632: pp. 50. 161-2, aud ^fl-
619, noto:— of. KCAPitoTn " Ili«toire do rAncieniie Penie, d'sprts Finloiuni." in ■hirii tt-^^«
■ge of the Sd (Kaianiiin; dynnai; it Iftked *.t a. c. 803. snd the let (Pishdadian) u i ii ■
amicing 83*2 yoars prariomTj! TabUaax, pp. 8-4, 6-22.
"» Prtu. Univ. Pillnr,, p. 226.
•" MiBKHOND, ilUlory 0/ Ihe Early Kings of Pntia, Iranal. Shka, London, 8to, ISKT: ^
pp. tsa-se.
*" I iDoUne to think, notwithstanding, thnt th» cnifrmik of the well-known andro-leoiti^^^MU
ud uidro-taorine sphinxes of Perropciis, and possibl]' ftlso thoie of earlier Attjii^ cu b-^^M^
in part, explained through /rdn and Tovrin, aa anderttood in three lanpuigrv, Artao, " "^i
mitio, and Soy thic ; corresponding to the Uirre forms of Afhtemeuian cunealios. and to t^^^B)
triple medley of three types of ninn. Arabisn, Peraian, and Torkieh, in the ume coastn -^i
Mfiisday. Thou, In the flrateluBS of tongues, IR-in, as lioo-land "pareieellenee" jalwa— ti
the heraldic eymbol of Persia, and blended into her monarch's names in theformof " theet ^'
contrails with TOUR-in, £u/Mnnd ; which, on the one side, is fonnd Sn A-TUB, Athoitr. j^^b
■yria, — and on Ibe other applies to the ancient loologieal ooDditlons of Mawatmnohar, A c.
irbore wild oallts were ciionnou^ly nbnndanl, whence Tiur became the figamtJTe enbl^^^R)
of barbarous TVr-kish rases T But, with an Indication llial. in Seythie tongnoa, IB me^^^BOi
also man, a carioiw inquiry, that tonld be justified only ilirongh man; pages DfclDiridalic^:^!].
i« mbmitted Co the aoneiilerntion of foltowHtadenlH of arolinnlogy.
*" Ln Feapiii Frimilift di la Raei di lajiMit: t'lguuit Elhnogtnialogi^ut H Uttari
Colmar. Sto.. IB.'iSi p. 17:— Cf. Max MiJLi,«i'e note in Sons u, T/irte Ltnguiiik £
riani, IS48, p. 290.
.Da Saitlct, I find, read "IrUn, de t'lran " npnn the ioscriptions copied bj Ilia I
nate Schnli, at Lake Van, 10 jean ago {Riehrreha nr I'ftriiuri CvHtiform4 A—^
Paris, 1MB, p. 26): whiUC a writer in the London Lilerary Oairltt (1BG2, p. 610) said fc-^dl
be deciphorsd " Lordihip of Irak and Iran " as well aa " Iiordnhip of Toran," on briok^s if
tlie Britisli Mmeiun. I have beard of no oonflTmatiDD of the latter stateSBnt,
2
THE POLTGBNISTS. 56?
Outside of Aria, or Tu-drydy Separated from Aria), and that they
termed themselves Aryds as opposed to MUtchas (Peebles, Barbarians,
Heretics; op. Heb- Groytm^ Peoples, Strangers, Arabic el-aadjtmj
Wretches, Barbarous), so like\vise the Persians [Pahlavas — Sanscrit
parofusy Gr. pelekusj hatchet; PaAZav^n = hatchet-bearers] designated
themselves Aries or Artaea (Gentiles, Herodot. VII. 61) : and, in
imitation of the Zend names Airydo^ and of Tu-irya or An-airyao-
danghdvo (Country not-honorable), they also gave the name Ariana
(Gr. Ariane\ and later that of Irdn^ to all countries situate between
the Tigris and the Indus, and between the Oxus and the Indian
Ocean, because they were inhabited by orthodox Arians, worship-
pers of Ormuzd (Zend. Ahuro mazddoy Great genius of the sun);
whereas the misbelieving lands to the north and east, which were
held to be the abode of Ahriman (Zend. Agra'-mainyuf)^ were called
Anirdn (Non-Ir^n) or Turdn (Ultra-Mn)."
The antiquity of the word Tourhn being thus brought down to
recent post-Christian times in all books wherein it occurs, — its signi-
fication being imbued with the theological xenolasia of Mazdaeans
and Brahmans, and naturally restricted in application to Scythic
hordes immediately contiguous to Aria^ or Ariana — modem ethno-
logy has no more right to extend its area all over the world, than to
classify the xanthous Gaul of Csesar's time with the melanic Tamou-
lian of the present Dekhan, together with red-headed Highlanders
and raven-locked Wahabees, under the other false term "Cauca-
sian." Indeed, before agreeing with Prof Max Miiller (whose autho-
rity is unquestionably the highest for its use), in tolerating the cor-
rupted myths of Sheeite Persia as historical ; or talk of the " de-
scendants of Tur'* as if such metaphorical personage had really been
fiither of those "Turanian tribes" which — since spread broadcast over
the earth through this hypothesis — are now said to speak only " Tu-
ranian languages," I should feel warranted in accepting, as a legiti-
mate basis for ethnic nomenclature, that exquisite travesty of a lost
book of Diodorus ; wherein the Greek text makes it evident, " How
Britain, son of Jupiter and Paint, peopled the island [of England] ;
but some say that Briton was indigenous, and Paint {^g xou X^r^s)
his daughter: — how Briton received Roman as his guest," &c. ;**" or
else, in considering Hiawatha a true portraiture of the thoughts and
feelings of an American savage, instead of seeing in it merely the
romantic ideal of a great Anglo-Saxon poet.
^'T Prof. Hbn&t Malden, **0n pragmatized legends in History — Fragments from tlie
Yiilth book of Diodorus, concerning Britain and her colonies" — TVans. PhUoL Soe., Loo*
don. Not. 1854; pp. 217~2S. For pious forgeries in quoting and rendering Diodoms's tez^
e«np«re liior's ezpos^ in BiblioiKeque HUiorique^ Paris, 1834; pp. 189-90, 429.
568 THE M0K06EKISTS AKD
Tourhn possesses no historical sense but that of nan-Pertian (Anh
ranian) ethnological) y : none but that of Turkest&n geographically.
It were as reasonable to divide Asiatic and European humanity into
Semitic, British (for Arian), and non-British (for everybody else not
compressible into such Procrustean bed), as to classify all these mul-
tiform nations into Semitic, Arian (i. e. Persian) and Turanian;
when this last adjective suits, strictly speaking, no human group of
fenailies but the Turkish.
Nevertheless, like Shakspeare's " word * occupy,' which was an
excellent good word before it was ill-sorted," *^ " Touranian" may still
do some effective sei'vice in specifying, whenever their ethnic rela-
tions become sufficiently cleared up,*'* the ancient inhabitants of
countries now termed TurkestS.n : but, because " agglutination"
happens to be their linguistic attribute, in common even with
Hebrew (Semitic), and Sanscrit (Arian), and all human speech in its
earlier formations : or because " in them the conjugation and the
declension can still be taken to pieces," preserving all the while the
radical syllable of the discourse,** — it does seem to me, that to
classify, on such grounds alone, the transplanted and now prodi-
giously-intermixed descendants of Sioung-noUj Stan-pi^ San-miao
or Miao-taCy Tata^ Yue-tchiy Ting-lings^ Oeou-geny Thiu-kiu, and other
indigenous races (every one according to physiological descriptiona
distinct from the rest) known in ancient Asia to the Chinese,**" under
such a misnomer as "Turanian;" to forget that primitive and
indefinable Scythia has vomited forth upon Europe men of absolutely
different stocks and unfixed derivations — Huns, white and nearly
black, Khazars, Awars, Comans, Alains, &c. — or finally, to connect,
through one omnific name, Samoyeds with Athapascans (if not also
with Toltecs and Botocudos !), hybrid Osmanlees with pure Ainos,
Madjars with Telingas,*® — these are aberrations from common sense
«8 Henry IV, 2d part, Act II, scene 4,
*^ For the real difficulties, slurred oyer bj English ethnographers, see Klapkoth tsd
Dkrmodlins.
*w Incomparably well indicated by the Turkish verb "sev-mek;" Maz-MUllib, op. flit,
pp. 111-4.
^1 The most copious account of these nations, compiled fW>m the best sources, is is
Jabdot, Rivolutiom de» PeupU* de VAiie Moyenne^ Paris, 2 vols. 8to, 1889. The AraU, let
me here mention, did not roach Chinese Ticinities, through naTigation, before the 9tb
century (Maury, *<Examen de la route quo suivaient, au IX* si^cle de notre ^re, Ici
Arabes et les Persans pour aller en Chine'* — Bulletin de la Soc. de Gio^mphu^ AttiI, 1846).
*^ Physical amalgamation with higher types, than any branch of the Turkish family m*
in the days of Alp Arsl&n, has transmuted his mongrel descendants residing around th*
Mediterranean, Archipelago, and Black Sea, to such an amazing extent that it is difficult
to describe what a real Turk (and I have lived where thousands of all grmdee reside) should
be. That the present Caucananized Osmanlee is not the same animal now that his for^
fathers were only in the 12th century, is easily proved. BsiiJAMur oi Tvdbla »-tpcakia|
THE POLTGENISTS. 569
into which Buusen's endorsement of Prichard's "Touranian" has
led an amazing number of worthy monogenists on this side of the
water ; but which Prof. Max-Miiller himself never contemplated in
adopting this unluclqr term: for the very learned philologist ex-
cludes the (7Atne«e,*® and doubtless withholds other An-Arian types
of mankind from his Turanian arrangement.
It appears to be the unavoidable fate of every human science to
pass through a phase of empiricism. Each one, at some time or
other, is regarded as a sort of universal panacea competent to heal
all controversial sores. Such, at this moment, throughout Anglo-
Saxondom, is the popular opinion concerning "Philology:*' last
refuge for alarmed protestant monogenism, — at the very time that
Continental scholarship has stepped into a higher sphere of linguistic
philosophy, which already recognizes the total inadequacy of philo-
logy (or other science) to solve the dilemma whether humanity
originates in one human pair, or has emanated from a plurality of
zoological centres. Philology, instead of being ethnology^ is only
one instrument^ if even a most precious one, out of many other tools
indispensable in ethnological researches. The powers of the science
termed "la linguistique" are not infinite, even supposing that
correct knowledge had as yet been obtained of even one-half the
tongues spoken over the earth ;' or that it were within the capacity
of one man to become sufficiently acquainted with the grammatical
characteristics of the remainder. We do not even possess a complete
catalogue of the names of all tongues!*®* Yet, "What studious man
is there,** inquires Le Clerc, "whose imagination has not been caught
straying from conjecture to conjecture, from century to century, in
seai^ch of the dibru of a forgotten tongue ; of those relics of words
that are but the fragments of the history of Nations?**^®* Eichhoff
eloquently continues the idea — "The sciences of Philology and
History ever march in concert, and the one lends its support to the
other ; because the life of Nations manifests itself in their language,
the &ithful representative of their vicissitudes. Where national
chronology stops short, where the thread of tradition is broken, the
antique genealogy of words that have survived the reign of empires
of Tartar flat-noses — narrates, *<The king of Persia being enraged at the Turks, who haTe
two holes in the midst of their face instead of a nose, for haying plundered his kingdom,
resoWed to pursue them." (Basmaqb, Hist, of the Jews, p. 478).
*■ Op. tit.., pp. 86, 95-6. I refer to this admirable work in preference to " Phonology"
in Bunsen's Outlines^ because the latter has been disposed of by Rknan (supra, note 16).
^** Adkluno {Cataloffust St Petersburg, 1820, p. 185) counted 8,064 languages: Balbi
enumerated 860 languages and 5000 dialects. The greatest linguist on record, Cardinal
Hezzofanti, was acquainted, it is said, with but 62.
^* Otia JEyyptiaea^ p. 12.
570 THE K0N06EKISTS AND
comes in to shed light upon the very cradle of humanily, and to
consecrate the memory of generations long since engulphed in the
quicksands of time." Thus much is certainly within the competency
of " philology ;** and we may concede to it also the faculty, where the
historic elements for comparison exist — as in the range of Indo-ge^
manic, Semitic, and some few other well-studied groups of tongues—
of ascertaining relationships of intercourse between widelynseparate
families of man ; but not always, as it is fashionable now to claim,
and which I will presently show to be absurd, of a eommunity of
origin between two given races physiologically and geographically
distinct Again, no tongue is permanent. More than 160 years ago,
Richard Bentley, perhaps the greatest critic of his age,** exemplified
this axiom while unmasking the Greek forgeries of Alexandrian
sophists. " Every living language, like the perspiring bodies of living
creatures, is in perpetual motion and alteration ; some words go off)
and become obsolete ; others are taken in, and by degrees grow into
common use ; or the same word is inverted in a new sense and notion,
which in tract of time makes as observable a change in the air and
features of a language, as age makes in the lines and mien of a fke.
All are sensible of this in their own native tongues, where continnal
use makes a man a critic.*' But, at the same time that this is the
law deduced from the historical evidences of written languages, its
action is enormously accelerated among petty barbarous tribes, such
as a few Asiatic, many African, several American, and still more
frequently among tlie Malayan, and Oceanico-Australian races.
Here, mere linguistic land-marks are as often completely effaced as
re-established ; while the typical characteristics of the race endure,
and therefore can alone serve as bases for ethnic classification. Yet
we read every day in some shape or other :
" The decision of the Academy (of St. Petersburg, 40 years ago)
was, however, quite unreserved upon this point; for it maintains its
conviction, after a long research, that all languages are to be considered
as dialects (of one) now lostJ"^ This enunciation of an eminent
Cardinal, although dating some 20 years back, is still, quoted and
re-quoted by thankful imbecility which, on any other point of do^
trine, would shudder at Romanist authority. And it excites ITomeric
smiles among those who happen to know the estimation in which
Egyptologists now hold M. de Goulianoff's ArcMologie fgyptienne and
Acrohgie, to see his report to the Russian Academy used as a dog-
matical finality to further linguistic advancement! In England he
** Dissertations upon the Epistles of Phalaris, ThetnistocUs, Socratet, Eur^ncUs, and up«9 ^
Fables of jEsop (1G09); Dyco's ed., London, Bvo, 1836; II, p. 1.
*w WiSKMAN, Connection, &c., 2d ed., 8to, London, 1842; pp. 68-9.
THE POLTGENISTS. 571
aas been succeeded by a school which discards the term **race" alto-
gether ; because its Oracle, after an amazing number of contradict-
ory propositions, has latterly stated** how "he believes that all the
varieties of man are referable to a single species," aB per catalogue^
Luke Burke judiciously comments, of barbarian vocabularies.
One recipe, for attaining expeditiously a conclusion so devoutly
wished, is simple enough. It is the following: — 1st, to start with
king James's version of Genesis^ Chapter IV, verse 25 : — 2d, to jump
over 4730 years that an Archbishop says have elapsed from that day
to this, and take the population descended from "Adam and Eve" to
be now exactly 1,216,670,000:** — 8d, to invent a sort of frame-work
(say "escritoire") containing precisely 9 pigeon-holes: — 4th, to label
them Monosyllabic^ Turanian^ Caucasian (alias Dioscurian^ said to be
the same thing), Persian^ Indian^ Oceanic, American, African, and
European: — 5th, disregarding such trifles as history, anatomy, or
physiological distinctions, to squeeze all humanity, " as per vocabu-
lary," into these 9 compartments: — 6th, to chant "te Deum" over the
whole performance ; — and lastly, 7th, to baptize as infidels those who
disbelieve the "unity of the human species" to be proved by any
such hocus-pocus, or arbitrary methods of establishing that of which
Science, at the present day, owing to insufficiency of materials,
humbly confesses herself to be ignorant ; whilst she indignantly re-
pudiates, as impertinent and mendacious, the suppression of all facts
that are too three-cornered to be jammed into the 9 pigeon-holes afore-
said. Such, in sober sadness, is the effect produced upon the minds
of unbiassed anthropologists, by this unscientific system. They can-
not, for the life of them, as concerns real ethnology, where the theo-
loger sees in each of these 9 pigeon-holes a wondrous "confirmation,"
perceive in the whole arrangement anything more than a reflex of
the mind of their ingenious inventor. What true philological science
has achieved, in the 6th year after the middle of our XlXth century,
may be studied in M. Alfred Maury's Chapter I of this volume. Its
results do not appear to favor monogenistic theories of human lan-
guage.
It is with the express object of avoiding this, or any other unnatural
system, that my " Ethnographic Tableau " has been prepared. Typo-
graphical exigencies compel an appearance, I must allow, of arbitrary
classification: but no definitive bar to progress is intended by its
arrangement; and I shall be proud to follow any better that impartial
inquiries into Nature's laws may in the ftiture elicit. Such as this
^* London Athenagum, Jane 17, 1854.
^^ Ratsmstkin, DezcTxptivt Notetj and Ethnographieal Map of the World, London, 1854 ;
pp. 2-4.
572 THE MONOGENISTS AND
"Tableau" may be, it is the result of jeare of labor and comparison;
and the ingenuous critic, in view of tiie mechanical difficulties of its
execution, together with those of condensing so many different sub-
jects into limited spaces, may peradventure look upon it &vorably,
under these circumstances.
We resume. It seems reconcilable with the theory, — now univer-
sally accepted by naturalists as demonstrated through botany, herpe-
tology, entomology, zoology, &c., of the original distribution of
animate creatures in centres, zones, or provinces of Creation — that
each one of the various primitive forms of human speech arose within
that geographical centre where the particular group of men inheriting
its time-developed, or now-corrupted dialects, was created. One can
furthermore perceive that the law of gradation — in physical characteris-
tics from one group of mankind to another, when restored to their ear-
liest historical sites — to some extent holds good upon surveying their
languages: that is to say, abstraction made of known migrations and
intermixtures among races, each grand type of humanity with its
typical idioms of speech, can be carried back, more or less approxi-
mately, to the cradle of its traditionary origin. Thus, for instance,
when, in America, we behold an Israelite, it requires no effort of
imagination to trace his ethnic pedigree backwards across the At-
lantic to Europe, and thence to Palestine ; whence history, combined
with the analogies of his race-character, and formerly special tongue,
accompanies him to Arpha-kasd^ Chaldcean Orfa,*** in the neighbor*
hood of which lay the birth-place of the Abrahamidee. Beyond that*
ultimatum, positive science hazards no opinion. The theologer alon^
knows how or why Abraham's ancestry got among those hills instead^
of beginning amid the Himalayan, Cordilleran, Pyrenean, or other'
mountain ranges.
In this connection, however differing from many uncritical sur-
mises of their learned author, I must do Chesney the justice to say,
that his inquiries into the geographical site of the fabled "garden of
delight," — Eden of the Chaldees, Sadeniche of Zoroaster, and Paradise
of the Persians — ^have cleared up, beyond any other writer, the diffi-
culties of identifying what, in king James's version,*** is a river
which, after " it was parted, (and) became into four heads."
The eminent chief of the " Euphrates Expedition" possessed, more
than any preceding traveller over the same localities, the scientific
requirements for their study ; and his careful observations have re-
stored to rational geography, — not indeed a mythos, which even
«> 7)/pei of Mankind, pp. 636-7 ; and " Genealogical Tableau of Xth GenesU.**
•1 Oausitf II, 10 ; — compare Reman, Op, eit,, pp. 449^-56b
THE P0LYGENI8TS. 573
Origen** considered it "idiotic" to take in other than an allegorical
sense, but a tract of country satisfying all the topographical exigenda
of the brief poetic legend. " At the head of the fertile valleys of the
Halys, Aras, Tigris, and Euphrates," as Chesney demonstrates through
a beautifiil map,^ " we find, as might be expected, the highest moun-
tains which were known for a great many centuries after the Flood ;
and in this lofty region are the sources of the four great streams
above mentioned, which flow through Eden in directions tending
towards the four cardinal points." Hence all mystery vanishes
through the identification of a lovely province in Armenia, whence
the adjacent sources of four rivers stream forth — viz.: the Raly9
(Phison) northwards to the Black Sea ; the Araxes (Gihon) eastwards
to the Caspian ; the Tigris [Hiddekel, as our translators foolishly spell
Ha-DiKIi6, the-DigU; ed-DidjU, of the present Mesopotamians) flow-
ing southwards, and the Euphrates (Phrilt) westwards, until, bending
towards each other, these two rivers unite and fall into the Persian
Gulf through the Shut^el4rab.
Being almost the only people whose geographical origin can now
be determined within a few leagues of space, it may be well to
strengthen this assertion from other quarters; aft^r remarking that the
starting-place of the Abrahamidse (or high-landers), before they became
Hebrews ( Yonderers, subsequently to journeying westward beyond the
Euphrates), falls naturally within the zoological province allotted by
Agassiz*** to the Syra-Iranian fauna of the European realm.
Mackay *** has thrown together some of the best German authorities
on the " mythical geography of Paradise," which substantiate thesie
and my former remarks on Arpha-kasd.
" Among the places locally distinguished by the name of Eden
was a hill district of northern Assyria or Media, » called Eden in
Thelasar (2 Kings xix, 12; Ezek. xxvii, 23 — Gesen. Lex. p. 60,
1117 ; Winer, R. W. B., I, 380 ; H, 704). This Thelasar or Ellasar
{Gen. xiv) is conterminous with Ptolemy's *Arrapachitis (meaning
either ^Chaldsean fortress,' Ewald, Geschichtey I, 333 ; or, * Aryapaks-
cbata,' bordering upon Arya or Iran, Von Bohlen, Genesis^ 137), and
with the plain of the ancient city Rages or Ragau {Judith^ I, 6, 15),
where the Assyrian monarch overcame the Median king Arphaxad.
Rai, in several Asiatic tongues, was a name for Paradise (Von Bohlbn,
•• Peri-Arehon, lib. IV, o. 2 ; Hubt, Origeniana^ p. 167.
^M The Expedition for the turvey of the Rivert Euphrates and THgrie (1S85-7) ; London, 1860,
1, pp. 266-80; II, 1-60; and **Map of the coontries situate between the Tv^en Nile and
Indus."
^** **ProTinoe8 of the Animal World" — TifpeM of Mankind^ pp. IzYii-iii, Ixxriii, and map;
•too, pp. 112-15, 116-17.
^ Progre99 of the InteUeei, London, 8to, 1860; 1, pp. 89-44.
574 THE MONOGEKISTS AND
Genesis^ 27), and both Bai and Arphaxad, or ArrapachitiB, occur in
the personal genealogy of Heber (Ken is Bagan in the SeptoagiDt).
It has been ingeniouslj sunnised that the genealogy fix>m Shem to
Abraham is in part significant of geographical localities, or saccessive
stations occupied by the Hebrews in the progress of migration from
some point in the north-east of Ai^a, from which tradition extended
in a divergent circle as from the mythical Eerieya of the Zend-avesta
(EwALD, Qeschichte Israel, 316, 333, 336). In Hebrew tradition, as m
that of the Indians and Persians, this region was immemorially
sacred." Ko scholar at all acquainted with the biblical exegesis
' pretends any longer to recognize, in the misspelled name Arphaxad
(copied by the English translators from the Greek version^ an indi-
vidual personage, but merely a geographical name ARPAa-£aSD.
Thus Bunsen : *^ ^^Arpakhuhad (the men of Arrapakhitis), after having
gone in the person of Eber into Mesopotamia, pass in the person of
Abraham into Palestine (Canaan). * * * Now, as to Arpakshad or
Arrapakhitis, we know from Ptolemy that their country was situated
between Armenia and Assyria, on the southern slopes of the Gordy-
ffian mountains, overhanging Assyria. This, therefore, we may con-
sider as one starting-point. * * * Why should such a geographical
origin not be expressed geographically, and why should it be mis-
interpreted ?"
But, although it may be still impossible to fix the earliest cradles
of other races with the same precision, and within an equally-small
area, as the Jewish, history enables us to eliminate a great many
others from consideration when we treat of the zoological province
they have latterly occupied as aliens through transplantation. Thus,
for example, every German in America is immediately restored to
northern Europe ; every negro to Africa ; and if a Chinese, a Malay,
or other type of man, be encountered anywhere outside of the geo-
graphical boundary of his race, he is instantiy placed back in it by
educated reason. Hence, through this natural, almost instinctive
process, in which history, philology and physiology, must co-operate,
each type of mankind can be restored to its original centre, if not
perhaps strictly of creation, at least to that of its earliest historical
occupancy ; beyond which point human knowledge stands at fault:
but none of these sciences, by any possibility, carries back a negro
to the Caucasus, traces a Kelt to the Andes, refers a Jew to the Altai,
transfers a Pawnee to the Alps, a Tukagir to the mountains of the
Moon, or an Australian to Mount Ararat, as the respective birth-
^M Chrittianity and Mankind, their beginning and proipeeti, London, Sro, 1864: in,p. 179,
180, 191. Of. also Gesknii Thetaurutj LipsisB, 1829; I, p. 1^; Tooe ii*i||.
THE POLTGENISTS. 575
places of these persons. Thaumaturgy alone claims to perform saeh
miracles ; ethnology ignores them altogether.
When each type of m^n is thas replaced in the natural province
of his origin, we can, by taking a map of the earth, indicate in colors
several centres, within and around each of which the group of
humanity traced to it seems — the theological point of view being, in
this discussion, left aside as obsolete — aboriginally to have clustered.
Their number I do not pretend to guess at ; there may be 8, 6, 7, or
8, though less, I think, than a dozen primitive centres ; but, under
such aspects, which limited space now precludes my justifying by
argument or examples, it will probably be found (by tiiose who for
their own instruction may choose to test the problem as patiently as
curiosity has led me to do for mine), that history, comparative physi-
ology and philology, will harmonize completely with the zoological
theory of several centres, and prove Pro£ Agassiz's view to be irre-
fragable, yiz : that mankind and certain mammalia were originally
sabject to the same laws of distribution.
To apply this doctrine to languages : A given number of such
natural provinces being experimentally determined through induc-
tion, and then marked oft* by colored spots, each representing a
typical group of homogeneous languages, upon a Mercator's chart ;*^
if each one of these groups be taken separately as a point of departure
in the eccentrical radiations of its own master-tongue, it will then be
recognized, with the ingenious traveller Waldeck,** that languages
may be compared to circles ; the primitive^ or aboriginal, speech forming
in each the centre. The farther such tongue advances towards the
circumference, the more it loses in originality ; the tangent, that is to
say, the point at which it encounters another language (radiating
likewise from its own circle) is the place where it begins to undergo
alterations, and commences the formation of a mixed idiom. By and
by, a third language, also in process of spiral giration outwards upon
its own axis, intersects either one of the two preceding or the point
of union betwixt both. Under such circumstances, it will be seen (and
might be represented on the Map in shades of color) that the "copia
verborum" always, and the grammatical construction frequently, of
^ Among attempts made at an ** Ethnographical Map of the World," according to reli-
giouB belief, occupations, &c., I wonld particularly commend Raysivstiiiv's large sheet
(Reynolds, Strand, London) ; but all these represent the distribution of mankind at the
present day ; whereas my conception refers to that of different human types at the earliest
historical point of yiew (parallel with Egyptian pyramids 5000 years ago). Such a map
has not been published yet; owing chiefly, I think, to a preyalent dogma, that^ inasmuch as
all humanity commenced upon Mount Ararat, any other system wonld be to^ wofane for
remnneratiTO sales.
M 76^004 Fitter, it ArehioL in Tucatan, Puris, fofio, 1887 ; p. 24.
576 THE K0N06EKISTS AND
three distinct languages, thereby become more or less interblended.
Again, in course of time, some elements of a fourth, a fifth, or even
of more, languages, originating in other centres, may be infiltrated
into, or superimposed upon, this tripartite basis at certain points. Now,
to analyze the component parts of this mass, and to carry back each
organically-diverse tongue to its pristine centre, is the true office of
antiquarian philology ; and herein consists the most glorious applica-
tion of this science, regarded as the handmaiden, not the mistress,
of "Ethnology," which term ought to represent the judicious union
of all sciences bearing upon the study of Man.
By way of exemplifying that such fusions have really taken place
among languages, I would instance the ConstantinopoUtan Turkish,
or present Osmanlee dialect* Originally Altaic in geographical deri-
vation, the Turkish type, barred by the Himalayan range fix)m much
influence over Hindostdn, and (save in the desperate alternative of
flight or extermination undergone by what remains of Turkish among
the hybrid Tahuts) shrinking from that Siberian cold which consti-
tutes the mundane happiness of the Arctic-men (Samoyeds, Tchut-
chis, Eskimaux, &c.), radiated towards China on the east and Media
on the west. Driven away from the flowery empire after prolonged
onslaughts, the Turkish hordes — bringing with them, as their only
trophies, a few Chinese words in their vocabulary, and some Chinese
women in their harems — struggled for many ages in eflTorts to crosB
the Arian, or Persian, barrier, which arrested their march towards
Europe. At such epochs was it that, in Persic history, the Turks
were first called Antrantans, and latterly Turanians; during all these
periods of encampment, never failing to add Mongolian, Scythic, and
Arian, females to the Chinese that already garnished their tented
seraglios. They absorbed abundant Persian vocables into their
speech in the interim ; and, through amalgamation with higher types
(essentially Caucasian)^ their homely features began to acquire Eu-
ropean proportion. Finally, as Osmanlees, we find them making
Istambool their terrestrial paradise — the fairest of Arabia's, Circas-
sians, and Ilellas's daughters becoming their "spolia opiraa" for four
centuries ; thereby polishing the Turkish form to such degree, that
even the Bostanjees (gardeners), and Cayikjpes (boatmen), of modem
Byzantium now frequently rival Alcibiades in personal beauty. By
way, however, of polygamic re-vindication, the politics of 1854-6
guarantee, at least for the next generation, further improvements at
Galata and Scutari ; only, this time, the manly cohorts of Britain,
France, and Sardinia, by reversing the gender, have secured Ottoman
melioration through the female line ; and sculpture looks forward
hopefully to a liberal supply from Turkey of tarsi for ApoUos.
I ■_
THE POLTGENISTS. 577
u
Pari passu " with Turkish improvements in the physiquey owing
to amalgamation with higher races, has run the history of their lan-
guage. Of yore in Asia as barbarous and limited in vocabulary as
an Eskimo's, the Osmanlee speech has become in euphony most
beautiful ; and through its inherent capacity of expansion, aided by
Absorption of foreign roots, unbounded ; because upon a given mono-
syllable, stolen no matter whence, the Turkish verb can agglutinate
just what sense it pleases. Thus, supposing that recent contact with
English hospitals should have impressed upon the Ottoman ear the
syllable " sick," as relic of the valetudinarian's phrase " I am sick,"
the Turk can immediately, through the form richmek, by adding tsA,
obtain a reciprocal verb aick-ish-meky "to be sick with one another;"
or extend it even to nck-uhrdirAlrmeky " to be brought to be sick
with one another;" and so on through thirty-six forms of conjuga-
tion;** in which the alien monosyllable "sick" will henceforward
continue to play as great a part, while Turks endure, as if it had
been native Turanian.
The Ottomans, therefore, exhibit in their present speech all the
historical radiations from their Altaic centre. At first exclusively
Turanian, their language contracted some Sinic peculiarities; and
then so many Arian (Persian) vocables and inflexions, — followed,
after their conversion to Islamism, by such an abundance of Semitic
(Arabic) roots — ^that the more a polite speaker introduces Persian and
Arabic into his discourse, the higher is an Osmanlee diplomatist's
estimation of such person's culture.*" The modem Persian language
presents a similar superposition of Turanian and Semitic forms upon
an Arian tongue.
This principle of primitive centres of speech has been victoriously
proved for Semitic languages by Renan, and for Malayan by Graw-
furd; and it is even exemplified in our bastard English tongue,
although its chief absorptions are Indo-Q^rmanic, except in foreign
substantives imported by commercial intercourse from other centres
all over the world; as may be seen in De Vere's*^ capital book.
Another method, not altogether new and somewhat defective in
technical illustration, has just been proposed by Dr. David F. Wein-
land (before the American Association for the advancement of Sci-
^>* Max MtfLLXB, op, oT.. pp. 111-4; and Holdi&mahm's Orammair$ Turqut^ ConsUnti-
neple, 1780, pp. 25-8.
*> Becolleotion of Baron de Tott's work, read when I began a sligbt stadj of Turkish at
Cairo, 1382-4, songests reference to some Tery happy inoBtrationa of this mixtnre of three
tongoM giT«n by tim; but I no longer poeaeta, nor know where to find, hia book for
citatioiL
M OuOmm of Compar ttine Philology, New Tork, 1858.
87
578 THE MONOGENISTS AND
ence,^ " on the name* of Animalfl with reference to Ethnology"), for
tracking back the name of a given animal to its primitive zoological
province, and hence deducing the nation that first occupied Buch
centre. There is not the slightest doubt of its logical correctness, and
I lament that space is now lacking to corroborate it by other exam-
ples ; but my brief philological digression, save on one point, must
be closed ; and with the less regret because our able collaborator, M.
Alfred Maury, has covered the philological ground of ethnology in
Chapter L of this volume.
The facts most obnoxious to the modem evangelical hypothesis of
the unity of all languages, and which philological monogenism, with
conspiring unanimity, either slurs over, or suppresses, lie in those
numerous cases where the type of man, now found speaking a given
language, bears no relation physically, or through its geographical
origin, to the speech which, derived &om a totally-distinct centre, it
employed as its vernacular. Thus, as a ready instance, negroes
transported to America from Africa (their own African idioms being
wholly lost within two generations) have spoken Dutch in Ifew
York State, German in Pennsylvania, Swedish in Delaware, English
from Maine to Louisiana; where, in a single city, New Orleans,
they still converse in French, Spanish, or English, according to the
domestic language of their proprietors. Continuing through the
Antilles, among which, on different islands, French, Danish, Span-
ish, English dialects, and even Irish tvith the brogue^^ are tortured
by negro voices in the absence of any colloquial African tongue, we
find them speaking Caribsean dialects along the Mosquito shores,
Portuguese in Brazilian cities, and the lingoa geral/^ or current
Indian idioms of the country, throughout South America. In
parallel manner, all along Barbary, Egypt, and Syria, imported
negroes talk only in Arabic; while in Asia Minor, and in the Morea,
I have met with many wholly ignorant of any language but Turkish
in the former case, and Greek in the latter. Here, then, are familiar
instances where human faunae of the African realm would, by the
mere philologer reasoning upon a few vocabularies, be assigned to
the Indogerinanic, the Semitic, or the Turanian groups of known
Asiatic origin! Against such "petitiones principii," Desmoulinfl
*** Reported in New York Herald^ Aug. 26th, 1866 ; and perhaps as regards foreign pi^
per names incorrectly.
«* Typet of Mankind, p. 723.
^^ Auo. DB St. Hilairb, Voyaget dam Us provineet de Rh de Janeiro et dt Min&i 0*r^
Paris, Sto, 1880; I, pp. 424-6; II, 49-67 :—Rugbnda8, Voy. Pittor. dam U BH$d, ?A
1888 ; II, pp. 8, 27-84.
THE P0LT6SNI8TS. 579
was the first to raise his voice ; "* followed by Morton,*** D' Avezac,"'
Pickering,^ and others; but inasmuch as some ethnographers do
not appear to have laid sufficient stress on the multitude of these
contradictions inherent in the mere philological school, I will enu-
merate a few of the more striking instances, beginning with the
oldest historical nation, that of Egypt
The Fellah of the present day has recovered the type of his
primitive ancestry {vide 9upra^ pi. I and U, and p. 109) ; yet his
language has become Arabic instead of the ancient Hamitic, which,
in the ratio of its antiquity, frees itself from Shemite influence.***
The Jews, spread over the world, their primitive Aifimasen tongue
and its successor the Hebrew being colloquially forgotten, adopt as
their own the language of every race among whom they happen to
aojoom ; yet, owing ta intermarriage exclusively among their own
race, their true type has been preserved independently of such
transplantations — ^I allude to that of more or less sallow complexion,
black hair and eyes, aquiline nose, and high but receding forehead.
Nevertheless, it would be an illusion to suppose that, even since the
cessation of intermixture with Ganaanites, Persians, and Greeks,
down to their expulsion from Palestine after the &11 of Jerusalem,
the Israelites have been able to avoid mingling their blood with that
of other races, to the extent which rabbinical superstition may claim
or that Christians habitually concede. This is accounted for in the
vicissitudes of their history during our middle ages ; and is mainly
owing to the proselyting furor of the Inquisition. On the one
hand, forced conversions, in Spain and Portugal especially, often
compelled Hebrews to dissimulate their repugnance to Gkntile
unions, as well as to disguise their secret adherence to Judaism;
and this, sometimes, with such consummate skill that, in 1665, the
Christian Patriarch of Jerusalem was discovered to have been a Jew
all his life ! *'® On the other, polygamy was ever free to the Israel-
ite,'^ until abandoned throughout Europe in submission to Catholic
laws. The historical instances are so numerous of modem Jewish
alliances with Gentiles, that it would require many pages to illus-
M E€€e9 ffimamn, pp. 86&-50.
M<«liiedited MSS.," Typa of Mankmd, pp. 811, 822-S : — Gliddov, OUa JEgypHMm^
pp. 78-9.
M BM4im d$U8oe.dM Qiographu, XIV, 1840; p. 228.
"• Rmtm^ pp. 277-8.
•n BoujB, Ory^ml Paiae* Hand-bock, 1856; pp. 249^2.
"* Bamaob, HiiL and ReUg, of the Jew, foL London, 1708 ; p. 706. To Basnuge, who
■aj jntUj be tonned the continiier of Josephoe, I muei refer the reeder for proo£i of Ml
■l/MMrtiont.
n Qp. dt, pp. 469-70.
580 THE K0N06EKISTS AND
irate them fully ; but their result is, that the votaries of Judaism
may be divided into two broadly-marked and distinct types, viz.
the one above mentioned, and another distingubhed by lank and
tall frame, clear blue eye, very white and freckled skin, and yellow-
reddish hair.
Not merely in Barbary, Arabia, Bokh^ira, Hindostib and China,
have numberless converts to Jndidsm mingled their blood with the
pure Abrahamic stock ; but, at several periods of temporary pros-
perity, and in various parts of Europe also, during the middle ages,
Indo-germanic and Sclavonian &milies, adopting Mosaic institotes,
freely intermitted with Israelites ; and hence, through amalgamation,
arise all noticeable divergencies from the well-known standard type.
Poland seems to be the focus of this fusion of Jews with the Oerman
and Sarmatian races ; ^^ but some descendants of these multifiuioai
unions, exiled from Spain, form at this day laige classes in Algeria;
and, whilst they are rare in Egypt and Syria, I can attest their fre-
quency at Rhodes, Smyrna, and Constantinople. But, as a special
instance of the false deductions that would be drawn from ibem
(were philology not to be controlled by physiological criteria combined
with history), while at Rhodes and Smyrna the outdoor language of
these Israelites is Greek, and at Constantinople Turkish, — their
domestic speech is Spanish, and their literature in the same tongue
printed with Hebrew letters ! The rationale is, they descend from
the Jews driven out of Spain during the XVIth century, where they
must have absorbed a goodly portion of Gtothic, or perhaps Vandal,
blood prior to their exode. Indeed, upon surveying the infinitude
of diverse languages, habits, dresses, and contradictory institutions,
contracted by the Jewish type in every country of the earth, and the
consequent clashings of each national synagogue upon points of reli-
gious doctrine among KhdkhanAm educated in different countries,
should wealth ever enable Europeanized Jews to re-purchase Jerusa-
lem, and to collect their brethren there from all regions of the earth,
I much fear the result would be but a repetition of the " confusion
of Babel." Apart from identity of physical conformation, subject to
the exceptions above noticed, there could be but one test (and that
latterly made doubtful)*" through which such incongruous elements
could fraternize; and like a Council at Ephesus, thb Sanhedrim
^i> BoRT DB St. Vuvcent, Anthropologie de PAfrique Fratt^am, 1S46, pp. 12, 16, IT-S:"
RoziT, Voyage dona la RSgenee d' Alger, Paris 4to, 1838 ; it, pp. 210-35. The leaniecl Mtkor
of Oenesis of the Earth and of Man (1866, pp. 69, 128) supposes tiiat the frequency of tkeM
fair-skinned yellow-haired Jews in the East ** has not heen mentioned by any writer." Hen
are two witnesses in the meanwhile.
ns Bbbthkrand (MSdecme et Hygihu da Arabtt, Paris, 1856; p. 818» note), m dbmfi
in Cireamoision.
, THE P0LT6ENISTS. 681
would soon dissolve in uproar, a£S[>rding to Gentiles a spectacle
similar to, and edifying as, that of the Conventicle of Dordrecht :
** DordraoM Synodiu nodna.
ChoniB integer »ger.
ConTentiiB Tentua,
Sessio ttramen. Amen."
Very singular is it, nevertheless, that the people whose xenolasia,
or hatred to foreigners, has heen so instinctive since their post-Baby-
lonian history, -should have become in language the most cosmopo-
litan. Thus Josephus says, that they who learned many tongues
were not esteemed in Judea; and Origen testifies that, in his time,
the Jews did not trouble themselves about Qrecians or their tenets.
In the MishnOy Jewish children are forbidden to acquire Greek.^^*
'^ The po9tiUej annexed to the text of the Misnah, contains a maledic-
tion, pronounced against him who keeps a hog, or teaches hu son
Greek; as if it was equally impure to feed an unclean beast, and to
give men a good education:" but exile forced the Rabbis to relax
such inhibitions, during the 11th century, after K. Solomon of Bar-
celona ; and now it would be difficult to define Israelitish character-
istics more aptly than by ^^ Judaismus polyglottus," did not the ori-
ginal Abrahamic type, — owing to a recognized law in breeding, that
the many, effiu^ing by degrees the few, invariably return to their
normal physique — vindicate its right to be called the purest, cceteris
paribusj of all nations upon earth.
Again, among Shemitish examples, there are multitudes of pure-
blooded Arabs in Afighanistdn and Bokhd.ra, few of whom except
their Moolahs preserve their Arabian dialect;"* but have adopted
the alien idioms of the country, whilst preserving their Arabic phy-
sique during about 1000 years. In Asia, these metamorphoses of
tongue coupled with preservation of type are innumerable. There
are white Kalmuks (Telenggout) in Siberia, whose physiognomy is
wholly Mongol : but speaking Turkish, they are evidently a Mongo-
lian family which, losing its own tongue, has adopted a Turkish dia-
lect.*** If one were to attempt a specification of the hybrid grada-
BA Bashaqb, pp. 405, 608-9. A Tery singolar question, bearing upon oranioscopj, it
Mked in the old Talmud {Sehabbat), yiz. : "Quare sunt capita Babjloniornm rotunda
[HeOeLGiL0T<] ?"— Job. Bdxtobfi p., Lexiemi Chaldaieum Talm, elRabbm., 1629, p. I486,
^e fact is {tupra. Chap. II, figs. 89, 40), they are round.
•u Khaxikoff, Bokhara, itt Amir and People, transl. De Bode, London, 8to., 1845 ; pp.
S7-S0: — Malcolm, ni»tory of Penia^ London, 4to., 1815; p. 277: — Mobibr, Second Jour^
My through Pertia, London, 4to., 1818; i. pp. 47-8. On the absurdity of Jews being the
aneeetors of the Tadjiks of Bokhara, or the Puthtaneh of Cabnl, read Kxmmxdt, Queetion
tf the titfpaitd LoH Tribe* of Itrael, London, 8to, 1855, p. 51.
*>* KLAPnoTB, Magatin Asiaiique, No. I. :— See all kinds of similar transpotitions bstween
yaoe and tongae in Desmouuxs, paeeim.
582 THE M0N06EKIST8 AND
tions in blood and languages that exist around the cireamfefeMCi
of Arctic, Ouralian, Altaic, Thibetan, Daourian, and other stocb,
wherein one race has exchanged its language, whilst more or ka
perpetuating its own race-character, a volume of citationB would
barely cover the contradictory instances ; but the exactitude of »
competent authority's,*" Count John Potocki's, experience would be
thoroughly confirmed: — "but I also encounter [at Astrakan] new
difficulties. I behold men with fiat fi^ces, who seem to belong to
the same people ; but these men speak difiRsrent languages. On the
other hand, men with dissimilar features express themselves in the
same idiom ; and all pretend to be the veritable Tatars of Tchinghifr
kht^n !" The same phenomena, upon contrasting ancient and
modem times especially, meet the eye everywhere in Europe. "For
example," says Potocki,"* whilst laying down an admirable series of
rules for unravelling these complex meshes wherein the tongue con-
tradicts the race, or vice ver«fi, "the Tatars of Lithuania have pre-
served their little eyes and their religion ; but they have lost their
language, and no longer speak anyUiing but Polbh : at the same
time that Latham,^^ in whose excellent compilation other instances
occur, establishes that — "a. There is a considerable amount of
Ugrian blood amongst certain populations whose speech is Sclavonic.
b. There is a considerable amount of Sclavonic blood among certain
populations whose speech is German." Haartman*^ has shown that
the Carelians, hitherto classed as Finns, belonged to a totally dis-
tinct family, whose lost language "has been superseded by the Fin-
nic:" Niebuhr*^* proves that the Epirots "changed their language,
without conquest or colonization, into Greek :" Maury indicates the
diversities of races and tongues now becoming absorbed into French,
whilst still prescr\'ing distinctive marks of separate race-chanws
ters:*® Keith Johnston's exquisite "Ethnographic Map of Great Bri-
tain and Ireland," with its letter-press,*® exhibits how pre^Keltic
Celtic, and Teutonic differences of blood and languages are gradu-
ally merging themselves into a common vernacular, the English:
although the original distinctions of race still survive countless inter-
ftn Voyage dan* let Steps de FAMtrakan et du Caucase, Hutoire Primiiif det Pewfim fn «(
kahiti anciennement ceM Contr^e*: Nouveau PiripU du Pont Euxin — with notes br Ckfncl.
PaHs, 8to., 1829; ii. p. 52:— See Reckbero {Let Peuple$ dt la Rutmt, Puis, foL: A«««*
pr^liminairtf pp. 8, 6-18) for the Tarioos families oooopjing the Rossiaii EBptrevisetr
nine nations.
«• Op. eiL, i. p.12.
u* Nativ€ Raeti of the Rustian Empire^ London, 12mo., 1854; p. SS.
■«• Transaetiont of the R, Soc, of Stockholm, 1847. 1
»o JlUtofy of Rome, i. p. 87. { " Morto^'a
*» Ethnolo^e AncHnne de la France, Paris, ISmo., 1858, pp. 22-S2.
m Phyncal AtUu, foL 1855, PI. 88.
THE POLTGENISTS. 583
marriages : and Pickering,®* struck with linguistic anomalies beheld
in the eleven rcutes discerned by him in his voyage round the world,
at the same time that he furnishes other illustrations, judiciously ob-
serves— "Although languages indicate national affiliation, theii
actual distribution is, to a certain extent, independent of physical
race. Confusion has sometimes arisen, from not giving due atten-
tion to this circumstance ; and indeed, the extension, or the impart-
ing of languages, is a subject which has received very little attention.
Writers sometimes reason as if nations went about in masses, the
strong overcoming the weak, and imposing at once their customs,
religion, and languages on the vanquished ;" when the contrary has
been more frequently exemplified : and he shows that in the cases of
Africans transplanted involuntarily to the United States, Hayti, and
St. Vincent, " we have three examples, where one physical race of
men has succeeded to the languages and institutions of another."
In general, the fusion between languages originating -from different
centres, is parallel with amalgamations between races of distinct
stocks brought together from widely separated countries. Among
familiar examples, wherein English thus struggles for mastery (apart
from Malta against Italian- Arabic, and in the Ionian Islands against
Venitianized Greek), may be mentioned PitcairrCi Islanders (by
this time probably moved on to Van Diemen's Land), whither the
"Bounty's" mutineers, carrying off Polynesian females, formed a
race of half-castes : the small, if prolitic, family at Trutan cCAcunhaj
compounded between nigritian women from St. Helena and British
marines; — and the amalgamizing tendency of colonists at New
Zealand,^ which introduces a third element of hybridity amid a
people that, at the time of their earliest relations with Europeans,
were already (strange to say) composed of two different stocks ; the
one fair, and unquestionably Polynesian; the other black, either
Harfoorian or Papuan ; whose union had produced various shades of
mulattoes, — to the astonishment of Crozet,** when he saw "trois
espk^es d'hommes, des blancs, des noirs, et des basan6s ou jaunes,"
at Cook's Port of Islands. Some day, perhaps, a philologer, who
disregards history and race-character, will establish perfect unity
among Pitcaim, Tristan d'Acunha, and New Zealand, humanity, on
the ground of their natives speaking English !
Thus, one might travel onward, by the aid of literary sources, from
«• United States Ezplor, Exped., 1848, fol., IX, pp. 277-9.
>* Ahoas, New Zealand iUustratedj London, fol., 1846.
■* NouveauVoyage d la Mer du Sud, with Capt. Marion in the " Masoarin** and " Castries,"
Paris, Sto, 1788; pp. 51-2, 187-8:— confirmed by Chamisso, in Kotzebui's Voy. of Diaeo-
nry kUo tht South Sea, &c. ; tronl. Lloyd, London, Sto, 1821 ; III, p. 290. The Tongft
Iihiidttn afford » parallel illustration.
584 THE M0N06EKISTS AND
country to country, all over the world (as indeed my notes can show
that I have done) to prove that there is scarcely any spot remaining
now where amalgamation between different races has not taken
place ; and, consequently, where philology ^ if applied without know-
ledge of these physical facts, must often lead to egregious ernn*. I
must content myself, however, with succinct references, under each
of the 54 heads of our ^^Ethnographic Tableau," to authorities,
through which an inquirer can satisfy himself upon the truth of this
assertion. The converse of our proposition will, moreover, substan-
tiate its correctness, viz. : that, wherever there has been no amalga-
mation of races, a type will perpetuate its language and its blood,
irrespectively of climatic influences. Many islands and peninsulas
would furnish illustrations in different regions of the earth, but none
more fortified with such historical guarantees, and for so long a period
as thirty generations, as hyperborean Iceland.
Sixty-five years, that is about a. d. 796, before its re-discovery by
the Norwegian Floke in 861, Iceland had been occasionally visited by
Irish anchorites from the Feroe Isles ;^ the latter being known to the
learned monks of Ireland prior to 725. Colonization of the former
island by Scandinavians commenced as early as 862;^ and thither
flocked the Northmen in such numbers from Halogaland, Drontheini)
JTordenfield, Nommedalen, &c., together with some cognate femilies
from Sweden, Scotland, the Hebrides, and Ireland, that, by 920, the
country was already populous ; and the first historical census of 1100
showed about "3860 principal heads of families." Unspeakable
disasters from plagues, volcanoes, famines, and diminutions of tem-
perature, have been their lot ; especially when cut off from their last
Greenland offshoots'^ by the ice, during 1406-8. During nearly
1000 years pure-blooded Northmen have withstood, remote from the
rest of the world, Iceland's inhospitable climate, and, free from
amalgamation with any other race, as a consequence, still speak
the old Norse as purely as Ingolfr, the first actual settler in 862.*
Nevertheless, imbued, since their forcible conversion, 981-1000, with
biblical traditions, even these Icelanders have hitched their genealo-
gies on to the Semitic chart called Xth Genesis ! Jon Arason, bishop
WT Lrtronnb, Rtcherchn giographiques et critiquea sur U Livre "de Mensiira orbU Term,"
eompoti en Irelande^ au commencement du 9"»« nMe par Dicuil; Paris, 1814; pp. 131-46.
ft» Xavieb Marmieb, ** Histoire de Tlslande/* Voyage de la Commiman Scienlifique du Nvri^
Corrette ••Recherche," en hlande et au Greenland (188S-6); Paris, 8vo, 1840; pp. 12-191.
*»• Scores BY, Journal of Northern Whale FUhery and West Oremland^ Edinburgh, Svo 1823;
and Gaimabd, •• Histoire du Voyage de la Recherche^** Paris, 1888; I, p. 8.
**> Marnier, *• Litt^rature Islandaise," op. eit.^ p. 7: — Bunskn, Discowm on Etktohff,
^ritiah Auoc, for the Adv. of Science, in •• Three linguistic Dissertationa," London^ 1848; ppw
278-9.
THE P0LT6ENISTS. 585
of Iceland towards the end of the 15th century, although the son of
a peasant, '^ caused his genealogy to mount up in a straight line to
the first kings of Denmark, and even to Adam. "*■ 'i' 'i' It comes
down from Adam to Noah, from Noah to Japhet, to Jafre, Jotlium,
Cyprus, Crete, Saturn, Jupiter, to Darius. At the 23d degree, we
find Priam ; at the 25th, Throar, whom we call Thor, says the chroni-
cler ; at the 42d, Voden or Odin ; then come the first kings of Den-
mark; and, at the 85th, appears the name of this bishop !"^^ In such
a desolate country, amid wintry darkness extending to 21 hours per
diem, time must have been wearisome. Sympathy bids us respect
the fables of a school-loving people, who, "simplex munditiis,"
composed the Edda^ besides a multitude of Sagasj — generally about
as historical as good Bishop Arason's pedigree.^
Icelanders, however, may challenge the rest of mankind to exhibit
another nation upon which a thousand .years have entailed neither
change of race nor alteration of speech. Their high-caste Scandi-
navian features, abundantly figured in portraits by Gaimard,*^
equally attest the purity of their blood and permanence of type^
despite their long position on the Arctic circle, — where, according
to alleged climatic action upon the human frame, and Bishop Ara-
son's genealogical tables aforesaid, they ought to have beeome either
Lapp9 or JEskimo!
Let it not be said, in behalf of the monogenistic view, that, in
proportion as one recedes into antiquity, fewer languages and fewer
races are encountered. At the age of the writer of Xth Genesis,
within the very limited superficies embraced within his geography,*^
the 79 nations^ tribes^ eitie%j and eountrieSj enumerated by hihi, were
already divided "after their tongues." The existence of no others
was known to him, else more would have been recorded. Even in
a fractional part of the world, just at the edge of the above map's
circumference, Herodotus tells us that, in the twelve cities of Ionia
alone, four distinct tongues were spoken ; and how Grecian traders,
between the Volga and the Uralian range, carried with them no
less than seven interpreters ; whilst Polybius narrates that Carthagi-
nian mercenaries in Spain, during a mutiny, vociferated their demands
in ten different languages. Yet, to all these chroniclers, three fourths
sn Marmiib, " Histoire," p. 828: — Compare some of the Arab genealogies collected b/
Chesney;— Qp. ciV., I, appendices, Tables 1-4.
»•» Ellesmkbb, Ouide to Northern Arehaolopyf hy the R. Soe, of Northern Antiquaries of
Copenhagen, London, Sto, 1848, pp. 88-91.
•» Mabmibr, Op. eit. From it I have selected the simple fisherman, Petur Olafsen ; No. 14
of oar Tableau : but the work contains larger likenesses of men more illustrious, perhape^
though not more typical.
m T^pm f^MoMnd^ pp. 649-60, EthnoL Tableau, and Map.
586
TUE MONOGENISTS AKD
of the earth's surface were utterly unknown! A glnnce ove"
annals, op monumcnta, of theso three fourths, will prove that 1
m^'or portion of their human inhahitantfi, like other genera of t'
mannnalia, must have existed coiitempomneously. Our laet volmnfli J
combined with the great enhancement of anthentic examples eon* \
tributed by our erudite coadjutor Mr, Pitlszky to this, ought '
satisfy unbiaBaed doubters that it is not through the mere love of I
opposition that polygenista claim a right to demand some thingl 1
more reasonable than dogmatic denial, before "the unity of th* ]
human upeeiei" can be accepted bj science.
There occurs yet another contingency that, in various countriei,^
has had a certjiin influence in disturbing the natural order of eome J
tongucB, and which phiiologiats should not altogether ignore. It u
where, as in the French " argots," in the English " slangs," or in t
Arabic dialect of the Awhlem, a new idiom is invented. Of sucbt
Oriental history presents us with many curious examples, and Eurt
pean even to the forgerj- of a pretended language. Thus, in Chini
as mentioned in our former work, tlie Mandchou Tartar dynat
coined five thousand new words which they forced upon their sub —
jecta, as Champollion-Figeac saye, "d'emblee et par ord on nance.'™"
Again, at Owyhee, about 1800, Ills Majesty Tamaahmaah invente*
a new language, in commemoration of the birth of a son ; but, accord
ing to Kotaebue, this prince happening to die, the people ro8unie&_
their old one. There are many English colonies where, at this day^
judicial proceedings in court, as at Malta and Corfu, can only b^
carried on in English; and the strongest bulwark of the Ottomat»
rule, — now extinguishing itself in the exact ratio that, through araal—
gamation, the pure Turanian blood ebbs away — was that uncom* F
promising instinct which forbade Turks to respect any language hot |
the Turkish. Now, I do not mean to aver that, i n any of these case^
counterfeits cannot be detected ; or that true philology is unable to
discover the genuine stock from which such invention may have i
issued, so to say, by the ring of the metal. I am merely calling 1
attention to very common circumstances through which the tongoi A
spoken frequently contradicts the type of its speaker.
But, to close this argument: It may be advanced by transcendeotili
philology, that all these distinct tongues are comprehended within ilai
laws ; that is to say, whether a transplanted negro in America speaki 1
Cherokee, a Jew expatriated to Singapore adopts Malay, or a CtA- m
neae brought up at Berlin converses in German, that, neverthelen^ 1
these languages — American, Malayan, and Teutonic — that each.l
individual has acquired; together with those idioms — African, I
Hebrew, and Sinic — which every individual has forgotten, ara ^1
THE POLTGENISTS. 587
comprised within the classification "Arian, Semitic, and Turanian,"
as understood by the Bunsen-school ; and fnrthermore that, like
unity in trinity, tiiese three classes are reducible into one primeval
speech.
Denying the competency of any man living, in the actual state
of science, to be considered a "philologist" if he enunciate such a
doctrine, I must again refer to M. Maury's Chapter L in the present
volume for proofs that the truth lies in the contrary statement.
Although the subject of " chronology" may be here a little out of
place, still, in support of preceding remarks [supraj pp. 466, 469], the
reader will not object to my intercalating the substance of Chevalier
Bunsen's latest publication {^gyptens Stelle, Y^ Buches, 5** Ab-
theilung, pp. 342-59), in the only space of this volume where such
new and interesting matter can be introduced. I am not aware that
the work itself has yet reached this country, but owe what follows to
the considerate kindness of our collaborator Mr. Pulszky, through a
private letter received here whilst finally correcting " revises."
CHEVALIEB BIFKSEK'S CHBOHOLOOY.
T«an belbM Cbrlat
OsioiH OF Mankhtd. 20,000
Flood in Northern Asia — Emigntion of the Arians from the Talley of the
Oxos and Jaxartes, and of the Shemites firom the Talley of the Tigris and
Eaphrates — between 10,000 and 11,000
Egyptian nomes (provinces) under republican form 10,000
But, the use of hieroglyphical writing already probable at about 12,000
End of the republican phase in Egjrpt* ■ 9,0S6
Bttis the Theban, 1st Priest-king 9,085
End of the Priest-kings 7,281
[About this time Nimbod, and a T\tranian empire in Mesopotamia, &o.]
Elective kings in Egypt, from 7,280 to 6,414
Hereditary Kings in Upper and Lower Egypt, — a double empire from 6,418
to 8,624
Minis, king of united Egypt b.o. 8623
Great Chaldsean empire begins in Babylonia. ** 8784
ZoBOASTiB, between 8500 and « 8000
Foundation of Babylon <• 8260
Tyrian chronology begins ** 2760
Ezodut of the Israelites ....» « 1820
81MIBAMI8 » 1278 to « 1200
Solomon's era « 1017
&o. &c.
V
588 THE M0N06ENISTS AND
CONCLUSIONS.
PROTESTANT.
AeU xvii, 26. Textus revi9u$j A. D. 1857.
^^ i«roeViv rs i^ ivo^ vav Shog Mpd^rw ^' fecitque ex uno omne (homine)
xaroixsrv ici wawdg vpotf^cou r% geuQS hominum inhabitare
7n&" Bupra universam fiEudem ter-
r»."«
CATHOLIC.
** icoeViv cf if Iv6c cov ^ivo; dvBpdwon " Fecitque ex uno omne genus
xof-wMiv ivi covrd^ cpo^cicou f% hominum inhabitare supra
7%." universam fiEtciem terra."*"
"£voiv}(r« rs €| fvo( vov f^o( av^pcjfrwv."
07
TEXTUS RBCEPTUS — GREEK.*"
**bnM re if <y4( aT^rof |
TEXTUS RECEPTUS — LATIN.**
<* fecitque ex uno oqne genus hominum
inhabitare supra unirersam faciem teme."
/VmeA Catholic.^ French Proteitant.^
**I! a fkit naltre d'nn seul toute la race des **Et il a fait d*un seul sang tout le gwm
bommes, tt il leur a donnS pour demeure humain pour habiter sur toute r^teodoe
toute r^tendue de la terre." de la terre.*'
Engliih Caiholie,
<*And hath made of one, all mankind,
to dwell upon the whole face of the earth.^***
Variantti Uetionet,
l.w 2.M* 8.»«
•• And [he] hath made of one <* and has made ererj Na- <* and hath made of oM
Blood [of Adam] all Na- tion of Men of the same blood all nations of mca
tions of Men to dwell on Blood," &c. to dweU on all the ftM
all the Face of the of 4>e earth."
Earth."
THE POLTGENISTS. 589
Englith Vernont of Aeti xtU, 26.^**
WfCur.USO. TnnMLi»1584. Ceavmii, 1639. amMMi,1667. JHuim$,lK2. «AvthoriiBd,'*1611.
Inutdaofooii ** sod bath mad* "and hath made ** and hath mad* ^'aod he bath *< and hath mada
alia kynda of of one blood of one blond of one bloud made of one al of one blood
OMB to enhai* all nadkma of all naekma of all mankynda, mankinde lo all natkma of
hits OB al the men, for to men, for to for to dwel on inbaUte npon men, for to
foee of the dwell on all dwell on all all the fooe of the whole foce dwell on all
vtho." thefooeofthe thefooeofthe the earth." of the earth." the%eeofth«
erthe." earth.'' earth."
(JVeai flhe LoUh ( JVoet the Onek {From the Onek ( JVoet (he Onek (JVom ihe LeMm {From the GreA
r«^afa.) jwMedlM.) printed nxt,) pritUeilkzL) Vulgate,) printed Teal)
^"^ Novum TettamenL Chaee et Laime — Caaolus Laohm annus reconsoit. Phiuppos
BoTMAjrvus Ph. F. Qrocn Lectionis Aootoritatis apposait. BeroHni, 1860, tomiui alter,
p. 126. [Readings :—li4( 4^on$ in God. Alex, and Yat. Cantab. Land., and Cantab. Land.,
SIsiTir ed. 1624, and Ibbkaus, add the word <• blood."]
•* H KAINH AIA6HKH. Novum Teatamentum OrcBU et Latme, In Antiguit Te$tibMi
Textum Vermonit Vulgata Latm<B mdagavit Leetionetque variantet Stephani et OrieibaeehU
notttvit V. 8, VentrahiU Jagtr m eonMilium adhihito Cokstahtikvb Tisohbhdobv (Editio DD.
Affre Archiepiseopo Parisiensi dioata) : — Paris, 1642, p. 226. [Readings: — **8t [Stqihen]
Oh. [Greisbaoh], li4i eX^rt wMif I^mc et Iml wiv wpSnmov."'}
c Habwood's New Testament (withont points), London, 12mo, 1776, I, p. 842.
*** ScHOLZ, Novum Teetamenttim CfreBca, Lipsiss, 1886, II, p. 67.
*** BibUorum Saerorum Vulgat(3 Vernonia editto, Paris, 4to (IHdot), 1785, p. 406.
M* La Samte Bible, tradnite snr la Vnlgate, par Ls Maistbi dk Saot, PUris ed., 1849;
NouT. Test. p. 148.
^ La Samte Bible, — reTue snr les originanx et retonch^ dans le langage, par Datid
Martin, Ministre du Saint-^Tangile, & Utrecht; Paris (Didot), 1839~Nout. Test, p. 178,
•« " The Holy Bible, translated flrom the Latin Vnlgate"— Old Testament, Doway, 1609;
New Testament, Rheims, 1682 (approyed bj the most rererend Dootos Tbot, R. C. A. D.),
— DubUn, 4to, 1816, p. 198.
B^ Whitbt, Paraphrase and Commentary on the New Testament, London, 4to, 6th ed., 1744;
1, p. 694.
•** PuBTiB, New and Literal Translation, &c., inth notes, London, 8to, 1764, 11, p. 171.
*^ Shabpi, Ths New Testament translatsd from Grie^ach*s Text, London, 12mo, 2d ed.,
p. 257.
M* •• The English ffezapla, exhibiting the six important English Translations of the New
Testament Scriptures," London, 4to, 1841, voce **ActB xTii, 26."
[Hare been collated for Texts and Versions ; and examined for Variants, Commentariea^
and Notes —
La Jay's PolyglotU, Paris, fol., 1645, "Acta Apostolomm," V, part 2d, p. 120 :— Walton's
BibUa Polyglotta, Oxford, fol., 1667, V, pp. 588-9 :— Obiisbachii Novum Testamenium^
Cantabrigin, 8to, 1809, p. 829: — Id., Paris, 18mo, p. 888: — Wbtstxin and Obixsbaoh's
N. Test., London, 12mo, 1808, sub voce: — Adam Clabkx's Bible, N Test, London, 1886, I,
p. 855: — Albxbt Babnbs's "Notes, explanatory and practical, on the New Testament^'
{CobbinU reprint), London, 4to, 1848, p. 485:— Scott's Bible, III, p. 886:— Hbnbt's Bible^
ni, p. 618 : — ** Society for promoting Christian Knowledge's" Bible, " cum priyilegio,"
Oxford,^ 4to, 1817, 11, sub voce; — BLOOMriBLD, **Oreek Testament, with English notes,"
London, 4to, 1848, 6th ed., p. 689: — Alpobd, "The Greek Testament: with a eritioAlly
Text," &c., Cambridge, 8to, 1854, 11, pp. 180-1 : — &c., &c., &c.]
kii.
590 THE \C0K06EKISTS AKD
Whatever may be, out of England, the general estimation in
which her Universitiea are held for Hebraical scholarship, none will
dare say that the country, which gave birth to a Bentlet and a
PoBTEUS, has, in solid Greek learning, ever lacked a man to stand,
Ifke Jonadab the son of Rechab, "before (leHOuaH) for ever.*
The difference between the last century and the present, in English
Hellenic studies, seems chiefly to lie in the fietct that, having ex-
hausted extant literary sources in Grecian drama and philosophy,
the critical apparatus derived fix)m those honored pursuits is now
becoming intensely directed towards the verbal restoration of the
original books composing the New Testament; and the names of
Davidson, Alford, Sharpe, and Tregelles, are the well-known
representatives of this new school, in different phases of its ten-
dency.
The first-mentioned, speaking of the Palestinic period some 1800
years ago, allows : " The age was one of illiterate simplicity. The
apostles themselves were from the humblest ranks of society. Their
abilities and education were tolerably alike. * * * The age was
illiterate. They belonged, for the most part, to a class of society
unpractised in the art of writing."**' The second frankly avows: "I
do not hesitate to say that [verbal inspiration] being thus applied,
its effect will be to destroy altogether the credibility of our Evange-
lists." ^'^ The third published, last year, that most useful little book,
Notes introductory to the New Testament. And the fourth uses the
following language: "It is a cause for thankfulness that the common
Greek text [of the New Testament] is no worse than it is ; but it is
a cause for humiliation (and with sober sadness do I write the word)
that Christian translators have not acted with a more large-souled
and intelligent honesty."**®
The foregoing remarks arise from the imperative necessity of
MT Introduction to the New Testament, &o., London, 1848, I, pp. 408, 417. Jo. Lixivf
(D« eruditione Apottolorum. Liber tingularii in quo multa gtuB ad primilivorum Ckristiamonm
UteraSf doetrinaSf tcripta, placita^ etudia, conditionem, cenntm, mores, et ritus attinmt, expowidf
tur et illustrantur : editio altera, 4to, Florentisd, anno MDGCLXVI, **Censoriba8 permitteB-
tibuB,*' pp. 477-991), — publishing in Italy when the Italian Catholic mind had not j«t
endured a ** Francesco," a **Maffei," or a <<Bomba," — had long preTiourlj establiahed
apostolic incapacity in the republic of letters. As one among the '^workies** — and I mj
it with pride — to tread down, and keep down, what embers of intolerance may yet smoka
in my adopted country, I can join in gratulation with citiiens of our republic of Amerioir-
mais (ici) nous arons change tout oela." *
MS Oreek Testament: with a critically revised Text, &o., London, 1854; I, Prolegomena, p.
20. Alford (II, p. 181) expressly cautions us to read Acts xrii, 26 — *«Not, *hath made
of one blood,' &c., as E. V. but * caused eykat nation oy men (spbuno) ov one blood,'
to. See Matt t, 82, Mark rii, 37.'*
M> AeeawU of the Printed Text of the Oreek New Testament, London, 18o5, p. 267.
THE POLTGENISfS. 591
vindicating, once for all, in ethnological discussion, the accuracy of
my colleague's and my own observations in the joint volume which
preceded the present"**
Those assertions having been flatly contradicted. Dr. Nott,***
when resuming the subject, stated, " The word blood is an interpola-
tion, and not to be found in the original texts. The word blood has
been rejected by the Catholic Church, from the time of St. Jerome
to the present hour. The text of Tischendorf is regarded, I believe,
generally as the most accurate Greek text known, and in this the
word ^ blood' does not appear. I have at hand a long list of authori-
ties to the same effect ; but as it is presumed no competent authority
will call our assertion in question, it is needless to cite them. The
verse above alluded to in Acts should, therefore, read : — •
** * And hath made of one aU races (genus) of men,* &o.
^^ The word blood is a gloss ; and we have judt as much right to
interpolate one form^ one subitance^ one nature^ one responeibilitj/j or
anything else, as blood.**
Many incompetent authorities, nevertheless, still continuing to
question my collaborator's correctness, I feel it incumbent upon my-
self to prove that he was perfectiy right I hope the foregoing array
of texts and references, among which is Tischendorf's much-prized
authority, will obviate future discussion of others amongst them-
selves. It will forever with myself.
But, so swiftly does archseological criticism advance on the Euro-
pean continent, that even Tischendorf's Text now falls — although in
this particular ver^e, by leaving out ^^ blood," the highest Catholic
Hellenism (as it generally does) coincides with that employed in the
"rational method" — behind the age of Lachmann's ; whose Text
heads the list, justly eulogized by Tregbllbs *® in these words : — " The
first Greek Teetamentj since the invention of printing, edited wholly on
ancient authority, irrespective of modern traditions, is due to Charles
Lachmann."
It becomes, in consequence, evident to the reader that scientific
arguments (in England at last, as they have ever been on the conti-
nent), Jn which texts of the Greek Scriptures are involved, are neither
carried on, at the present day, upon the obsolete English Version of
•» TVfm of Mankind^ Chap. XV, « Biblical Ethnography : ^Section ^.— Terms, Unirenal
and Spedfic"— pp. 668-9.
Ml The Moral and Intellectual Divertity of Racet, &c. — Jrom the French of Count A, de Gobi-
n§au — bj H. Horz; Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co., 12mo, 1866; appendix 0., p. 612.
I** Op, aV, p. 118: See also the same author's admirable **Leotiire on the Historic eTi-
denoe of the authorship and transmission of the Books of the New Testament," London,
ISao, 1862, poitim.
592 THK*MONOGENISTS AND
king James, nor upon the antiquated "textae receptas" of the ola
printed Greek exemplar; — but are henceforward to be made exdii-
sively upon a TextuB revisus that pending researches are combining
to establish — some of the slighter difficulties in regard to which are
manifested above in the various readings of one line of the GTeek
"Good Tidings." And, in order to substantiate what I have just
said, that Romanist learning frequently agrees with the most rigidly
exegetical, a quotation from the commentary of Bishop Kbkriok''
will, in these United States, not fail to be respected: —
Textj Acts XVn, 26— "And He hath made of one all mantdnd."
Notey on MSS. and traditions, " 5. G. P. * of one blood/ The Vulgate
reading is conformable to the Alexan-
drian and three other Manuscripts, as
also to that used by Clement of Alex-
andria. The Coptic version agrees
with it"
Those who desire to pursue speculative guesses as to how, why,
when, and by whom, the word aFfUKcoc {blood) crept into the Text, will
readily find, amid the works cited (auproj note 546), some very learned
and ingenious explanations, and more commentaries inexpressibly
silly. None, however, can be discovered that satisfy, at one and the
same time, the exigenda of archseological, palseographical, and eth-
nological criticism.
As to the first requirement: It was shown from Hknnel** that
the passage in question was not autographed by St. Paul himself^
but proceeds from his secretary — ^the writer of Acts — ^probably author
of the nid Gospel, supposed to be "St Luke." The learned and
Reverend Lord Arthur Hervey judiciously remarks: — "There ii
also a peculiar diflBiculty in dealing with the Scriptures in such mat-
ters, from our ignorance of the precise limits of inspiration, and of
the degree of control exercised by the Holy Spirit over the writers,
compilers, and editors of the sacred books, in such matters as histoiy,
science, and the like. * * * It certainly does not seem to have been
the purpose of inspiration to teach miraculously any arts or sciences,
and therefore it should not be deemed more derogatory to the inspi-
ration of St. Paul or St Luke, that they were not beyond the most
learned of their contemporaries in the science of chronology, t^n it
would be were we to discover that St. Paul came short of modem
skill in the art of tent-making, or that St Luke had not all the phy-
siological knowledge attained by the most eminent physicians of our
w AeU of the ApottUt, New York, 8to, 1861, p. 111.
•M JS/pei of Mankind, p. 559.
• •
THE POLYGENISTS. 593
time.""* When, therefore, as in four out of the five new-school com-
mentators just cited, we behold really learned and strictly orthodox
Churchmen, our contemporaries, making such honest admissions, a
"Protestant dissenter" like myself, — whose education has been derived
from totally different pursuits, in lands altogether foreign to their
insular associations — may legitimately re-examine Pauline subjects
fipom the archaeological stand-point alone. Hence, the only really
historical fact deducible from all the above quotations is, that the
Greek word "blood," not being in the MS. used by Clembns Alex-
andrinuB (a. d. 192-217), but occurring in that studied by iRBNiEUS
(a. D. 140-202), the intercalation was already made within say 160
ycrars after the unknown year of the demise of St. Luke.
Now, any one who has inspected ancient Greek manuscripts and
epigraphy (I myself have only seen a few decades), knows very well
that, in the most archaic, the words run on, without divisions, in the
same line "continue serie." Of the ancient Apostolic books extant
we possess none written earlier that the 5th-6th centuries of our
era,** — that is, about 200 years later than Clemens and Irenaeus, or
some 350 posterior to St. Luke ; and in the two most antique codices,
LXX Alexandrinus and Vattcanits^ the word arptaros does not recur.
No one either will pretend that St. Luke took down St. Paul's speech
at the time; or that the Evangelist used stenographic processes, — any
more than claim that the "reporter" at Athens adopted Morse's
magnetic telegraph. Hence, neither the credibility of St. Paul, nor
that of St. Luke, is involved in our debate.
The simplest and most rational method of explaining why this word
"blood" crept into the later Greek Texts, — ^into the Latin it never did
— ^18 seen upon reflecting how, some early Christian anchorite, devoutly
poring over his MS. of Acts, had his attention arrested, whilst reading
"and hath made of one," by a natural and impulsive query — "one!
one whatr* As a memento, he noted "ar/xaros" on the margin of his
exemplar ; but unaccompanied by a note of interrogation " ? " — ^because
such interjectional signs were not then invented. Within ageneration
or two aft^erwards, but before teneeus, some amanuensis, transcribing
our anchorite's much-worn codex into less archaic calligraphy and
orthography, meeting with aHixaTog on the margin, fancied that the
word had been accidentally omitted, out of the Teact, by the antecedent
scribe. So the latter, with no fraudulent intent, any more than our
aforesaid anchorite, inserted the Greek for " blood " in his own tran-
script; to the gladdening of the hearts of some pious readers of English,
"* ne QenealogitM of our Lord and Saviour Jenu ChritU ateertained in the Oospelt of St.
Matthew and St. Luke, kc, London, 8to, 1853; pp. 249, 256.
■• Type* of Mankind, pp. 612, 714.
88
594 THE MONOGENISTS AND
and the bewilderment of the minds of othen, 1600 years later, as
well in Old England as in Xew.
Thirdly. However learned, however venerable, may be the scholan
whose words I have cited with no disrespect, none of them will lay
claim to proficiency in Ethnology^ nor have any of them spent half %
lifetime in the Levant If they had, they would have known that
there, at this very boor, the same old repognance (which their cksri-
cal scholarship makes them perfectly well cognizant o^ in ancient
Alexandria particolarlj) is still rife now with evils to hnman wel&re
that have always rendered Jew9 and the ChreekM antagonistic to each
other. I remember (and have I not shuddered over its blackened
ruins ?) how, at Tripolitza, on the first flash of Greek independence,
when, capitulating on the feith of the "honors of war," the Turkish
garrison and Ottoman community were massacred, that, whilst the
^lainiot palikaries spared a few of the Muslim ^rls and boys, they
did not leave a man, woman, or child, of the Israelites alive. Eye-
witnesses afterwards confirmed to me such atrocity during 10 months
(1829) that, " for my sins," I waited at Napoli di Romania in the
vain hope of obtaining, from Capodistrias, a tribunal whence to
obtain back, in part, the value (only $800,000) of 36 cargoes in which
my fiither was concerned, robbed by Greek pirates between 1824 and
1828. I remember too, that it was this soul-harrowing outrage-
first of hundreds perpetrated by Moreot Christian serfe — that caased
Mussulman reverberation at the butcheries of Smyrna, Scio, and
Ilaivali ; and, although Mohammed All's iron firmness joined to a
numerous and tolerably armed European population alone spared as
(1822) from witnessing similar abominations in Egypt, I recollect
that, wherever, at Smyrna especially, some hapless Greek fugitive
dodged the tophaik or yatagan, his hiding-place was invariably
betrayed if known to any Jew; who, after Tripolitza and Missolonghi,
^naturally felt —
" And if ye wrong us, shall we not revenge f*^
■ So true is this, that the Hebrew aerrdfs (money-changers — not
seraphs) evacuated Greece exactly in the ratio that the Ottoman
lords of the 'manor were forced to strike their tents and flee. 2^0
Hebrew lives willingly where Greeks rule; any more than (and
partly for the same reason) he likes residence in Scotiand or in Con-
necticut: and, even in their commercial relations everywhere,
Grecian and Israelitish instincts are invariably in antagouism.
Now, classical history on the one hand, the New Testament and the
Talmudic books on the other, demonstrate precisely the same hostile
and repulsive feelings, between the Shemites of Hierosoljma wni
THE FOLYGENISTS. 595
tlie " Ai dres Athenaioi," much farther back than the day when St.
Paul and St. Luke | were jibed by Indo-European mobility at the
Areopagus. I need not ^ dwell on the context of Acta XVII, to
establish the non-success of two Jews — one a "Hebrew of Hebrews"
— who in cacophonious Hellenistic-idiom^ addressed the orthoepic
and satirical men of Athens; but, I maintain, and if necessary
hereafter will historically prove, that the speaker (whether St. Paul
himself^ or St. Luke, or the "reporter") in making use, — amidst the
knot of hard-hearted, if not soft-headed, Athenian "gamins" col-
lected on Mars' Hill — of the phrase "hath made of one" all mankind,
intended thereby to deprecate that (by the Jewish speaker strongly
felt) Hellenic instinctive xenolasia toward Hebrews, which led the
former (boasters that themselves were Autochthones) to repudiate the
notion that a particle of Jewish "blood" flowed in their own veins.
If this fiict be disagreeable, I cannot help it. In anthropology the
maxim must be —
The question, of the existence of AIMATOZ in the on^nal manu-
script of St. Luke, " me paratt," as Mariette says of that of the
Apis-cycle {supray p. 404), " d^finitivement enterr^e." With it,
also, its imagined corollary, that St. Paul ever meant that all the
races of mankind, within the Roman limit of geography in.hig
time, were "made of one blood.** Polygenists, therefore, — so far ea
Acts xvii, 26, be concerned — are henceforward exempt from suspi-
"* '£XXii»i^ilr, iitihKTt (fyif, fffllenitmut. Lingua HeUenitHea^ &o. — Consult Samuel David
LrasATO (Professor in the Rabbinical College of Padua), ProUgommi ad una Orammatiea
Ragionata della Lingua EbraUa; Padora, Sto, 1836, pp. 11, 67, 78-95: — 6iambbbnari>o
DK Rossi {Delta Lingua propria di Chritio € degli Ebrei nationali ddla Palestina da* tempi
di UatMhd dissertasionej Parma, Sto, 1772, pp. 7, 16, 87-9, 85-129. 145-8). From the
latter I present merely a few abstracts. The Palestinic Jews always repudiated Qreek
translations. So particular were their lineal descendants in Spain, that Rabbi Immanukl
Aboab says (in his rare Nomology^ or Legal Jhtcoune), ** una sola letra, que tenga de mas
o de menos (aun que no rarie el sentido) queda siendo profane, y no nos es lecito leer en
^ * * * En la biblias griegas intitoladas de lot Sententa Interpretet, hallo una rariedad y
dilTerenoia tan grande en les estampas que no ay passo conforme." The Talmud (tract
Sabbai) gives the injunction of Rabban 0am alixl, how tramlaiiont should be thrown into
<«hiO£^ cenosi e sporchi, acciocch^ eglino imputridiscano da loro medesimi." In another
of his prodigious labors on the Text (Compendia di Critiea Sacra, Parma, Sto, 1811, p. 88),
Dm Rossi yiotoriously exonerates the Council of Trent from accusations of tolerating no
Bible but the Vulgate. Here is his Italian rersion of the text of their decree, — the Latin
of whieh is in his other work (Frtceipuia CausHt, Turin, 4to, 1769, pp. 79-80).
^ Comiderando che non piccol Tantaggio ne rerrebbe la Chiesa, qualora si oonosee, di
telte Im latine ediiioni che girano de' sacri libri, quale s'abbia a tenere per autentloa, [the
0— itIT] stabilisoe e dichiara, che queeta stessa ediiione antiea e Tolgata, la quale da «a
VMTdi taati secoli i stata nella Chiesa medesima approTata, sia teniita per aiit«iti«k'*
596 THE MONOGENISTS AND
cion of heresy. But, before quitting so dry a subject, I most gratify
the reader with a pair of extracts from two different works, — ^parallel ^
in critical calibre, and similar through an accident, that each of their
authors boasts of an AUemanic surname — ^which will exemplify into
what helpless vagaries this apochryphal noun '^ blood" has lifted op
two most talented monogenists above the multitude.
Sample A is chosen from the pages of Sir Robert H. Schom«
burgk,** writing for the English public.
A. — " Many scoffers have attempted to establish the hypotheeia,
that the first germs of the development of the human race in Americai
can be sought for nowhere but in that quarter of the globe ; but
unless it can be proved that the laws of nature are in direct viola-
tion with Mosaic [sic! If] records, which expressly say that * Qod haa
made of one blood all the nations of men to dwell on all the &ce
of the earth,* we must still appeal to that Holy Book for interpreta-
tion [that is, ' we must* hunt tiirough the Pentateuch for Acts XVII,
26 !].**
Sample B is taken from some pages in the Charleston Medical
Journal,^ composed by an author^ writing for the American public.
With the exception of the figures appended, our compositors have
been so good as to set it up in fac-simile.
B. — ** We are advocating the doctrine of the Unity of the Hnman Race simply on scieii-
tific principles. We care not to make issaes on points that have no legitimate bearing
on the subject to which we are restricted in this discussion. Those with whom we intend
to have no controyersj have nothing to apprehend from our criticisms. We may, how-
erer, here observe that the figures of dogs and of men (the latter only are of any scien-
tific value,) on the eastern monuments, have been carefully studied and delineated bj
master-minds — men, at whose feet Mr. Gliddon has set as an humble copyist Thej
have commenced giving to the world the result of their scientific researches. Both 8
Lepsius and Bunsen have already proclaimed their belief in the doctrine of the Unit? of 9
the Human Race, and the former, as we are informed, is now engaged in a work, in 10
which he will offer reasons for the faith that is in him. Thus these monumental records, H
« which caused Gliddon to pronounce in the language of scorn and obloquy a tirsde 1-
against the scriptures, convinced the minds of Lepsius and Bunsen of their truth, and IS
filled them with humility, reverence, and awe. Their scientific researches satisfied H
them of the doctrines proclaimed by Moses, and confirmed by Paul. 1^
" * And (Qod) hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on the face of I^
the earth, and hath determined the times before appointed, and the bounds of their 17
habitation.' Acts 17 ch. 26 v. 18
*M 7\oelv€ Views in British Guiana, &c., London, folio, 1841, p. 29.
«• Charleston, 8. C, 1854 — republished as a Monograph^ "An Examination of *«
characteristics of Genera and Species as applicable to the Doctrine of the Unity of ^
Human Race," pp. 22-3. Its author rides, or is bestridden by, two hobbies, — the one
theological, and the other mammalogical. His duplex equitation Jmjw mirw — (See Stkavm,
Vie de Jieue, transl. Littr^, Paris, 1889, II, 1« partie, pp. 3Q2-18)~a]w»yB puts me in mind
of an **old, and musty" Greek proverb, bow — "Lencon carried one tiling, and hii li*
another."
**> Typee of Mankind^ p. 628, foot-note 210 ; and *< Memoir of Mortoiiy" pp. fiii-fL
THE POLYGENISTS. 597
^'Ineee diRtingaished naturalists both arriTed at the conclnsion, fVoin these rery 19
lonnments, that the negro races had only been dereloped in the coarse of ages within 20
he Afriean tropics and were derived from Egypt The minds of men are differentlj^ 21
ODstituted, and we here perceive what opposite impressions are made on different 22
Binds in visiting the same localities, and in investigating the same subjects." 23
Now, in reprinting this specimen of the style adopted by a
* Dutch-Reformed ** theologer in this country, my only regrets lie in
ihe unavoidable mention of two world-renowned, and by myself
Dftuch-honored, names — Chevaliers Bunsen and Lepsius: at the feet
of whom (like St. Paul " at the feet of Gamaliel ")*** I have always
felt proud to sit for instruction, — received, as not a Blight portion of
v^bat little I know has been, oftentimes with mine own feet under
their respective mahoganies.
What concerns the reader, however, is the logical deduction, — on
comparing lines 14-15 with line 19 of the above extract — that
"Moses" and "Paul** were "distinguished naturalists both** !
Nobody, who reads, writes, and ciphers, can be such an ignoramus
as not to know, that Chevaliers Bunsen and Lepsius — occupied in
other equally-elevated branches of human science, such as archaeology,
history, philosophy, and linguistics — would disdain (whatever, as
educated gentlemen, they may read about Natural Hifitory) to accept
an attribution to themselves severally of any scientific apScialitS not
within the circumference of their respective studies. The pages of
this volume will be the first intimation either of these Savans receives
that both of them are suspected to be "naturalists,** — and that, too,
by a fractious sciolist who actually wrote a book to demonstrate the
tfnity of Mankind without having read the first syllable of Pri-
CHARD.*® "Potete frenarvi dalle risa? O miei valenti amici !*'
Where did either Chev. Lepsius or Chev. Bunsen ever say, that
"negro races * * * were derived from Egypt'* [?] {suproy linen 20-1).
The last three Kne«, 21-8, prove how the same writer — utterly des-
titute of any Egyptological works — fancies that the great Prussian
Ambassador to Rome and England has visited Egypt. Everybody else
knows that Chevalier Bunsen's travels never extended beyond Europe.
Finally, the only expression, known to the world, of Chev. Lep-
rius's impressions, in regard to human monogenism or polygenisra,
is derived from a casual remark made by him in a friendly letter to
my respected colleague Dr. J. C. Nott : and by the latter inserted in
our first joint publication, for the very object of not involving the
honored Egyptologist of Berlin in any blame that might accrue to
«
(A Were it obligatory npon me to digress upon Pauline themes in general, their as***
woald cost no more trouble than reference to an octavo (London, 1818), attribute''
oapacions brain of a great jurist — Jeremy Bemtham — entitled, "not Paul, biilj<^
pvbliahed under the pseudonym of Gamalixl Smith, E84|.
*» 7)fpm ^Mankmdf p. Ut.
598 THE IfONOGENISTS AND
the Doctor and myself for open statement of our common ethnologi-
cal opinions: and it is, truly, in perfect harmony with the literary pro-
bity manifested — ^by every theologer who may have experienced some
ciUi8 anserina whilst perusing "Types of Mankind " — which has not
merely prevented any one of them from honestly mentioning when he
learned that Chev. Lepsius^ "proclaimed" his now very unbiassed
sentiments on " the doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race,"—
but which has been unable to impede Dr. Kott and myself £rom
responding to the wide and loud calls [see Alphabetical Liei of Sui-
scribers, infra] for another and a stronger book, through the same
Publishers, announced as the Earth's "Indigenous Races."
The subjoined remarks, by our ever-valued colleague Ma. Lvu
BuRKB,^ have already put a direct question to any man who volun-
tarily adventures into the ethnological arena after thfe year of our
XlXth century: whilst "old, and musty" Tbrkncb^ supplies me
with all I need repeat in the premises • —
<* Si mihi pergit qua Tnlt dicere, ea qym non thH andiet."
There still remains, in order to group together all the preceding
arguments intt) a "corps de doctrine," the very subject which sug-
gested my epigraph to this chapter, viz., " the monogeniete and the
polygenists.** What deduction will either school draw fit)m the
present accumulation of facts ? Time only can show. For my own
part, I have met with no reason to emend, or change, the position
taken in the last course of lectures delivered in New Orleans,* as
regards my individual opinions on the unity or diver$ity of human
origin. It was the fallowing :
MS Typet of Mankindy p. 283. Whilst these pages are being stereotyped, I haTe agtin i
fresh and welcome proof of the Cheralier's kind reminisoenoe, through the reception of kii
most recent work — Uber die Qotter der Vter EUmenie bei den Agypifm, Berfin, 4to., 18M.
BM "Does he speak as a theologian, or does he speak as a man of science? If as i theo-
logian, he may argue in peace to the end of the chapter, we shall not care to distnrb bin:
bat if he claims to reason as a scientific man, then we expect that he shall submit to tbi
laws of science ; then we consider ourselves privileged to judge him by the rules of cobudob
sense. Then he must be reminded that those who live in glass bouses ought not to throv
stones, and that those who use theology to pinion scientific men within hopeless diIeiniDi8>
may find in the end that it is less difficult than they supposed to turn the tables upon them-
selves ; for assuredly, if scientific men were only to rouse themselves to the same letl tod
love of conquest which animate theologians, there would soon rain down upon theolofj
such a pitiless storm, as would require stronger brains to weather than any we have »t the
present day to contend with." — CharUtton Medical Journal and Eevine, Charitston, S. Ct
July, 1866, X, No. 4, Art 1, "Strictures," p. 444.
» Tie., Andr,, V. iv., 17.
«• On " Ethnology— Egypt's testimony"— 9th lecture (of 16) deNTer«d before the Ly««oi
of the Second Municipality, Feb. 20, 1852: — New Orleans « Daily Ciweoit," Feb. i\.
THE POLYGENISTS. 599
" Some years of association with Dr. Morton [since 1852 confirmed
** by almost-constant investigation of the problem for myself] have
"gradually led me to the conviction: —
" 1st, that every argument hitherto brought forward on the unitf/-
^^ side is either refuted or refutable ; but that,
" 2d, whilst the reasonings in favor of the diversity'yiew preponde-
" rate greatly over those against it, I do not, nevertheless, hold the
" latter to be, as yet, absolutely proven,
^^ Lest such assertion should appear paradoxical, I would explain,
« — that the proo& of diversity are chiefly of a negative character;
"and, on the other hand, these questions being still 'sub judice,'
" some discovery in science, now unforeseen, may hereafter establish
" unity upon a certain basis."
It is not, however [as the reader of our last work can well under-
stand], from any submissiveness towards dictates emanating from
the theocratical point of view, that I consider the dogmatic argument
to stand, down to the present moment and in all the works known
to me, among those propositions hitherto unrefuted. Want of space
alone ^ prevented further publication, of MSS. which covered bibli-
cal ethnology, on that occasion ; and the arrangement of the several
chapters of this volume has equally precluded (save in respect to
Acts) continuance of scriptural branches of inquiry on the present.
In the interim, during more recent studies in Europe, I have been
enabled to collect former desiderata that, some day, may find utter-
ance in matured shape ; when asseverations in support of monoge-
nism, grounded upon the Textus reeeptvs whether of Old or New
Testaments, shall be critically examined.
Persevering consistently to the end in that method of quotation
previously announced \supra^ p. 403], it is with three extracts from
works of our living contemporaries that I submit, to others, the
thoughts and ideas in which I participate, couched in language far
superior to that through which I might have endeavored to express
them. They are emanations of the French mind in our pending
age; each diflfering fix)m the two others as concerns the subject
whence it takes its point of departure, but all uniting in grandeur
of sentiment, eloquence of diction, and truthfulness of utterance.
"Strange destiny that of theology! That of being condemned
never to attach herself except to systems which are already crumbling
down : .that of being, through her essence, the enemy of every new
science and to all progress. Yes, — she foresaw that a day would come
to dethrone her, — ^this theology, this sacerdotal science — ^when, during
» Typa of Mankind, pp. 626-7.
600 THE MONOGENISTS AND
paganism, she sought to frighten humanity by the myth of Prome
theus. She struggled to depict, with the colors of impiety, the man who
was going to demand of Nature its secrets and its laws; and she
manacled him beforehand to a rock: but time, far from riveting the
chain, has been unceasingly detaching it. The spread of man's
discoveries, the importance of his victories, compel evermore the
public conscience to admire, as a noble independence, as a courage-
ous effort, that which theology wished not to regard but as a haughty
attempt that the AU-Powerful had punished by ill-fortunes and
chastisements. We willingly approach, now-a-days, the tree of
knowledge; and we no more believe that it is Satan who presents ofl
with its poisoned fruits."^
" 16. It is said that the telescope of Herschell [that of Lord Rosse
has since performed mightier wonders], which has unveiled to ufl
nebulse before unknown, magnified twelve thousand times. If ft
glass were made of sufficient power to magnify a million times, the
milky-ways would be multiplied prodigiously ; and would seem to
us so crowded together, that they would form but one spherical vault
of suns shining in those unknown regions. And yet all these snna
are separated from each other by. profound deserts of darkness!
Here, before this wide circle of bright bodies, the power of human
view must stop : here must be the barrier which shuts from our vision
the rest of the creation. But this is not the limit of the universe.
" 17. Here thought and language fail to express the grandeur of
the reality. We can scarcely imagine it by the assistance of time
and space. To overload the mind with accumulations of time and
space, is still to prescribe limits to that which has none, — in adding
duration to duration and extent to extent. Let us suppose as many
suns and worlds as we have enumerated : in our transports of enthu-
siasm, let us bound beyond myriads of spaces a thousand and ft
thousand times more vast : let us unite all those heavens, and exag-
gerate the number of them as far as the imagination can reach,^
still, beyond this immeasurable portion of the creation in which
the dazzled thought is lost, the universe continues without bounda
and without measure.
" 18. Overwhelmed by the majesty of the universe, human intel-
ligence sinks into a state of insensibility before its unfathomable
"* Alfred Maury, Essai sur let LSgendet PieuaeM du Moyen-Age; ou Examen de ee qu*dim
renferment de merveilleux^ d'aprhs let eonnausanee* que foumittent de no9 jourt rarch/olofu^
la thfologie, la philosophie et la phgsiologie midieaU: Paris, 8to, 1848, ** Intiod action, " p^
zix-xx.
THE P0LY6EKI8TS. 601
depths. Those vast and inscrutable abysses, which man sees but
imperfectly, are only a point in that infinity of space where the
most solid thoughts, the most profound meditations, and the science
of all ages, are lost
" 19. In presence of this grand spectacle, man finds within him-
self an instructive sentiment, which manifests to him an Almighty
and Creative Power, as surely as his eyes show him the light. Then
creation is explained, its object is understood. To feel the existence
of infinity is to have a revelation of eternity, — to contemplate
Nature is to take pleasure in what is best, — to study it is to seek
the truth, — it is to take the path which leads to GOD, — to recog-
nize the workman in his work. And why should it not be so, when
His glory is written in the heavens ? Each sun is a letter of His
name, and His name is infinite ! What more striking evidence of
the Divine thought than that of the work which received and
reflected it ? The universe is then to the human race what it has
been, is, and always will be'i the daily and eternal instructions of
a Master who wishes to show Himself in the harmonies which He
has placed in it: a magnificent expression of the inaccessible in-
telligence which embraces, possesses, and holds dominion over all :
a sublime act of the Divine understanding, which, in the eloquent
simplicity of its art, made use oiily of a single substance to produce,
at a single cast, the grain of sand which the wave rolls on our
shores, and the spacious continents which rise from our globe : an
infinite substance, the first and only one of all things, and, at the
same time, the universal and immediate means appointed for the
government of space, matter, movement, and life : the element and
vehicle of the phenomena perceived by our organs, susceptible of
exercising the most delicate functions — those even which are imper-
ceptible to our senses, imponderable to our instruments, and yet
able to break in pieces worlds, with a violence incalculable, in the
unbounded employment of its strength: which is itself its own
generating and preserving principle : which never creates nor anni-
hilates, but organizes and develops life, regulates the superabundance
of it by death, and thus continues the untroubled course of Nature :
which is continually bringing to perfection, and remains itself
without change : which produces the most varied contrasts, and acts
without any variation : which has scattered in the wide plains of
infinity thousands of millions of centres of movement appropriated
to each of them, and reduces them to one : which draws from unity
its inexhaustible resources, and contains them in unity: in fine,
whose effects are so many innumerable combinations, and whose
cause is unique and profoundly simple. For one single matter,
602 THE M0N0GENIST8, ETC.
spread throughout the universfe, is its origin, its preservation, and
its law/'*"
"There seems to be accordance upon one point. It is, that»
alongside of theology, a new science is rising up, viz., ^the 9eienee of
religionsJ * * * The world is positive, because it grows old : but it
had been credulous, insane; intoxicated with poetry and supersti-
tion ; in love with that Kature which we now-a-days cause to pan
through the crucible."*'"
G. R G.
Philadelphia, Februaryj 1857.
M* Tbastoub, Calorie, — Origin, Matter, and Law of the Unipene, New OrleanB, Sto, 1S47,
pp. 7-8. ** El^ye de TEcole polyteonique" himself, and a mining-Engineer of high posidoD
in Mexican and Central American localities, my friend M. Trastonr understands, as weD m
the reader, that, ahsolntely nnaoqnainted with Physics, I haTe no opinion whaterer opoi
an imponderable termed '* Caloric."
§70 ViKST, Let Paradie Profanes de rOeddeni, Paris, Sto» 1856, p. L
VARIOUS GROUPS OF HUMANITT. 603
CHAPTER VI.
SECTION L
COMMENTARY UK)N THE PRINCIPAL DISTINCTIONS OBSERVABLE
AMONG THE VARIOUS GROUPS OF HUMANITY.
( With an Ethnographic Tableau,)
BT GEO. B. OLIDDON. .
Under the above heading, I had elaborated a more diflFuse argu-
ment, than in the remaining few pages of this volume can now be
submitted to the reader. But, in the first place, the preceding chap-
ters, by Messrs. Maury, Pulszky, Meigs, and Nott, — independently
of a good deal of matter latterly transferred, for the sake of giving it
a more appropriate place, back into my own Chapter (V.) — have
already covered a vast range of ethnological inquiry ; and, in the
second, our Publishers espdfeially enjoin upon me not to let this book
exceed in bulk much "above 600 pages," in order that its artistic
appearance, in view of the extra-thickness caused by our lithographic
plates, should not vary greatly from that of TypeB qf Mankind.
It being taken for granted, therefore, that the reader of the pre-
sent work — should he be interested in ethnology — is acquainted
with the contents of our former one, I feel persuaded that, with the
facts and the bibliographical references comprised in the two, if to
both he may be pleased to add Norris's tasteful edition (1855) of
Prichard's Natural History of Man^ together with the latter's Six
Ethnographical Maps^ such reader is fully competent to make his own
" Commentary" on the distinctive characteristics of the various fifty-
four races of mankind presented to his eye in the annexed Ethno-
graphic Tableau.
Hence my part may properly limit itself to the continuation of a
few more extracts, that generalize, in some degree, thoui^^hts sug-
gested by its inspection.
604 DISTINCTIONS OBSERVABLE AMONG
<* Were it possible/* wrote the vigorous expanger^^ of a dogmatical work which of cnt
tried to uphold, categorically, the '* unity of the human species" — ** Were it possible for in
indiyidual to gain access to a situation sufficiently commanding, and to be indued with
optics sufficiently powerful, to take, at once, a clear and discriminating surrej of the wbole
earth — could he thus obtain an accurate and distinct view of the appearance and aenablt
character of everything existing on its surface — diversities of colour, form, dimenmon, and
motion, with all other external properties of matter — were such an event possible, one of
the most curious and interesting objects that would attract our spectator's attention, would
be, the variety discoverable in the complexion and feature^ the figure and etature of the Amms
rau. In one section of the globe, he would behold a people lofty and well-proportioned,
elegant, and graceful ; and in another, not far remote, a description of men diminutive,
deformed, unsightly, and awkward. Here would rise to view a nation with flowing looks,
a well-arched forehead, straight and finely-modelled limbs, and a complexion composed of
the carnation and the lily ; there, a race with frizzled hair, clumsy and gibbous extremi-
ties, a retreating forehead, and a skin of ebony. In one region he would be charmed with
a general prominence and boldness of feature, an attractive syii^metry, a liveliness of air,
and a vigor of expression, in the human countenance ; while in another, he would be £>-
gusted by its flatness, vacancy and dulness, offended with its irregularity, or shocked at its
fierceness. Between these several extremes would appear a multiplicity of intermediate
gradations, constituting collectively an unbroken chain, and, manifesting at once the siin-
plicity yet diversity of the operations of the Deity, in peopling the earth with human inhi-
bitants."
After refuting, point by point, every postulate advanced by his
scholastic but unscientific author, and exposing the sophisms through
which each is supported. Dr. Caldwell remarks on the doctrine itself:
** Its principles, if admitted to their full extent, would lead to results which our author
would be himself the first to deprecate. They would prove unfriendly in their operation to
morality and religion, and even subversive of the dignity of man and the order and ha^
mony of the physical world. They are calculated to favor a system of levelling and con-
solidation which would reduce to the eame specie* many animals that appertain, in reality,
to different genera. By their seductive and pernicious influence we might be g^radually led
to a belief in the original identity of even the white m»n himself, the golok [hylobates Hoe-
look f ] or wild man of the woods, and the large Orang-outang ; so apparently inconsiderate
are the shades of diflference between them, when their systems are analyzed, and their
individual features and limbs attentively compared with each other. When examined,
however, and compared in their general result, their dissimilarities are so numerous and
striking, as to constitute insuperable objections to such a monstrous hypothesis. We beo(MDe
at once convinced by the evidence before us, that diff'erences so wide and radical, could
never have been produced by the agency of any common causes now in operation on oar
globe; but that the beings marked by them belong to races originally and immutably dis-
tinct. Such precisely is the case in relation to the different races of men.**
** It now remains to be said," continues the profound physiologist Dismoitlins,*^ "whether,
in each of these races, of these species, men were children of the earth whereupon history
perceives them from times the most obscure ; or, if, coming in similar likeness from Mie
»" Criticism — For the Portfolio (Philadelphia, 8d series, vol. iv., 1814; articles 1 and 4,
pp. 8-9, 363-4) — of ** An Essay on the catises of the Variety of Complexion and Figure, m
the Human Species, &c., &c. By Samuel Stanhope Smith, D. D. LL. D., &c., ftc." I owe
acquaintance with this most powerful argument to the favor of Mr. George Ord, President of tbt
Acad, of Nat Sciences ; who informs me that it was written in early life by one since eniaeBt
in medical and ethnological questions — the late Dr. Charlks Caldwxll. These papers are
an enlargement of a previous critique published in the North American Eepiew, Juij, 181L
*n £acet Bumaines, 1826; pp. 155, 158.
VARIOUS GROUPS OP HUMANITY. 605
and tbe Mine natiTO country, they became diTeraified according to the novelty of each
elimate : of which the influence, sinji^ly, or united with that of a supposed sidereal revolu-
tion, would thus have transformed children of one and the same father,— creating there some
negroes, here some Kourilians, yonder some Finns, hither some Mongols, &c. * * * Races
and species, everywhere that they remain pure and without mixture, preserve invariable all
the traits, all the physical characters which the first observers saw in them, and that they
indubitably possessed from the very beginning. Their alteration is everywhere the product
of intermixture, the fusion between heterogeneous populations. Climate and all the influ-
engendered by it have alone no hold, whether upon the form of the body and face, or
I the color of the skin, or upon that of the hair and its nature. These causes possess only
slight power, as will be seen in the following book, on the color of the skin in certain
In all these mixtures there does not either result indifferently a mean of expression
of traits of each race. Ordinarily, one dominates the other."
Denying, therefore, with Dr. Caldwell, that climatic changes of
latitude or longitude have had sltij permanent influence upon the
tace-character of the human skin; and recognizing, with Desmoulins
and Morton, no known causes subsequent in action to the Creator's
coloring of each race, but direct amalgamation, — otherwise intermix-
ture between difterent tjT)es — as explanatory of the er\d\QBB gradations
of color now beheld in humanity throughout the world ; it follows
that) according to my conception of the primitive state of mankind
in each zoological province of creation, the shades in coloration of
the skin, eyes and hair, must have been less numerous than appear
at the present day after so many thousand years of interminglings
and migrations. What may have been the exact primordial, or ab-
original, cuticular color of each type ; into how many or how few
distinct national tints they might be resolved, there seems to be (out-
side of the comparatively ^small area covered by the earth's historical
nations), no means now of ascertaining; although some plausible con-
clusions are attainable through induction. In any case, the historical
permanence of many colors being det<>rmined through monumental
and written evidence for 8000 to 4000 years, we may fairly challenge
objectors to produce evidence that other unrecorded shades did not
exist contemporaneously. Egyptian monuments, Hebrew ethnology,
Assyrian sculptures, Greek and Roman iconography, Chinese annals,
Mexican and Peruvian antiquities, with many ancient descriptions
of personages or nations,*" combine to establish, in each geographical
centre, that the peoples within and around it presented the same
coloration as their descendants at this day, — all later variations being
satisfactorily accounted for through phenomena produced by physical
amalgamation between subsequent intruders and the primitive stocks.
Thus, for instance, there are now two very distinct colors seen among
^he Israelites ; one exceedingly dark, sallow, with blac& eyes and
hair ; the other, fair even to pallor, with light blue or hazel eyes
*>> All these positions are now proved, I take it, in the pwant
VARIOrS GROUPS OP HUMANITY. 607
tberefore, baye no confidonce in them. He mnst renounce their employment in determining
Am eharacteristics of races ; in a word, he cannot ntilize them.
"* ArtiBts habituated to draw unceasingly the European type,^^ are unskilful, in the greater
jMBBlMr of cases, in tracing the portrait and the true physiognomy of an American savaget
or of a Polynesian Islander. They tend irresistibly to give him, more or less, the expression
of tiMwe European faces which they are accustomed to reproduce through the art of design.
'Bonoo proceed all those likenesses of native races, from different parts of the world, that
i'lillimllj resemble Europeans accoutred in a queer costume, and besmeared {barbouillft)
•llAA yoQow, brown, black. M. Dumouder has better understood what was necessary to be
jioBO in order to give an exact knowledge of the facial traits, and of the general form of
Ao head, amongst those tribes he has obserred.
** In each Wality, he was at great pains to persuade some individuals to allow themselves
'to be moulded [in plaster], and we must believe that he well knew how to come about it.
fit hM succeeded in bringing back a great number of casts taken upon inhabitants of the
jjM^ority of places touched at by the corvettes Attrolabe and ZHS€, M. Dumoutier has thus
fMliered a collection of busts of the highest interest, the greater portion of which are now
jiaeed in the 'galerie anthropologique du Museum d'histoire naturelle de Paris.' "
' After showing, nevertheless, that material difficulties in the execu-
-tion of casts render even them somewhat faulty, by closing the eyes
'and distorting featuresy — and recommending that a daguerreotype
shoald always accompany each head — Blanchard again remarks:
** Hitherto, anthropological museums being very inconsiderable, one has been obliged to
Tirign one's self to comparisons too restricted for their results to be seriously generaliied.
Thooe comparisons, jfurthermore, reduce themselves to very small affairs. At the scientific
point, it is not allowable to dwell upon such variable impressions of tourists ; and yet, this,
oven until now, is the principal stock of anthropology. ">^
Strolling one day (April, 1849), with my friend Dr. Boudin, through the Jardm det
iet, he drew my attention to a marble statue, " all standing naked in the open air,"
of Apollo (I think) ; **dont," as he observed, "les cuisses ont du n^gre," — at the same time
that the upper part of the body is magnificent This incongruity, however, received expla-
Bfttion through an odd circumstance ; viz. : that the Parisian statuary commissioned to exe-
«nte the work, — wishing to save his own pocket, and not being able to procure, at the price,
a white man luffieiently well made-up to stand for a ** torso" in his studio — hired a fine-
looking negro-valet, then at Paris, as the cheaper alternative. Upon the latter's splendid
hutst he set, indeed, Phoebus's sublime head, but ... he forgot the legs ! In the same manner,
vnbsequently (Oct., 1855), at the picture-gallery of the Exporitwn UniverteUe^ my well-be-
loved cousin. Miss C. J. Gliddon, pointed out to me a couple of paintings, by an English
nrtist, of scenes in Spain, — for richness of coloring and accuracy of costume unsurpassable ;
but, spite of beards or coquettish veils, each male or female face betrayed an English
eonntry-bumpkin. Again, I have seen Chinese colored sketches, of English officers and ladies
walking about Macao during the war of 1841-2, exquisitely done; save that their eyes were
nil oblique, while their *' Caucasian" features were lost in the Sinico-Mongol. But for
possession of my old comrade M. Prisse*s ** Oriental Album" I should have been unable
to indicate to the reader, — through any works known to me about the very peoples I
know best — a faithful likeness of an Arab ; and even this falls short of the most beautiful
of aB, vii., the portrait of the glorious and ill-starred Abdallah-xbh-Souhood, Prince of the
heroic Wah'abees (Mbnoin, V^gypte tout le Ooxtv. de Mohammed Aly^ Paris, 1828, II, p. 142).
Tlie octavo text I happen to have ; but the folio Atlas lies still with my Hbrary •^ and othec
things — somewhere in Egypt. So much in confirmation of M. Pulazky's four propoiil
[Mjprv, pp. 96-97].
•n Op. dL, pp. 7-8, 47.
608 DISTINCTIONS OBSERTABLK AMONG
If Buch are the lamentations of an ethnologlat in the centre of
science, at Paris, how unreasonable it would be to expect ampler
collections of iconographic materials, illustrative of human types,
elsewhere ?
The iconoplastic inspiration of Domontier has been since applied,
by M. DE Froberville,^ with increased accuracy as regards colora-
tion, to African races at Bourbon and" Mauritius. Of sixty beaatifDl
casts, representing an astonishing variety of Mozambique negroes, I
was favored by this learned ethnologist with a sight of several; and
I am free to state that they opened a new world of light to me as
regards African populations on the eastern coast. Unfortunately
these £Eic-8imiles are still inedited. On the other hand, plaBte^
moulding inevitably efiaces the expression of the eye;** but this
defect can now be counterbalanced through photography ; nowhere
employed with such thorough appreciation of anthropological exi-
genda as by MM. Deveria, Rousseau, and Jacquart, at the Ma-
s^um d'Histoire Naturelle. Compared to this Qallery, — save only the
department of craniology, in which it is surpassed by the Mortonian
collection at Philadelphia "° — all other collections known to my per-
sonal observation, or through report, sink into insignificance. Ske-
letons, skulls, anatomical preparations ; casts of entire figures, busts,
and heads, colored and uncolored, of an immense number of natioDs;
oil and water-colored portraits, daguerreotypes, photographs, of indi-
viduals from all parts of the world; not forgetting those exquisite
colored models of Russian races, presented by Prince Demidoff^— all
these, and other items by far too various for enumeration, already
render the Galerie Anthropologique (as might have been inferred
where French science directs) one of the glories of Paris, no less
than foremost in the world's ethnology. In fact, such an admirable
system has there been laid down, susceptible of indefinite expansion,
that with very trifling aid from the imperial government, Paris might
contain, amidst her thousand attractions to the student, as well as to
B7^ ** Rapport 8ur les races n^gres de TAfrique orientale an and de T^uatear, oboento
par M. DE Frobervillb — Comptes rendu* det tianeet de VA^adimie det Science*^ xxz, 8 JiiiBf
1850^*<tirage il part" 14 pages: — and Bulletin de la Soe. EthnoL de Paris, 1S46; L pp.
89-90; and elsewhere in the Bulletint de la Soc. de Oiographie,
This gentleman told me that the method he had employed was, to gum square bits of paptf
on the skin of each individual whose cast he had provionsly taken, and then to caose his
artist to color thorn until the hue disappeared in that of the '* torso" himself. Transferriaf
thence thi^ colored paper to the plaster-cast, the same process yielded a perfect copjof laok
person's cuticular coloration.
>^ See an example in M. D'Avezac's *'T^bou," exquisitely moulded though it iru by tkt
oare of De Blainville, in our ** Ethnographic Tableau," No. 27.
*■> There are, however, admirable materials, forming the nucleus of what mi^t Iscoa* i
great anthropological museum, in the London Royal College of Surgeons.
YARIOUS GROUPS OF HUMANITY. 609
persons of education and leisure, every desideratum in anthropology.
An appropriation of not more than 100,000 francs to the Oalerie
Anthrapologique, coupled with official instructions to her consuls,
chiefe of expeditions, governors, and naval commanders, scattered
over the world, to collect — at national expense — colored photographs
(froilt, back, and profile) of all types of man, male and female, within
their several reach, — and executed upon an uniform scale, according
to rules for measurements, &c., such as none but French administrative
experiences know so well how to give — ^these two ordinances, " pure
and simple,*' are, now, all that is required to make France, within
five or ten years, as supreme in ethnology as she is in every other
science. No other government in the world will perform this service
towards the study of man ; because the two or three others (that may
have the power) do not possess, amid the personnel of their Execu-
tives, men of education sufficiently refined to appreciate "ethno-
logy"— its true political value, or its eventual humanitarian influences.
To such Cabinets, of cast-iron mould, appeal is useless, owingto their
intellectual conditions; to others, like cultivated Sardinia for instance,
its achievement would be almost impossible. If imperial centraliza-
tion in France does not accomplish for Mankind that which has been
done everywhere in behalf of beetlesy snakes, bats, and tadpoles, gene-
rations must yet pass away before, through any amount of private
enterprise, those materials can be collected, in one spot, that might
afford a comprehensive insight into this planet's human occupants.
Such are the disheartening convictions which general experience,
gathered eastward and westward during former years, followed by
some five exclusively devoted to ethnological inquiries, have forced
upon me involuntarily. Mortifying to my aspirations as the acknow-
ledgment may be, a brief sketch of the precursory steps taken tc
accomplish our "Ethnographic Tableau," such as it is, will be the
best comment upon its difficulties of realization.
It was my conception, 'when setting out for Europe, with the-
object of gathering materials for the present volume, to prepare a
Map of the world, colored somewhat upon the plan of Prof. Agas-
siz's suggestion,^* in size of about four folio sheets ; containing the
most exact colored portraits of races procurable, drawn to an uniform
scale, and each placed geographically in situ. Copiously supplied,
beyond any others in this country, as is our Academy of Natural
Sciences with works upon every department of Natural History,
and among them many containing excellent human iconographio
specimens, they were wholly inadequate to the execution of
**^ Types of Mankind^ p. Ixzriii, and Map.
610 DISTINCTIONS OBSERVABLE AMONG
plan : but I supposed that European libraries might easily make ap
the deficiency. Procuring a large skeleton chart, and coloring it
into zoological realms and faunse, I made a preliminary list of about
150 human families whose likenesses were desirable. Their names,
written on diflferently-colored pieces of paper, an inch square, were
then pasted upon this map, each one in its geographical locality, to
stand as mnemonics for the portraits to be afterwards inserted.
Through the politeness of the late M. Ducos, Minister for Naval
Affairs, the choice library of the Ministfere de la Marine, together
with the vast repository of the D6pot de la Marine, were freely
opened to my visits ; and here, Bajot*® in hand, my bibliographical
explorations commenced. The Bibliotfdques ImpSriale^ de rimtitut^
and du Jardin dea Plantes, were equally accessible through the kind-
I ness of friends, during eight months' stay at Paris; and, for eight
I months subsequently, I resumed my old seat in that paradise of a
i bibliophilos, owing to the incomparable facilities readers obtain
there, the British iluseum Library. Altogether I worked in the
midst of such resources for about twelve months of time, — always
aided, when necessary, by my Wife's enthusiastic help — guided
throughout by considerate indices from distinguished savans ; during
which period thousands of volumes were subjected to scrutiny, hun-
dreds yielding materials either for my wife's pencil or my own note-
books. In fact, no literary means were lacking for the attainment
of my object; no efforts spared towards realizing it. Having, in
consequence, acquired practical knowledge of the probable range of
ethnographic materials accumulated at the present day, I can now
speak of their deficiencies with more confidence. Alas ! they are
great indeed !
It was not long, however, before my casting about, at Paris, ended
in the renunciation of an ethnographic map of the nature above
sketched ; owing to the frequency of lacunsey impossible to be filled
up, in the pictorial gradations of humanity spread over the eartL
Inaccurate designs of many races, false colorations of most, un-
authentic exceptions to exactness throughout the remainder, reduced
the number of reliable portraits to a very small number in published
works. To the ethnographer some otherwise valuable books, perfect
as to costumes of nations, are wholly unavailable^ as regards facial
w* Catalogve particulier des lAvres de OSographie et de Voyages qm te trouvent dam Ui
Bibliothigufs du Department de la Marine et de* Coloniet ; Paris, Imprim^rie Rojale, 8vOi
1840; Tol. III.
fi"* Such, for instance, as GeorgVt Besehreibung aUer Nationum det Ruttiehen Rekkt, Si
Petersburg, 1776; nlso republished in smaller edition at Leipzig, 1783; and in foarTob.
London, without plates, 1780: — Rkckbbebo, Let PeupUt de la Ruuie, &c., with 94 pl»t<>
YABIOUS GROUPS OF HUMANITY. 611
iconography, — the Artists, naturally ignorant of physiognomical
diversity beyond the small circle of races within their personal
cognizances, having given European features to every variety of
man ; so that, according to each designer's country, all nations are
made to assume French^ English^ or German faces; often with as
little regard to foreign human nature as we find in Tailors' or
Modistes' show-plates of the newest fashions! Some of the best
descriptive works contain plates too small for reliance ; in general
nncolored, or else tinted without regard to exactness ; at the same
time that of whole families of mankind there are no representations
whatever. It is, in fact, rare to meet with colored plates of races
worthy of confidence, before the beginning of this century: not that
I would disparage the efforts made by Cook, La Perouse, Krusenstern,
and other voyagers, to ftirnish good copper-plates of several distant
tribes of men met with in their daring circumnavigations.
But the man essentially imbued with a sort of instinctive presenti-
ment of the importance of human iconography, and to whose single
pencil we still owe more varied representations of mankind over the
earth than to any individual before or since, without question was
Choris.** Chosen artist to the second Russian voyage round the
world under Ottoe von Kotzebue in the "Rurick"*^ — 1816-18 —
fieivored by a liberal and scientific commander, and aided by a skilful
naturalist, Adelbert de Chamisso, Choris really availed himself of glo-
rious opportunities (so frequently deemed unimportant in later mari*-
time expeditions, — compared to the triumphant collection of "new
species " among oysters, butterflies, or parsleys), and may be right-
fully styled the fether of those ethnological portrait-painters who,
like Lesueur, have so skilfully illustrated the voyages of P^ron (under
Baudin) Duperrey, De Freycinet, D'Urville, Gaimard, and others.
It is to Choris's, more than to any other man's labors, that the works
of Prichard, and Cuvier, as the learned copyists frequently point out,
owe their iconographic interest : and here it may be conveniently
stated that, in our Tableau, I have endeavored, as far as possible, to
of eostnmes. Many other works, oqaally defeotiye ethnographically, if excenent for
tional costmnes, are in the '* King's library/' British Musenm. Even some works of the
great French Navigators — such as D'Emtreoastbauz, 1800; Ds BonaAiNYiLLB, 1887;
Laplaob, 1885; Du Pxtit Thuabs, 1841 — are almost Talueless to hninan iconography,
howerer meritorioos and important in descriptions, and precious in other branches of
natural history.
" Voffaff9 Pittorttqnt auiow du Momde, avee da Portraits de Sauvaget tTAwUriqus^ tPAmtf
^Afrique, it det IUm du Orand Ocean; Paris, Didot, folio, 1822. Of this work I haTe used
fi»ar copies at different fibraries, two of them unoolored ; and, as regards the coloration «f
ttM other two, one^Taried materially from the other in tints.
■» Ftyiyf 4tfdi$wperf mio UU South Sea^ &o., transit Lloyd, London, S Tolt. Svr... IW^
612 DISTINCTIONS OBSERVABLE AMONG
avoid repeating likenesses published by either authority, except when
none so good were accessible elsewhere. Even then, in most caBes,
my copies are taken from, or have been compared with the ori^nftl
engravings, as the reference under each head indicates.
Compelled to relinquish, owing to absence of sufficient materials,
my first idea of an ethnographic map^ the next best substitute was
suggested by J. Achille Compters folio sheet ;^ which, considering
that it is now twenty-five years old, was the ablest condensation of
its day. Its errors have been indicated by Jacquinot; and, besides it
gives undue preponderance to Oceanic types when other parts of the
world possess equal claims for representation. ** One sees a black
of Vanikoro drawn as the type of the Polynesian brown race ; below
it, another native of Vanikoro represents the Malay branch. Natives
of New-Ireland serve at one and the same time for the type of the
Polynesian race and for the black Oceanic race !"^ Without copy-
ing any of the heads published by so good an authority, I have in
part availed myself of Compte's columnar arrangement and nomen-
clature, in the third letter-press column of our Tableau.
Among the various desiderata towards exactness in ethnic icono-
graphy, rank two necessities: — 1st, that the same portrait should at
least be photographed both in front view and profile; 2d, that these
photographs should not be restricted to the male sex, but that their
females should always accompany them ; inasmuch as, from the rape
of the Sabines down to Captain Bligh's mutineers, — among Turks
universally, as well as in instances of American nations cited by Mc-
CuUoh^ — the women of a given nation often difter totally in type
from their masculine possessors. Of this last contingency there exist
countless instances, met with even in our own every-day experiences.
The advantage of adding a back view of each individual has been
shown by Debret;*^ and it is the rule followed, where possible, by
M. Rousseau.^ One universal savant,** and one equally-universal
comparative anatomist,*" feel the importance of the first requirement
B* Races Humainet, distribuin en un Tableau MSthodique^ ** adopts par le Conseil rojil (it
rinstruction Publique;" Paris, 1840:— being PI. I. of his Rigne Animal, 1832.
^ Jacquinot, Slude* aur FHutoire NaturelU de F Homme ; Tb^ pour )• Dootorat en Me-
dicine, Paris, 4to., 1848; p. 117.
BO Researehesy Philosophical and Antiquarian, concerning the Aboriginal ffitiory o/AmeritM,
Baltimore, 8to., 1820; pp. 84-5, &c. See a spirited sketch of the rape of a white wonaa,
by ** Pehnenchcs,'* in Pceppio's Reise in Chili, &o., Atlas foL, 1835, PI. 7.
•• Voyage Piltoresque au BrSsU, ii. pp. 114-5, PI. xiL
>*> At the Jardin des Plantes ; as in soTeral photographs of Hottentots, ftc, I oirt to Ui
oomplaisance.
m ALniBD Maurt, Quettione relatives d FEthnologie ancienne de la Fnmf — Bxtrmit dt TAi-
nuaire de la Soc. Imp. des Antiqmures de France pour 1852 — Paris, ISbkv, 1868; jip. %^\^
■■ Straus-Durckhbim, Thiologie de la Nature, Paris, 8to., 1862; HI, not* zn, Mmm
hmamet; pp. 818-9, 324.
VABIOUS GROUPS OP HUMANITY. 613
The former presses French .antiquaries with the following language
— ** In the portraits that we demand from our correspondents, they
should adhere both to giving front views, so as to enable the physi-
ognomy to be judged ; and profile, in order to show the direction of
the lines of the face, the disposal of the forehead, the facial angle,
the degree of hoUowness of the eye in relation to the * arcade souci-
lifere,' the prominence of the chin. It is certain that these details of
the countenance, in appearance insignificant, exert a great influence
upon the ensemble of the features. By way of example, we would
instigate remark that the cavity at the root of the nose, in relation to
the slope of the forehead, is of itself a characteristic that distinguishes
certi^in races from others. The Greeks, to judge by the statues they
have left us, did not represent this cavity ; so pronounced, on the
contrary, in sundry of our own provinces. Some physiologists have
attributed this character to mixture with the Germanic race, in which i
it is observed in considerably high degree. There are lines, even I
some simple wrinkles, that stamp a given physiognomy with its '
national impress. The Shlavic race notably distinguishes itself, ordi- ;
narily, among men more than thirty years old, by a furrow which
cuts the whole cheek in a quasi-vertical sense."
The subjoined authority stands so high among comparative anato-
mists, that its weight, in support of the polygenistic view, deserves
attention. Straus-Durckheim says: " In treating this subject \_Hu7nan
Jtaees], as it ought to be, simply as a question of pure zoology, and
upon applying to it the same principles as to the determination of
other species of animals belonging to one genus, one arrives, in fact,
at really recognizing many very distinct human species, of which
the number cannot yet be fixed ; on one account, because the interior
of the continents of Africa, Australia, and even of America, is not
Bufiiciently known; and on another, that we do not possess even
Bofiicient data about the distinctive characters of a large number
already known
««
We are acquainted indeed with a few races, such as the Caucasian and the Negro ; but
many others are yery poorly indicated, cTcn by Ethnographers, to such a degree that cTery-
thing remuns still to be done.
** The greater number of traTellers who, until now, haTe gone oyer distant countries in
which exist races of men more or less distinct, haye indeed brought back some drawings ;
and, in these later times, eyen busts moulded upon nature ; but more frequently they haye
confined themseWes to giying the portraits of the Chiefs about whom they spoke in relating
their yoyages ; or else, they haye represented a few common individuals, some taken at
random, and the others on account of whatever may haye been extraordinary in their phy-
nognomy ; whereas it is precisely the portraits of those who present the most yulgar [or
Bormal] fkces and forms among each people which it is essential to make known ; their
foatores offering, through this very circumstance, the true characteristies of their tm
iaumnch as best resembling the greater number of indiyiduals. • • * •« Now, ihitm
614 DISTINCTIONS OBSERVABLE AMONG
directions of the diyers parts of the hend, which it would be so im|>ortaDt to know well h
order to determine the differences that exist between human species, cannot be thoronghiy
indicated except in portraits done exactly in profile ; in the same manner that the exaot
proportions of width cannot be properlj giTen saye through portraits in ftiU front fiew;
and this is precisely that which one does not find but Tory exceptionally in ethnographie
works, in which heads are generally represented at three-quarter Tiew ; with the intentkn
of making known at one and the same time the proportions of all parts, whereas through
such arrangement they satisfy nothing ; the three-quarters not permitting any proportioa
to be exactly caught, every feature becoming foreshortened to the beholder."
With full consciousness of these requirements, I had hoped that,
through the multitude of works consulted, some kind of unifonnity,
as regards front and profile views of the same head, might have been
achieved for a certain number of races. Here again disappointmeDt
was the issue. Aside from Dumoutier's Anthropologie wherein chiefly
Oceanic busta are thus figured, there are not a dozen instances*
where pains have been taken to supply this radical necessity in eth-
nology. There are not, out of these, more than half the number
colored; nor, finally, as illustrative of the poverty of ethnographical
resources, out of a collection of some 400 heads of races procured,
was it possible, on reducing the number even to 64 specimens, to
avoid including some faces (such as Nos. 11, 18, 20, 80, S4, 4c.) drawn
at three-quarters, under the penalty of either a blank in the series or
of filling the place with a less characteristic sample. And yet, with
an intrepidity which ignorance of these simple facts may explain, but
can never justify, whole volumes have been written to prove "the
unity of the human species,** — ^when science does not possess half the
requisite materials for ethnographic comparisons, and at the verjr
day that the best natumlists will frankly and honestly tell you how,
tfie historical evidences (only scientific criteria) of permanency of type
being excluded, they feel rather uncertain where *^ species" is to be
found in any department of zoology. Polygenism no less than
monogenism, as regards humanity's origination, depends, therefore,
like all similar zoological questions, upon history — itself a science
essentially human. The whole controversy concerning the unity or
the diversity of mankind's "species" is consequently bounded by a
circle, of which, after all, human history can but vaguely indicate the
circumference ; and the only ultimate result obtained from the an-
alysis of such arguments resolves itself, as in all circular arguments,
into a question of probabilities. The brothers Humboldt (ubi supra)
reject, as ante-historical, all mythsy fiction^ and tradition^ that pretend
to explain the origin of mankind. Perfectly coinciding witii these
-
•• My portfolio embraces them afl, I belieye, from the publioatioiis of Gorier, P^roi,
D'Orbigny, D*ATeiao, De Middendorf, Siebold, and two or three others.
VARIOUS 6B0UPS OF HUMANITY. 615
iDminaries of our XlXth century in such repudiation of the only
criterion of "species" which real A»^ory is powerless to elucidate,
belief and unbelief, as to polygenism or monogenism, seem to me
equally speculative, equally abortive, in a matter utterly beyond
the research of human hutory^ — as this term is understood during
the present solar revolution, ecclesiastically styled a. d. 1857.
I roughly estimate the amount of iconographic stock, available to
ethnology and contained in published works, at about 600 portraits.
Of these not more than half are colored, many of them not reliably ;
whilst a large proportion of those uncolored are more or less defec-
tive. In this estimate, European nations of the three tj^^es, — Teutonic,
Celtic and Sclavonic — are of course excluded ; because biographical,
historical and other publications, aside from portrait-galleries, furnish
abundance to illustrate these the most civilized races of the world.
Some American, portions of African, perhaps all the Australian, the
greater number of Polynesian, certain Malayan, Indo-Chinese,
Chinese, Japanese, &c., are well represented ; but vast iconographic
blanks in the varied nationalities of Asia and Africa still remain
among "terne incognitse," ethnologically speaking far more than
even geographically. For instance, where has there been published
a reliable colored portrait of a Tukagxrf where thatof a true Berber f^
Central Arabian tribes have no authentic representative, save in the
likeness of Abd-Allah ebn Souhoody the Wah'abee ;^ and so on of whole
nations in other regions. Indeed, by way of testing the accuracy of
this statement, let the reader take the third column of our "Tableau,"
wherein an attempt has been made, chiefly through descriptions, to
group mankind physiologically. Sixty-five distinguishable families,
out of perhaps hundreds unraentioned, are there enumerated. Let
him only try to find for each of these a reliable colored portrait^ suit-
able to ethnology (Hamilton Smith, Prichard and Latham, inclusive),
— ^his first difficulty will be to settle the difference iconographically
between a "Lapp" and a "Finn." I have failed in my efforts to
obtain one of the former ; of the latter (No. 7) I am by no means
certain.***
According to modem statisticians, the population of the world is
calculated to exceed 1200 millions. About 600, more or less available,
ethnological portraits are the limit of my estimate of public icono-
■M Those (about 40, 1 think) procured by the Exploration tcimtifique en AlgMe are inedited.
Very beautiful they are, in the Parisian Galerie Anthropologique. It will be noted that I
use the terms ** reliable colored portraitt** accessible through publications. The treasures
oontoined in priTate portfolios do not, of course, enter into this category, being inaccessible.
*** Mbhoih, Op. dt. (supra, note 676).
M See what Dr. Meigs says (Chap. Ill, pp. 267-70, ante).
'\
616 DISTINCTIONS OBSEBVABLB AMONG
graphical property, Dearing upon types of man — Europeans hardly
included — now in existence. This enables ethnography at the
present advanced day to bo^t, that she possesses about half an mA-
vidual per million to represent all Mankind ! whereas, out of 216
known species of Monkeys^ there are not a dozen of which naturalists
do not possess exact and elegant delineations. And yet, steeped in
the slough of our common ignorance, it is pretended to give ua
9y%temB vindicating the " unity of the human species,'*
Under all these lamentable deficiencies, my attempt reduces itself
to an exhibition of 64 of the best characterized ethnographic portraits
cond^nsible into a " Tableau." Their number {fifty-four) is purely
accidental. No cabalistic enigma underlies its selection, which was
superinduced merely by the mechanical eligibilities considered requi-
site by our publishers. What may have been the labor incurred to
present even so small a number at one view, may be inferred through
the Table of References. Such as it is, the reader will find nothing
yet published comparable to it for attempted accuracy ; at the same
time that none can be more alive than myself to its defects, nor will
be more happy to hail the publication of something better within the
limited price of this present volume. Had not this last inexorable
condition been part of our publishing arrangements, my own port-
folio and note-books could have supplied for every row (except for
the Australian realm, which seems tolerably complete in 6 specimens)
18 different heads, each typical of a race, in lieu of only 6 ; and
then, through 132 colored portraits^ a commencement might have
been made to portray, at one view, the earth's known inhabitants;
leaving to future collectors the task of adding other types, in the
ratio either of their discovery or of their acquisition, to ethnic icono-
graphy. With these remarks, the "Tableau" is submitted to liberal
criticism ; which will perceive the reason why so many essential and
well-known types are unavoidably excluded, in the fact that 132
distinct things cannot be compressed into a space adapted to 54.
A FEW CLOSING 0 B S B R V AT I 0 N S.
Notwithstanding that perfectly-traced fac-similes, and sometimes
the original plates and photographs themselves, were placed in
the hands of the best lithographic establishment in this city, rigid
comparison with a few of the originals referred to in the explanatory
text, will prove what has been previously deplored regarding ethno-
logical portraits generally, viz., that a merely artistic eye, untrained
in this new "specialite" of art, is unable even to copy with absolute
correctness. A draughtsman, accustomed to draw solely European
VARIOUS GROUPS OP HUMANITY. 617
faces, cannot, without long practice and a peculiar instinct for race-
iconography, seize, on so small a scale as such drawings must be
made, iHie delicate distinctions between ethnic lineaments perceived
by the eye of an anthropologist. In consequence, it has happened
in our Tableau^ that^ through infinitesimal touches of his pencil,
there are few heads (in the eyes especially) which have not been more
or less Europeanized by the artist These defects are herein irre-
mediable ; nor would I call attention to them, but to meet a possible
(nay, very probable) charge, that these portraits have been tampered
with in order to favor Dr. Nott's and my common polygenistic
views : whereas, on the contrary, the truth is, that artistic execution,
by softening down diversities of feature, palpable in the originals,
seems unconsciously to have labored rather to gratify the yearnings
and bonhomie of philanthropists and monogenists.
In respect to the coloring ^ also, although to each face I have ap-
pended authority for its hue, much allowance should be made for a
book the price of which, to the American subscriber, must not
exceed J5. The colorist (who has performed her part extremely
well) had to give 53 distinct tints to 54 (the TasmanianSy Nos. 53, 54,
being one color) different faces,— ^ each, too, restricted to one stroke
of her brush. To have attempted the coloration of eye«, haivy or
dresBy would have made this volume cost half as much again. Never-
theless, I have deposited with our publishers one standard and
completely-colored copy, critically executed by my wife, and they
tell me that any one desirous of possessing our "Ethnographic
Tableau," perfectly colored^ varnished^ and mounted upon rollers, can
obtain such copy on application to them, and paying the expense
thereof.
As for the wood-cuts, — in our present, no less than in our former
volume — I am free to say, that the only extenuation, for often-
stupid deviations from perfectly-drawn originals, lies simply in the
feet, that where (owing to bibliothecal deficiencies in a given spot
of our yet new and youthful American republic) the plates them-
selves could not be furnished to the engraver, my wife's pencil-marks
on the box- wood "blocks" having been rubbed more or less in our
travels, — or, by carelessness, after their delivery to the wood-cutter
— "pencils," under such circumstances, are treacherous and slip-
pery. Hence our collaborators, Messrs. Pulszky and Meigs, I am
sure, will be charitable enough to overlook any accidental drawbacks
to the attainment of that correctness, .which was equally desired by
Mrs. Gliddon, Dr. Nott, and myself. The reader will also, I trust,
be so considerate as to overlook such blemishes in the artistiOi
cranioscopic, and typograpical exactitude of our book.
ft18 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU.
ON THE
ETHNOGRAPHIC TABLEAU,
aXHIBITXVO
SPECIMENS OF YARIOVS BAOES OF MANKIND.
Adopting entirely, for my own part, Prof. Agaesiz's zoological d»-
tribution of animals into REALMS, — subdivided into Faunce — ^I had
prepared prefatory observations on each of the former, which lack of
space now obliges me to reduce to a minimum consistent with per-
spicacity.
So many have been the mistakes committed (even by good scholars),
as regards the honored Professor's meaning, in the terms " Realms"
and " Faunse," ^ that the reader's attention is again especially invited
to the " Sketch of the Natural Provinces of the Animal World, and
their relation to the diflferent Types of Man ;" which, with its tahUaa
and mapy forms a prominent feature in Nott's and my Types of Man-
kind.
It is upon such inferred knowledge, on tlie reader's part, that our
"Ethnographic Tableau" has been projected. The first column of
letter-press contains Prof. Agassiz's "Geographical distributioa :"—
the second Dr. Meigs's " Cranioscopic examples:" — the third my
'^ 1. A. D'Abbadie (Observationt tur VOuvrage intiluU: Typet of Mankind, par MM.XoU
and Gliddon — Bulletin de la Soc. de Giographie, No. 66, Juillet, Paris, 1855, p. 41) — "M-
Agassiz odmet huit types humains primitifs." Refated by M. A. Maubt, in the same Jotu>
nal (pp. 46-51). 2. Hetwood (translation of Von Bohlem's Introd. to the Book of Otnnit,
London, 8vo, 1855; II, appendix 2, p. 278) — "Hottentot realm;'* instead of fauna, 8. A
writer {Charleston Medical Journal^ 1855 — ** An Examination of Prof. Agassiz's Sketch," kt.)
confounds realms with /aunec in a manner that shows he does not even comprehend termino-
logy [e. ^., "Mongolian realm" (p. 36) — "Prof. A. has formed two realms in Africa;*
'* Hottentot realm" (p. 87] : but inasmuch as this would-be naturalist duly received a fuittm
at the hands of Luke Burke [Charleston Med. Joum., July, 1856, Art I), he may remaiB
dropped whore he was long ago, by Morton and by myself {7)/pes of Mankind^ pp. hi ixmI
628, note 210). 4. Cull (Address to the Ethnological Society of London, 1854, p. 8) — "6.
The Negro realm. 6. The Hottentot realm." No such classes occur in Prof. Agassiz's paper.
5. Anon. ( Westminster Review, No. XVIII, April, 1856 ; Art III, p. 864) — " righi reaimt,
* * * Hottentot," as one of them, in lieu of fauna, 6. Anon. (London Alhtncmm, June 17,
1854, Review) — [Prof. Agassiz] " divides mankind into eight types, each of which has iti
realm, with its peculiar animal inhabitants. They are as follows: — 1. Arctic; — 2. Mongol;
—8. European; — 4. American; — 5. African; — 6. Hottentot ,'^^7, Malayan; — 8. Austift-
lian," &c.
EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 619
ividual conception of "Mankind, grouped physiologically:" — and
fourth a synopsis, by myself, of the "Linguistic distinctions"
iucible from M. Alfred Maury's Chapter I, in the present volume,
proceed to succinct remarks on the " Realms" tiiemselves ; fol-
dng each by specification of the sources whence each human por-
it has been derived. Precision is the only goal attempted to be
ched by this tinted-Tableau's compiler : and the primary fact that
1 be acquired by its inspector, at first glance, will be the destruc-
a of any hypotheses he may have formed concerning the alleged
ion of solar influence (as per Latitude and Longitude) upon Na-
e*s aboriginal coloration of the human skin [any greater than upon
t of the wimioR — see Monkey-chart] among her "types" and "races"
the gentu Homo.
I.
ARCTIC BEALM.
(H08. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.)
be newest — and by far the best — definitions known to me of the sereral oharaoteristiea
he human inhabitants of the Hyperborean sone, being already suppfied by oar collabo-
r Dr. Meigs (tuproj Chapter III, pp. 166, 168), I will not detra<)t from the merit of this
utterance of special studies on the Polar region, which he has been prosecuting for some
I by doing more than inviting re-pemsal of his remarks ; coupled with reference to that
client little compendium — ** Productions of * Zones,' illustrated and described" (10 Plates
10 pamphlets, ISmo — published by Myers k Co., London, 1854).
REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS.
1.—
[*< TakktdOcktda, BskimAoz of IflooUki^—PABBT, %d Yo^agtt ** Tuxy and Heda;" London, 1824,
p. 891.]
Colored from Ross, Voy, Baffin** Bay — " Arctfo Highlander — Erviek, Native
of Prince Regent's Bay.'*
Compare BiA&Tm, Nat. HitL of Man. and Mankeyt, London, 1841, p. 278, fig. 218.
S.— TCEinXTCHI.
[^MeKCed,— firom my ftiend Mb. Bdwakb M. Kmr, artUt In the reeent Toyage of the U. 8. Oonretta
**Yinoenne0,''Ca|>tBodgeta, to tlM North Paelflfl^l868*6w 8MtlMr«niarlMofDr.Meiga(«ifpra,
Chapter III) on Fig. 12.]
0
Compare Dbsmoulims, Raeet Bumainet^ 1826; PI. I, fW>m Chobis: — Hoopbb
(Tenlt of^the Tutki, London, 8yo, 1868) gives plates too small for reliance; but
obserres, ** Tchouski, Tchuktche, Tchutski, Tchekto, and similar appellations,
I believe to haye arisen from the word Ttuiki, meaning a confederation or bro-
therhood." He divides them into **the Reindeer Tuski," and ««the fishing,
or alien Tuski" — " two distinct races, or, at least, branches, * * * differing
in language, appearance, and many details of dresa and ooenpation (p. 84).**
620 .EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU.
Vo. 8. — XOSIAX.
[** Inhabitants of Kotiebne Sound :" — Db Kotbbub, Vojf. of Diaoofwery, N, E. BuM^ li
a (*Rurick,'' 1815-18; txaniL Lloyd, London, 1821; I, PL 1.]
Compare Bkschst ( Voyage to the Northern Ocean and Beermg*e Streitt Loo-
don, 4to, 1831, 1, p. 250 seq., II, pp. 567-76), who, in describing the Esqnimaax,
eastern and western, says, ** both people being descended from the same stoeL"
Vo. 4.~AL£0UTIAH.
[** Habitant des Bet AlfoatiennM f*—CaoMa,Vcfagt Pittaraqm amiourdu Memdt (18U-18); Pfeili,
ibl^ 1822, PL III, 6*« liTralBon.]
Compare ** a man of Kadiak*' (PL VI, in Haktih Sauml's AoeoutU of a Oeof.
and Atlronotn, Exped, to the Northern Forte of Bueeia, by Comm. J. BiDup,
1785-94; London, 4to, 1802.)
Vo. 6.— AlCno.
I'* Natnrel da la o6t« Mptantrkmala da Jano:"— I>i KmuoimBftiifFoya^ o»tlew dm JMbwfa^llO^
in the RuMUn S. *< Nadii^eda and Neva** — tranal. Eyri^ Paris, 1821 ; AUaa 4to^ PL XT, 1 : eai>
latad with PL LXXIX, of the Rnwian folio original, St. Petarsborg, 1813.]
Colored, ** teint bran Terd&tre fonc€,'' according to Dbsmouuiis (op. at, pp.
165, 28G). Db Krusbnstsbm (II, pp. 89-90, 98-9) considers the hairineaof
these A'tnoe to have been exaggerated, and says tfieir color is ** teint hrunftrnttd
preeque noir." Upon showing oar colored head, No. 5, to my friend Lieut
Habersham, he tells me that it does Tery well Already (vide eupra, ** Prefstory
Remarks"), I have been enabled, through his kindness and seal for sdeoee, to
present a wood-cat exhibiting the true characteristics of a race so little knows
as these A tnoe. Here is Lieut Habersham's description : —
" The hairy endowments of these people are by no means so extensire sb iobm
early writers lead one to suppose. As a general rule, they shaTe the front of
the head d la Japanese, and though the remaining hair is undoubtedlj nrj
thick and coarse, yet' it is also Tery straight, and owes its bushy appeartaoe to
the simple fact of constant scratching and seldom combing. This remiinis^
hair they part in the middle, and allow to grow within an inch of the Bboalder.
The prevailing hue is black, but it often possesses a brownish cast, and these
exceptions cannot be owing to the sun, as it is but reasonable to suppose tbst
they suflfer a like exposure from infancy up. Like the hair, their beard is boshy,
and from the same causes. It is generally black, but often brownish, and seldom
exceeds five or six inches in length. I only saw one case where it reached more
than half-way to the waist; and here the owner was evidently proud of its grett
length, as he had it twisted into innumerable small ringlets, well greased, tad
kept in something like order. His hair, however, was as bushy as that of say
other. As this individual was evidently the most ** hairy Kurile" of the partj,
we selected him as the one most likely to substantiate the assertion of Brougbtoa
In regard to ** their bodies being almost universally covered with long, black
hair." He readily bared his arms and shoulders for inspection, and (if I except
a tuft of hair on each shoulder-blade, of the size of one's hand) we found hii
body to be no more hairy than that of several of our own men. The existeace
of those two tufts of hair caused us to examine several others, which examina-
tions entablished his as an isolated case.
** Their beard, which grows well up under the rather retreating eye, their bushj
brows, and generally wild appearance and expression of countenance, give then
a most savage look, singularly at variance with their mild, almost cringing,
manners. When drinking, they have a habit of lifting the hanging mustaclM
over the nose, and it was this practice, I suppose, which caused an early writer
to say, ** their beards are so long as to require lifting up." Though undoubt-
edly below the middle height as a general rule, I still saw aereral who wookl bt
EXPLANATIONS OP THE TABLEAU. 621
caned quite large men in any eoontrj; and, though the ayerage height be no\
more than ** fiye feet two or four inobes/' they make up the difference in an
abundance of muscle. They are a well-formed race, with the usual powers of
endurance accorded to sayages, indicated in their expansiye chests and swelling
muscles. Their features partake more of the European cast than any other.
They are generally regular, some eyen noble, while allure deyoid of that expres-
sion of treacherous cunning which stands out in such bold relief from the faces
of their masters — the Japanese and Northern Chinese. I cannot but agree with
La Perouse as to their superiority oyer those nations. * * *
** The Ainos are unpleasantly remarkable as a people in two respects, — ^yis. :
the primitiye nature of their costume, and their extreme filthiness of person.
I doubt if an Ainu ever washes ; hence the existence of yermin in eyerything
that pertains to them, as well as a great yariety of cutaneous diseases, for which
they appear to haye few or no remedies. There is another side to the picture,
howeyer, and it is a bright one. Xheir moral and social qualities, as exhibited
both in their intercourse with each other and with strangers, are beautiful to
behold. * » »
" I cannot account for Broughton's assertion in regard to their being of '* a
light copper-color/* unless he referred to a few isolated cases. As I haye pre-
yiously remarked, we saw several hundred men, women, and children, and these
were all of a dark brownish-blaek, with one exception ; which exception was a
male adult, strongly suspected of being a half-breed. '' {Op. aV., pp. 811-14.)
Vo. 6. — 8AX0TEDB.
[** G&mrCOf Kinln-SainqJedeB :"— Db MnmnrDoar, Die Samofedm tn St. JMer^mrg^ PL XIT. (Tide
AiaeMidc la Soc £MiioI(V»9iMde JRiKf, 1847, 1, pp. 269, 296-7, 800-7; and auBderAttr^ Ztittatg,
1847, N<M. 77, 78.]
Colored from Prince Demidoff's collection in the OaUrU Anlhropologigut, Jar-
din des Plantes, Paris, 1855.
^Compare Dcsmouuns, op. eii., pp. 261-6: — Latham, Native Raeet of the Rut^
•ion Empire^ London, 1854, pp. 112-21: — MAZ-Mi)LLEB, Languagee of the Seat
of War, London, 1855; 2d ed., pp. 118-28.
IL
ASIATIC REALM.
(Ho8. 7, 8, 9, 10, U, 12.)
'«Aria Polyglotta'* (Elaproth, Spraeh Atlae, Paris, fol., 1823; and Atlas of his Tahleawt
kietoriqueede TAeie, Paris, fol., 1826;-^ with their perspicuous maps of Asia at different
periods, for all sources — ]'* seems likely to become *' Asia Polygenea," wheneyer anthropo-
logy shall possess, about her multiform human occupants, either the accurate data now
acquired for elucidating the Effffptiatu,ihe Arabe, the Hebrewe, the Berbere, and the Chineet,
— or the precise knowledge gained in her inferior departments of soology. Almost eyery-
thing known hhoui A eiatie ethnography is contained within the present and our former
work, taking in yiew the references accompanying any statement in both.
REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS.
No. T^XAXTBCHADALE.
[PuGHABD, Natural BitLqfMan, London, 1865: ed. NorrUi; I. p. 224, PI. is.— ft<om Cvoao.]
On these I haye nothing to add to Dr. Meigs's remarks in Chapter IIL
622 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU.
Ho. 8. — 8t. L/LUBEKT-IBLAKDEB.
[Choris, op. dt.j liv. 7% PL ztL; from Bchrlng^i Straiti, Amerkui ilds.]
Von LANOSDOBrr {Voy. and TVaveU, London, 4to. 1818, 11, pp. 81, 11142)
Doctor to Kotzebue, says of the OonalaskaiiB, " a sort of middle noe betwen
the Mongol-Tartars and the North Americans" — and of the KoluBohiana, "they
do not appef# to haye the least affinity with the Mongol race:** — skin, whei
clean, nearly fair.
Ho. 9. — TABTAB.
[*< Chef Tartars :"— Di KBUSBrBmur, op. eU^ PL xrtL ;— oomet«d hj RnniAn original, TaK hnL]
Colored by descriptions of the aneient "Ou-Sioun," «* Ting-Lings," Ach
according to Chinese historians cited by Klapkoth (Tableaux Attl. ie FAtk, pp.
123-6, 162, &c.)
Compare Desmoulims, op. eiL, pp. 74-5, 80, 87, 168 ; — and other anthoritiei
in Jakoot (RevolutioM da Feuples de VAtu Moyerme, Paris, 1839; ii.), "Tab-
lean synoptiqne, chronologique et par Race." Ds Kbusekstbei (transL Ey-
ries, 1821, ii. pp. 208-11, 222-6), at the peninsula of Sakhalin (Map. PL 28),
coast of Tartary — narrates how the Tartars, of whom the aboTe is a ehlef^ had
driYen out and extirpated the ** aborigines, or Ainoe,'* and were a totally du>
tinct race.
For Tartar ethnography aroond the Black Sea, oonsnlt Hommaiki di Hiu
{Let Sfippetde la mer Caspienne, Paris, 8 toIs., 1846) jnimmi.
Ho. 10. 'CHINESE.
["Un Chinois**— Bakkow, Voyage en Chine (with Maoartnqr), transL OMtara, Pttii^ IMf; AM
4to., PL ir.; and i. pp. 77-82.]
There are many forms of Chinamen, on which I haye no spaoe to enlsif^;
but this is a good normal type.
Ho. U.— KALMXTK.
[Derivation nnoertain.]
Colored from Hamilton Smith, Nat ITist. o/ the Human Speda, Edinbiu|h,
1848; "Swarthy Kalmucks, Elenth," Pl. 28, p. 462.
Compare Martin, op. eit.^ pp. 271-8, fig. 207 : — Cuvier, Atlas, Mammfhn.
The best descriptions are in a work by an anonymous but yery correct eon-
piler ( Voyages chez te Peuples Kalmouckt et Us TartarUy ayec 28 figures et 2
cartes g^ographiques, Berne, 1792, 8yo., — p. 169 in particular). After indi-
cating the clear distinctions, in types and tongues, between the yarioua n^es
of Caspian Asia, he quotes La Motrate*s surprise, "d^avoir trouv6. presquesoos
le mdme climat, et dans le mdme air, les Cireassiens, le plus beau people do
monde, au milieu des Noghaiens et des KalmouekSf qui sont de yrais mooftrei
de laideur."
Ho. 12. — TUBA.
[** A man of the Tnda race ;** Nilaglri Hills,— Maseum Royal Ariatle Sodetj : PucBaaa, Jnwudhi
into the Pfiynoal History qf Mankind:— vad Nat Sist. qfUan, 18tt, PL zL p. 888^]
On all these Drayidian tribes, see Maury's Chap. I., pp. /i2-^ ; and my Ghsp*
ter v., pp. 612-13. The best descriptions are in Sket^ of Attam (snpra, DOte84J
514) ; but the colored portraits are too small
I
EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 623
III.
EUROPEAN BEALM.
(Hoi. IS, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,-19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.)
The profound author of ** Cml Liberty and Self GoTemment " — ablest exponent of human
rights as understood in our XlXth century by Anglo-Saxons — has expressed the embarrass-
ments of nomenclature in the following note : —
** I ask permission to draw the attention of the scholar to a subject which appears to me
important 1 have used the term Western History, yet it is so indistinct that I must ex-
plain what is meant by it It ought not to be so. I mean by western history, the history
of all historically aotiyo, non-Asiatic nations and tribes — the history of the Europeans and
their descendants in other parts of the world. In the grouping and division of comprehen-
tire subjects, clearness depends in a great measure upon the distinctness of well-chosen
terms. Many students of civilization have probably felt with me the desirableness of a con-
cise term, which should comprehend within the bounds of one word, capable of Aimishing
va with an acceptable adjective, the whole of the western Caucasian portion of mankind —
the Europeans and all their descendants in whatever part of the world, in America, Austra-
lia, Africa, India, the Indian Archipelago and the Pacific Islands. It is an idea which con-
stantly recurs, and makes the necessity of a proper and brief term daily felt Bacon said
that **the wise question is half the science," and may we not add that a wise division and
apt terminology is its completion ? In my private papers I use the term Occidental, in a
sufficiently natural contradistinction to OrientaL But Occidental, like Western, indicates
geographical position ; nor did I feel otherwise authorized to use it here. Europides, would
not be readily accepted either. Japhethian would comprehend more tribes than we wish
to designate. That some term or other must soon be adopted seems to me clear, and I am
ready to accept any expressive name formed in the spirit and according to the taste of our
language. The chemist and natural historian are not the only ones that stand in need of
distinct names for their subjects, but they are less exacting than scholars." — Op, eiL^ Phi-
ladelphia, 8to., 1858, i. pp. 80-1.
Soon after the issue of *' Types of Mankind,'* a pleasant rencontre here with Prof. Frau-
ds Lieber led to conversation between us, wherein it was remarked, that the name of a
mythic daughter of an ante-historic king of Phoenicia (Agenor), — transported by Jupiter in
the form of a natatory milk-white bull to the Isle of Gandia — which, as Eubopa, had not
yet become applied geographically to ** Europe" in the times of Homer, should have given
birth to an adjective — ** European " — that (like Caueatian, Turanian^ &o., supra, note 460)
now designates, as if they were an ethnic unit, types of man historically originating in three
distinct Realms (Arctic, Asiatic, and European properly so-called), and races as essentially
diverse from each other as the Faunas of these Realms themselves : at the same time that,
as Bochart (Phaleg, IV. 88) long ago perceived, such nations differ entirely from the men
of a fourth Realm — ** quia Europcta Africanos candore faciei multum superant"
Prof. Lieber was so good as to leave with me (18th July, 1864) a memorandum embody-
ing the result of our conference : —
** P. S. I may add that I have thought of the following names, all of which seem poor
tome—
Japhetiant (includes too much) ;
Dyti'Caueatiana (bad) ;
HuperthCaueatiant (poor) ;
JSuropa'Caueanam (poorer).
624 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU.
" I Tvallr think Europidiam is the least objeeti<mab]e, mltliovgh 1 ow it wxmid bitm
people, at first glance, to suppose that it includes the deertitiiiaiifi of Eon^caiif odj,
whereas the name ought to include Ewropeani and all thrir dmrwmdmmtt F. L"
Such are the difficulties. I do not propose to resolve them : but woald iaqmrt of fcDov-
ethnologists — inasmuch as we now know that^ Sn ptuMndlAl Europe, dwre onee cxjftii
(prior to the tripartite Celtic, Indo*€krman, and Shlaiie, immlgratioBs}, aoi 'vhcee da-
instruments lie entombed in French diluTial drilt» men whose baaatile ^mitigei are fceid
in ossuaries and bone-cayems, men who in Anglia and in acandtnavia preeedcd the Edi;
just as there are still liTing, in modem Europe, their Baafm aad ASbmuat^ waak oihff,
successors — ^whether it might not be conTenient to adopt Prol lieber's tem ** EBrop£sii"
(or, Europidat)^ by way of distinguishing such primary hnmaii stratififatioM fam Ai
secondary, now comprised in the current word *' Europeans "T
REFERBKOES AND EXPLANATIOITS.
Es.lS.^FUIE.
[** JuiMt ndlm," Nonniy LapUiidcr ^-HAMmrov Smn, op. cCL, PL XXH, pl SB: «Tk> Aik»
tiT* Laplander of Nonraj, aimilarly markad with nmic ^dtntmimk^^-vmpta* ffu SIMI.^
** * Dan and Akqul, says the Tenerable historian Sazo-OramiaatieBi, wet
hrcthert:*" — that is to say, the Danes and the English descend from ooe ibmi-
try. Angelm, whence the Angles came to Angtim, fies in Denmark proper:
and the Jutes, Jutlanders, came OTer to England with the Saxons." (EuB'
MBRB, op. eU, (supra, note 682) p. 1 : — Also, for "Norman naBMs,"* eonsslt Mf
moirtt de la Soe, R, det Antiquaria du Iford, Copenhagen, 8to., 16oi} [Sm
p. 434, ante,"}
*« With regard to externals,'* says the translator of Gsosgi (Rvant, ir « e»*
pUte Hiitorical account of all the Naiiont which eowipou thai empire, Loodoa, 8t<u
1780, i. p. 87, 46), **the Finns differ nothing from the Laplanders"— beng
flat against the obserrations of CapeU Brooks I But the separatioa of tk
Finns from the Laplanders is supposed to hsTe taken place in the 13tk ecs-
tury, after the forcible conTersion of the former to ChristianitT. Howevfr,
the very best work on all the Russian peoples is Oomrr Chaeles di Bici-
bbrq'b {Lts Peupltt de la Rustic, kc. — with 94 figures, Paris, 2 toIs. foL.— with-
out date, but during the reign of Nicholas).' He says (i. p. 6), '^Howmaaj
nations, how many religions, how many tongues, what Taried customs in thii
immense State I Let its diverse habitants be compared, and what diFtancei
between their forms, their manner of liring, their costumes, their tongues, their
opinions I What a difference, for instance, betwixt the Liyonian and the Kil-
mouk, betwixt the Russ and the Samoiede, betwixt the Finn and the Cancasiaa,
betwixt the Aleutian and the Cossack! What diyers degrees of cirilixatioe,
from the Samoiede, who merely, so to say, Tegetates in his smoky hut« to tbt
affluent inhabitant of St Petersburg or of Moscow, who expresi^es himself in the
language of Voltaire almost equally to a Parisian I" He enumerates 99 raed.
grouped into five types. It must be from this work's suggestions that Prinee
Di^midoff created that beautifdl series of colored easts of Russian
in the Qalerie Anthropoloffique,
He. 14. - ICELAEDER.
[** Wtur OUITiMtn. P6ehaar de IMklarik :— OAniAiis Vojf. em Idamie «( em
•« U«cherche'* (1R35-6), Pari*, 1840; fol. Atlaa birt., L]
Colored by descriptions. Vtde lupra. Chap. V., pp. 684-^
He. 16.— BARON CUYIER.
[From lithograph of hli portrait by MASinr.]
. EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 625
''Gbokqi Cuvieb, the first of all descriptive anatomists, and the soientiilo
man who first, after Aristotle, applied the art of anatomy to general science,
was bom on the 28d of August, 1769, at Montbeliard, a small and originally
a German town, but long since incorporated within the French territories. He
was a native of Wirtemberg, a German in fact, and not a Frenchman in any sense
of the term, saving a political one. The family came originally ftrom a village
of the Jura, bearing the same name, of Swiss origin therefore, and a native
of the country which gave birth to Agassii. In personal appearance he
much resembled a Dane, or North German, to which race he really belonged.
Cuvier then was a German, a man of the German race, an adopted son of France,
but not a Celtic man [nor a Kelt}, not a Frenchman. In character he was in
fact the antithesis of their race, and how he assorted and consorted with them
it is difficult to say. Calm, systematic, a lover of the most perfect order,
methodical beyond all men I have ever seen, collective and accumulative in a sci-
entific point (if view, his destinies called him to play a grand part in the midst
of a non-accumulative race, a race with whom order is the exception, disorder
the rule. But his place was in the Academy, into which neither dema-
gogues nor priests can enter. Around him sat La Place, Arago, Gay-Lussao,
Humboldt, Ampere, Lamarck, G^ffroy. This was his security, these his coad-
jutors, this the audience which Cuvier, the Saxon, and therefore the Protestant,
habitually addressed. It was whilst conversing with him one day in his library,
which opened into the Museum of Comparative Anatomy, a museum which he
formed, that the full value of his position forced itself upon me. This was, I
think, during the winter of 1821 or '22. A memoir had been discussed a day
or two before at the Academy : I remarked to him that the views advocated in
that memoir could not fail to be adopted by all unprejudiced men (hommes aatu
pr^ugit) in France. * And how many men tant pr^jugU may there be in
France ?' was his reply.
«• < There must,' I said, <be many, there must be thousands.' %
*< * Reduce the number to forty, and you will be nearer the truth,' was the
remarkable observation of my illustrious friend.
I mused and thought. "~(R. Khox, M. D., F. R. S. E., Qrtat ArtUU and Or§ai
AnatomitU, London, 12mo. 1852, pp. 18-19.
. 16.— BUieABIAV.
[**funilltt Ba1gu«:"~0AnaB]> (Oomminlon SdentiflqQtt do Nord), Fby. am l^pihiurg, Liypmitf
See excellent ** Portraits-types Turcs et Grecs de la Roum^e," with others
of Circassians, Kurds, &c., in Hommaibb db Hkll ( Voyage en TurguU et m
Ferte, Paris, 1854, Atlas fol. Pie. viii., liii., xlviii.: and, for everything else
here needfiil, D'Ohsson Tableau ginSral de V Empire OUomanf Paris, foL, 1790-
1820; n, pp. 186-7; Plates 68-74.)
. 17.— GBEbK.
[« Palletf [guerilla], tiM de rArebipel. Oreo:— fiUerie Sojfok de Cbelumea, Aubert k Ch., Paik,
i>l.,PL8.]
On this face, M. Pulsiky comments, in a private letter to me, that this man
is a Sclavonian. I agree with hi^ ; but such is the normal type of Moreots at
the present day.
. 18.— CA1TCA8IAH.
[" Prince Kesbek (OiettM) r^—OAOABiBi, Cbehmet dm (hmeaae, Pirie, ftL 1868:)
I mean, as the highest type of the "Men of Mt Canoasiis" (fiym^ Chapi^ *
note 460). I have no space to enlarge upon thia moimttiB't mttf
bitanta.
40
626 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU.
V«.19. — 8TRIAV.
[«-Hal)itaat da Bethltem (Ptlmaa^^f—Oakrie Sogde it Cbntwmm, PL 1]
A most chitfacteristieal type oif people I know weO.
Ve.10.— ARAS.
[« laeml Anh, near Oomkjrf-^ Puan l^ArannB, In JtaU^t OrlaUai 2ZS«n, Loato, «,
ISM, PL 8.]
** Toili les AraheB'Bedouini, • • • • We hsTe enlarged somewliat in detail
oa thia race, because, in the midst of this hybrid popolation of Syria, —of this
confbsed mixtnre of Greeks, Jews, Torks, Barbaresquee, Armenians, Franks,
[L e. Bunpeaiu'], Maronites, Dnues, and Moghrabees — it is Che only people
thnt offers a special and homogeneons character, the only one whose ethno-
graphy can be attached to primitiTe traditions, and to the history of the fint
ages" (Tatloe & Rbtbaud, La Sffrie^ v6gypU^ la FaUttuu, H la Jwdit^ Paris^
foL 1889, L p. 126.)
[fcrtftrf MniJin SgyptiMi p«MSBt : ^Pusn s^ATonnsrs portMks PnH 18H.)
Compare the ancient and the modem type, as before exhibited (ntpro, Pistes
I, II) ; and commented on by Pnlssky (Chapter EL), and by myself in "Pre&-
lory Remarks."
V«.tt.— BERBER.
[•* Tioapis d*AM«t>KJuIer :f — Oilcris Bogak dt Cbthmea, PL L)
Compare Cutikr, Atlas, Mammifhret: — Bokt di St. VnoBar, Anihrcpelopi
d$ FA/rique FranfotM (Mag. de Zool, Paris, 1M5), PL 60^ No. IL See, also,
my Chapter V, pp. 527-48.
Bo. 19. — UZBEK-TATAR.
['* .^)uA miertOy geweeum Canoelller in Ooloonda/'— from M. Polnky't ooQeeticn of t)rtf«r*«
Eiuit-Iiidiaii portraits, ij native artiitc; vith Dntdi MS. oatalogne, ** Namea der PenooMi
wiea Cootorfytaels in dit boe^e Staan mat aannydnf htknnaa qnaiitejlah,'* No. 35.]
Bo.91~AFF6HlLK.
[««A de Cabal f—Oalerit Bojfok de Oattumn, PL flL]
Tjfpes of Mankind, pp. 118-24; and against the latest AffghanoJevisii
theories of Ross and of Fobstib, — besides noting the colored portraits of
Douraunees in Moumtstuaet EilPHiJiSTOirB's Cabul — set the following affirms-
tions fVom Eknnkdt. Thn Affgh&ns, '< originally a Turkish or Moghul natioo,
but that at present they are a mixed race, consisting of the inhabitants of
Ghaur, the Turkish tribe of Khiyi [swords t], and the Perso-Indian tribes
dwelling between the eastern branches of the Uindn Kosh and the upper ptrts
of the Indus." {Op. cit., p. 6, — supra, V, note 516; citing Lubcb, in Fncetd.
Oeog. Soc. of Bombay, 1838.)
IV.
APKICAV BEALX.
(Hos. 19. 80, 8L S3. SI)
U '< |u>1,rKliitta" wu so felicitously appUad to Ih. Aitatie worM by KIsprotb, v^
..Htt»U,Y-w««U iilnoe [«i;>ra, fihapter I, p. 61.] to Ik. Afrieui hj Kodle, in regmrd ts Um
Uu«mk|l«w ipokou OTMT more thu half tke tonrwtiwl ■apwteiw of w ^be. wot^
EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 627
deflignation, — that of "multicolor'* — might, with propriety, be given to the human abori-
f^nes of that AfHcan continent, wherein, betwixt the Tropic of Cancer and that of Capri-
eom, the human skin possesses more shades and hues — totally independent of any imagined
elimatologic influences — than in any giyen area within the rest of this earth. To the evi-
deuces of this fact (new to general readers, who fancy that a woolly-headed *' negro*' must
necessarily be black) accumulated, for southern Africa in Prichard's last yolume, and for
western in a pamphlet before cited («i<pra. Chap. Ill, p. 224; Chap. y,p.561),<— whilst in the
Pariflian gaUrU anthropologigue abundant colored casts, paintings, and photographs, illus-
trate all three regions — the magnificent plastic collection of M. de Froberville(«u^ap. 608)
will, when published, furnish for eastern Africa singularly unanticipated corroborations.
On the Mozambique coasts alone, amid the nations grouped together, by- this minutely-
accurate obserrer, under the designation *< Ostro-Negro" — amid whom the Jtkuat are the
most polychrome — nature's palette has supplied pigments of such innumerable tints that,
only tixty colored ca»U haye yielded 4 distinct nigritian types, subdivided into about 81
** yari^t^." In our Ethnographic Tableau^ Nos. 27 and 28 represent two of these tints ;
and in our Monkey-chart, figs. F, C, and D, indicate three more.
REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS.
Vo. Sft. — ABABDEE.
[^AbdriirAmid d-AVbadi—AQ aos <~de« montagDW k Z Ihraes ds Oon^if* Lvnrai, Voya^ en
Jby$tinie (1839-40X Puria, Atlu M^ 8.]
Knowing these people through long years of obserration, I chose this as an
admirable representation of their normal type; which the reader can contrast^
with an equally good BUharree — as the next austral gradation along the Nile,
eastern desert (Typet of Mankind, p. 208, fig. 120). See Valentia {Voy.
and TraveU, India, &c., London, 4to, 1802-6, II, p. 289) for another good
profile of a Bitharree — drawn by my boyhood's friend and manhood's admi-
ration, the late Consul-General Hem&t Salt.
Vo. 86.— SAHABA-HSGBO.
[** Tjpe Bthiopiei& (N^gn) :"— Boar in Sr. YiKonr, Anthrcpdiogie de VJfriqtut jyvn^ate, Mtfaflhi
ae Zoologto, Ac, Oct 1845; MunmlArM, PL 6» No. m ; p. 18.]
Compare {mpra. Chapter V, wood-cut V), front-view of the same head; to-
gether with the profile of the Gorilla, same page, wood-cut C
V«. 97.— TEBOO-HBGBO.
{*^Ockl!rFkkmt.Dl, natif d« T«boD (!«« dPenyfron 42 ant);**— D»AyKA0, HbHoi avr U Atyt d b
I^MfUdu TOoui (Minoirtid* la8oei6t6 Bthnologlqiie); Paite, Sro, 1889; PUta, and p^ 21-
Colored to represent an ordinary negro ; but the true hue is said to be ** ua
noir brun."
See Di Frobkbtilli, <<8ur la persistaace dei charaot^ras typiques da
n^gre" (BuUetin de See. de EiknoL de Parie, 1847, pp. 266-7).
Vo. 88.— KOZAKBIQinE-HEGBO.
['^N^ra d0 U Cftte d« Mosambiqaa :"— copied In Brnsll by Gsoais, op. ciL, 1** lir., PI. m.]
Colored to represent one of the Tarious shades of the M'koua nation, in the
inedited collection of 60 plaster casts of Africans brought frt>m Bourbon and
Mauritius by M. db Fbobervillb (Paris, 1855). Vide ** Rapport sur les races
n^gres de I'Afrique Orientale au sud de I'^quateur, obserr^es par M. de Fro-
berrille;" Comptee rtndut dee eiancee de VAcadimie dee Seieneet, XXX, 8 juin,
1850; tirage ft part, pp. 11-14: — also, "Analyse d'un M4moire de M. Engtoe
de Froberrille," in Bulletin de la Sociiti Ethnologique de Pam^ ann4e 1846, 1,
pp. 89-99 :— and BvUetine de la SocUti de Oiogrt^kie,
^ rXPLASATIONS OF THE TABLEAU.
Zatai fa dandnff eottaUM) :"— 0. FUircH Aimab, Kt^ln IDiciCraiei, Londoi
jDod deseriptiotifl — less tinotiired with '< Exeter Hall" philanthropy
It Engfish reports — see Dilooboui ( Voyagt d4mt rj/rique AutirtU
Amaxoiiloiis et Makatisses," Paris, 1847, 2 toIs. 8to); who hu
eadiibited these nations in their tme light, in *'Note snr lea Cafrei"
She di Etkmhgiqu€ de Parit, 1847, pp. 182-48).
Lovis Albirti {Dttcription pkytiquM §t huloriqu^ dtt Cafrtty An-
Sto, 1811, p. 29), and Li Vailla^it, (2d Voy, dan* rintfrieur ii
rjfnfmt^ P^rts, 178^-5, U, PL XXI, III, pp. 88-189), with LiCHTi5snii
T^^mA m South Afrita^ London, 4to, 1812), who OTerthrows Ban\>w'8 Sinico-
prc<fileetioii8, whilst substantiating, ad yugmmdum, this last nitn-
.Jethnmona. PamBSON's Narrative (London, 1789), Sparrxav^s Ctf
B^inma (Paris, 1787), and Salt's Ab3f9nma (London, 1814) furnish
aanrialB fbr Foljgenists.
of % BiittMiirnt> •«■< *tt «u— eoitimi* nattml— 4 m 10 «nlkiu*— exhibited at PiHii
If v. U BooHEAU — OaUrie AnOtropoloffiqtu dm MuUum fBidein
ICjr ^MBii 3Cr. J. Btovard Daris, haTing shown me the two full-siie colored
tm^ •* B^iiriliM«>* sale awl female, in the Royal College of Surgeons, I im
» i^ dittc lib^ dUcr BB much from anything homan I erer saw, as a pon
^ ' MB firoHi a ** pug."
r ^^im Ft S4 of PfBOB, Voy, et Dieom. aux Term AMttrekt
the ffradationt of feature in Hottentote^ Kefn,
Ike. IB Dahibll (Sketehte repreeenting the Native Triha,
Satury ^ Stmthem AJriea, London, 4to, 1820) ; who, speaking of
a* «mmU S/C9raB}C a«U» (p. 29) that, when young she is symmetrical, bot
timiUBiT^ iwKomtatw into those deformities which are too well known to
-w^ittr^ a TVtxnukr mMtMB.**
Xji. I «!iNCt ;Jbat th««e pceuHarities — which incontestably proTO the Rotten-
««. II V a ib«cj»ct ^ j^eetes** — are not only little known, but that the facts
m^ycriftsjini — and by Cutibr himself — in order not to alarm Monoge-
t!h» 4«^;f«Kt ^eee ^VpA ^ Mankind^ p. 481, wood-cut 276) is not fitted
^ j»iKt«tti5Mtt im a popular work like the present ; but the President of oar
^•vu-eoi* /^ Sat. Scieticea, Mr. Ord, possesses the euppreseed plates (which he
^■^ tm^ j4jwb me), and knows where the original colored drawings made at
BMi ,^V« V P^*<^' <A<1 Lbsubur are preserred. [See Ord, <* Memoir of
;^Mi^ ijetB. L««aeiir,**— iStUmBfi'j Journal, 2d series, 1849, VIII, pp. 204-4^,
$!\l:> --.aail take note that, of the plates beautifully engraved for the ** Voyage
MJk TVr^i« A«strale0i," 4 (exhibiting the *'Tablier" with amazing minuteness,
^»^ *k a3 a^!e«.) were suppressed, by Curier's order, in the Ist ed. 181 6i, and in
\»«. Sii t:^: : beeause the Uvr^ of Afr. Ord's unique copy has 28 (1 with 2
wheieifcs that published by Arthus Bertrand contains only 25
A more ifisgracefU ease of unscientific pandering to the '* Unity of
ean nowhere be found. Polygenists will, notwithstanding.
<jp^ %c ^liiwn tn^ some day ; and, in the interim, can gather an osteologieal
irt^i m n ^>t<^eBB Hottentots and other ** species'' from Khox (Rmcee^ Philad.
^^ 'T^^ Ifw IS2, 167); as well as read the comments of Yibbt {Hi$L Nat
4k A-^ Ifhmwi^ PariB, 1824, 1, pp. 224, 244-^).
)t % arUie l^}«fi€ioai obaenrBtions of Johv Babbow (Frenoh translatioti by
EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 629
Cast^ra, Voyage en Chine, Paris, 1805, I, pp. 77-82, PI. lY, AUas,)— and to hia
alone — that a notion has got abroad that the Chinete and the Hottentots re-
semble each other 1 Piourimq (Races, 4to, p. 219), forty years later, frankly
states, ** I am not sure that I hare seen Hottentots of pure raoe."
V.
AKEBICAH BEALK.
(Hot. 37, 88, 39, 40, 41, 42.)
To ourseWes in America this being naturally the most interesting, we may derote to its
consideration a few more paragraphs than space admitted for the others.
*' In fine, our own conclusion, long ago deduced from a patient examination of the flMts
thus briefly and inadequately stated, is, that the A meriean race is essentiaUy separate emd
peculiar, whether we regard it in its physical, its moral, or its intellectual relations. To ms
there are no direct or obvious links between the people of the old world and the new; for, eren
admitting the seeming analogies to which we hare alluded, these are so few in number and
e^dently so casual as not to inyalidate the main position ; and CTen should it be hereafter
shown, that the arts, sciences, and religion of America can be traced to an exotic source, I
maintain that the organic characters of the people themseWes, through all their endless
ramifications of tribes and nations, prore them to belong to one and the same race, and
that Mil race is distinct from all other^^ (Morton, Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriffined
Race of America, Philadelphia, 8to, 2d ed., 1844, pp. 86-^).
The Spanish GonquistadOres had long ago remarked that " he who has seen one tribe of
Indians, has seen all:" but, it must be also remembered that Ulloa, who first uses this
sentence, was speaking of Central and South American aborigines ; and not of the Northern,
or Barbarous (as distinguished from Toltecan), races, — with whom he was wholly im-
aequainted.
« The half-clad Fuegian, shrinking from his dreary wiuter, has the same characteristie
lineaments, though in an exaggerated degree, as the Indians of the tropical plains ; and
these, again, resemble the tribes which inhabit the region west of the Rocky Mountains —
those of the great Valley of the Mississippi, and those, again, which skirt the EskLmaux on
the North. All possess alike the long, lank, black hair, the brown or cinnamon-colored
skin, the heayy brow, the dull and sleepy eye, the Aill and compressed lips, and the salient,
but dilated nose. . . . The same conformity of organization is not less obTious in the osteon
logical structure of these people, as seen in the square or rounded head, the flattened or
vertical occiput, the large quadrangular orbits, and the low, receding forehead. . . . Mere
exceptions to a general rule do not alter the peculiar physiognomy of the Indian, which Is
as underiatingly characteristic as that of the Negro ; for whether we see him in the athletie
Charib or the stunted Chayma, in the dark Califomian or the fair Borroa, he is an Indian
stin, and cannot be mistaken for a being of any other race" (Mobton, Op, di,, pp. 4-5: — Types
ef Mankind, p. 489).
While lately at Paris, my friend M. Maury faTored me with the loan of a book, then
Just issued from the press of (Cherbuliez) Genera, — by M. F. db RouotMONT {Le peupls
primitif, sa religion, son histoire et sa civilisation, 2 vols. 8to, 1855). As learned as the works
of Count db Gibxlin, Db Pauw, Db Guionxs, Db Foubmont, Baillt, Wabbubtoh, or
DuPOis, it far surpasses that of Fabbb ( Origin of Pagan Idolatry) in the immensity of its
geographical range and the ynriety of its literary sources. Having been, in due course of
time, reviewed by M. Maury himself (Athenceum Francois, 6 Octobre 1855), some passages
of his article, bearing upon the literary character of our earliest poet-Coli
ties for American history, are here introduced.
630 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU.
**M. Ir^d^rio de Rougemont accepts without hesitation the contents of the Old Testa-
ment ; avoiding to distinguish between the moral and religions part, and the pnrelj bit-
torioal and fceographical part, — ^between the divine part and the human part. In his eyea,
one ^nd the same character of inspiration eonsecratee all the pages of the holj book; tad
the rdle of the critic reduces itself to that of a commentator. * * *
**I shall not undertake to discuss the principles upon which M. de Rongemont seaffokk
his edifice. I will restrict myself to consigning here one obserration, Tis: that, althovgh
Protestantism is the school of free inquiry, there exist in its bosom some persons who, is
matters of biblical exegesis and criticism, show themselTos much lesq liberal and less bold
than the Cdtholics are themseWee. Inasmuch as the Protestants feel the lack of an
authority, and as that of a traditional dogmatic tuition is wanting to them, they cling witk
earnestness to a book which is the only authority to them remaining, and they will not
issue from a literal and narrow interpretatipn. This system greatly iigures the ad▼lllo^
ment of a multitude of sciences, — snch as ethnology, chronology, geology, &o. — that hsTt
need of liberty and independence.
*< In order to proceed in a method truly scientific, it is necessary to clear the table (/fin
tahle ra»e) of everything which has no scientific value, and consequently of everything that
ia not conformable to reason. Sufficient is it to say, that the domain of faith and thi
domain of science are altogether distinct : nor can they be confounded without compro-
mising the dignity and the rdle as well of the one as of the other. But, on the oppoota
hand, science, when she stands upon her own ground, cannot, without self-abnegatioo,
admit that to be demonstrated and certain which is only so in respect to sentiment Tbe
£ault of M. de Rougemont is, to have constantly mingled the two methods ; no less than to
have believed that he could, at one and the same time, satisfy purely-scientific opinioM
and religious conrictions.
*< It has happened to the author of this book what had occurred to the first misaionariM
who went forth to preach the gospel among savages. Pre-occupied with the thought of
re-finding, in the tales and gross imaginations of such septs, some remembrances of the
pristine fatherland whence these believed themselves to have issued, the missionaries ban
modified, often unknowingly, often intentionally likewise, the recitals they had heard, in
order to invest them with a more biblical color. They have transformed into serious and
oonoected traditions that which was but the instantaneous and capriciou? creation of a
savage poet inspired through their oum diteourtet; and it is such stuff which they bsTi
presented to us as the seoulary reminiscences of the savages whom they were evangelizing.
Indeed, these infantile stories did not often ascend to an epoch more ancient than the
missionaries from whom we receive them, — and already the influence of the ideas preached
by them, of the facts by themselves taught to their catechumens, mado itself felt within
the very narrow circle of the conceptions of these tribes. In this manner, the apostlei
of Christ only retook, under another form, that which they themselves had sown ; and the;
registered, as ancient traditions, that which was naught but the fantastic envelope given to
their own teaching. This is what has incontestably occurred, — notably on the discovery
of America, and more recently in the islands of the Indian Archipelago and of Polynesia
It suffices to cast one's eye upon the first accounts that the Spaniards composed about tho
religion and the usages of the Indians, in order to convince oneself that the former con-
stantly mixed up their own beliefs with the fables which they gathered here and thero
amongst the savages."
After proring his positions — for Mexico, through D. Andrxs Gonzalbs Babcia, Fbait-
Cisco Lopez db Qomaba, Juan dx Tobqubmada, Fathbr Lafitau, Gabcilasso db la
Vbqa, and D. Febnando d'Alya-Ixtitxochitl — for New Zealand, through Sib Gbobob
Grbt, [Dunmoee Lang], J. 0. Polack, Dibpenbach, and MacBBNHonr — and for Peru,
through the Jesuit Pedro Jost db Abiaga, subjected to the recent scalpel of T. G. MI^lleb
[Oetehichle der Amerikanisehen Urrdigionen) — M. Maury glances over the ultra-biblical
notions of ancient Egypt, Greece, and Hindost4n ; and lastly touches upon the traditioBa
of the Hebrews:
EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 631
**Tliat which comes against the suppositions of our author is, — the rery trifling
derelopment which the dogma of a fViture state, and of demons, had taken among the
Israelites; whereas we see it serving as a basis to the great polytheistic religions of
antiquity. If the biblical tradition had been the foundation of pagan beliefs, how come*
it that that which was to itself the most foreign should have played amid them the prin-
cipal part? And, on the other hand, one would be compelled to recognize that these
heathen nations have been more faithful depositaries of the primitive gospel than the
elect-people itself, — because Christianity has adopted those dogmatical data which the
Oreeks and the Egyptians knew a great deal better than the Hebrews. Our author really
feels the difficulty; and it is in vain that he tries to parry the objection accruing from
it against his system.
** There is, however, one point upon which I will not combat M. de Rougemont^ and
which will give me an occasion to conclude this polemic — perhaps a little too prolonged
— with a treaty of peace. The Swiss writer respects in all religions their dignity, and
that which may be called, up to a certain point, their truth. They are, indeed, the ones
as wen as the others, the expression of the gratitude of man towards his Creator, towards
Nature, whose benefits sustain his existence. They constitute the more or less naive
shape which thought puts on whilst meditating upon our destinies; and, as such, they
liave the right to be seriously studied ; as such, they must find place in the history of that
which is the noblest of our being. Beneath those errors, — natural fruits of credulity and
fear — that encircle human bdief, there lives a profound and instinctive sentiment which is
bound up with all our good instinots, whensoever it be suitably directed and restrained :
—this sentiment is that of the soul feeling its weakness, which has need of the support
of the mysterious Being whence it proceeds. This sentiment consoles and strengthens :
it is the refuge of the honest man, and the motive-power of the most sublime sacrifices.
Science, far from combating it, bows before it She accepts it as a fact as evident as the
moat evident of physical and historical facts. M. de Rougemont feels these truths with
more force than any man, because it is the excess of this sentiment that leads him astray.
He wishes, like the ancient Gnostics, to behold but the rays of which the luminous portion
becomes enfeebled in the ratio that they remove themselves farther from the Divine focus
whence they emanate ; but, whatever may be said about it, matter hat also had its part to
fiay in these creeds and these superstitions^ — and the majority were bom upon a soil that had
not been warmed by the gentle light with which he is illumined."
FinaBy, those who may care about knowing what is now, in France and Germany, the
scientific stand-point as concerns such words as ** Creation," ** Deluge," **Ark," and other
Semitico-Christian traditions, have merely to turn over the leaves, for about 80 instances,
tmb vodbus, of Didot's Eneyelop£die Modems, last edition.
REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS.
Vo. SL — EUTCHUI-IlfDIAH.
I** Kut^O'Kutehin warrior (Loiieb«ax-IiKUans of Bfaektiixle):"— RiOBAUSoir, Arttie flhiixftfc^p
XtpsctUUm (1M8-60), London, 1851 ; I, p. 881.]
For instinctive hatreds between the indigenous Indian races and the Arotio
Eskimo, compare Hiarni {Northern Ocean, London, 1769-72, Chap. YI),
HooPBft (Tuski, pp. 272-6), and Riohabdson {Op. dt., I, pp. 877-402).^
Vo. 88.— STOEE-IHDIAir.
[SUms-lndian (near Camberland Hoom:"— FaAHXLDi, Fby. to Iblar Sea, London, 1828, p. 101]
<( The 'TVniM" [as the Eskimos term the Indians], or Chippewyans as Indians,
stretch across the continent of America, meeting the Eskimos on the east and
the KtUchin on the west of the Rocky mountains (Richardson, cp. at., U^ m.
1-69). No two types are more distinct than American Indians and the Aretio
man.
632 EXPLANATIONS OP THE TABLEAU,
Vo. 88. — OTTOE-INDIAH.
l^Wah-ro-nee-iah, th« Sarronndmr, «ii (HtK*«hiaf .•"— Puobabo^ JVU. BiaL qf Man, UM: Q, f.
bil (fh>in CaUln), PL UIL
Vo. 84.— YXrCATANIKDIAH.
[*< iQdien Gontrabandler de Plntfrlrar :"— >Wau)iigx, Voifage PUtor. H JrthioL dam Is J^mtnn
de Yucaian {Ameriqiu OaitrdU), 1834-6; PvU, foL 1837; PL T.]
Unfortunately, the plates in Richabd Sohombukok {Reiim m Brititk OuimiM,
Leipzig, fol. 1886; I, p. 429; II, p. 42) are nncolored; whilst "EssetamiiM
Wapisiana" is Europeanized. There are, howerer, excellent desoriptioiii of
the colors, &o., in Bobt. H. Sohombubqk's beautify work {TwtifH Vkm m
Brilith Guiana, foL, 1841, pp. 80-1).
Ho. 8ff. — BOBOUA-INDIAH.
fDxBKn, Voyage PUiar, ou BHsSL, Paris, foL, 1836; PL 29, llg. 8.]
Colored from descriptions in Db Castxlnau — {Exp^iiion datu lea parim
eentralea de VAm6rique du Sud, Paris, 1848-51, **Vae8 et Scenes," pp. 6-14),
compared with a tint obtained at the Oalerie Anihropologique. Mobtob caUed
them **the fair Borroa."
Yob Schweob {Braeilien die Neue Weit, Bnmswick, 8to, 1880, pp. 216-44),
D'Obbiomt (Amirique m^ridionaU, Paris, 1846; Atlas, Plates 1-18), Pmoi
Max. of Wibd-Neuwibd {Travelt in Brazil, London, fol. 1820, pp. 811-12, pL
XTii, on **Botocudos"), Debbbt {Brieil, Paris, fol., 1885, II, pp. 2 seqq.),
Aug. db St. Uilaibb {Rio de Janeiro et de Minae Oeraee, Paris, 8to, 1880, 1,
pp. 424-6; II, pp. 48-281) — not to mention my friend M. Ferdinand de 8l
Denis, Librarian of the ** Biblioth^qne de St G^neri^Te," who has critioaDj
sommed up the whole of these authorities in his yarious publications — mty,
perhaps, arrest the attention of some reader, before he Toluntarily conoedti
that monogenistic yiews on human "species" are things jet scientificallj
bliahed.
Vo. 86.— FTTEGIAH.
['* Tapoo reX:«mu»— Peeharay-man:"— Fttxrot, Surveying Voy. of " Adyeatare" aad «
(1826-39); London, 1829, II, p. 141.
Colored from descriptions in Idem; and in D'Obbiont's " L' Homme Ad^
cain."
VI.
POLTITESIAir BEALK.
(Sob. 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42)
VOc^anie," in Dumont d'Urville's ethnic map ( Voyage dela Corvette VAttrolaht, 182(>-5;
Paris, folio Atlas, 1833:— 8vo Text, II, pp. 610-30), is luminously depicted in four colon,
Ti«: Malaieie in blue, MicronSiie, in green, MilanSeie in yellow, and Polyniaie in pink.
Only the three last named subdirisions comprehend the human /ounce of our **PoljnesiaB'
Rbalm.
What their respective contrasts are, is, in our Tableau, inadequately illustrated in on*
line of portrait^). What the greatest of modem circumnavigator's opinions wore, on tli«
types of mankind so thoroughly studied by himself, may be gathered from three paragrspiii*
"It is now-a-days almost averred that the Alfouroue of Timor, of Coram and Bonroo'
the Negritos del monte, or Aetat, of Mindanao; the Indioe of the Philippines; the Tfolfitek
of Luzon ; the Negrillo* of Borneo ; the blacke of Formosa, of the AndamaoB, of Samatni
EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 633
of MiJacca, and those of Coohin-China, called Moyt or Kemoys, — appertain to this same
primitiYe race of Melanesians [blaok-islanders] who must hare been the first occapiers of
Oceania.
** We do not hesitate to belioTe that the Polthssians arrired from the west and eren
firom Asia [an * opinion '] ;*bat we do not at all belieye that they are the descendants of the
present Hindoos. Thejr had probably a common origin with them ; but the two nations
had been already separated for a long time, when one of them went to people Oceania.
'* The same holds good as regards the consequences which different Toyagers have drawn
firom the relations obsenred between the Poltmisiams and the Malays. Withont any donbt,
these two nations had of yore some intercourse. Lengthened studies have caused us to
discorer about 60 words which are evidently common between the two tongues ; and that
is sufficient to attest some ancient communications. But, there is too much difference in
the physiological * rapports' for one to be able to suppose that Polthesiams could be
merely a Blalayan colony."
REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS.
Vo. 87.— NEW ZBALANBEB.
[*« Tmri, chef <1« U NoQTvIIe UUmde:* — Dupsbest, Toy. aulaur dm Monde, << Coqall]«* (ISXK-ft);
Parlis 1820, foUo Atlas, Na 47.J
It should be remembered that the contracted skin, in tatooed New Zealand
faces, proceeds from the cicatrices accruing from such process.
Vo. 88.— 8AX0A-ISLANDEB.
I** Mftn of th« 8unoui blandi :"— Psiobaiis op. ctt., n, PL XXym, p. 461.]
Erskini {Cruitty U. M, S. Havannah, London, 8to, 1853) gives the most
recent and the best accounts of the commingling of different blood in the west-
em Pacific; since those of Quot and Gaimabd {Zoolo^ie, ** Astrolabe," 1880, I,
pp. 15-57), and of Lbssoh and Oa¬ (Zooloffu, <'Coquille," Paris, 1826. I«
pp. 8-116).
lo. 89. — TIK0PIA-I8LANDEB.
[<* Natnrel d« Tkopla:"— XHTivulu, Vo^, *< AatrolalM," PL 177; Y, pp. 10»-14].
Colored from Idem, PI. 185.
See Nott's Chapter IV {eupra, note 29) for tlue fact that these fair Islanders
of the true ifaort race cannot acclimate themselves on an acyacent island of
the same Archipelago, whereon the aboriginal Blacks flourish.
!«. 40. — YANIXORO-ISLANDEB.
[** Maingho <!• Man4T4:*' —D^avnu, ep. dt, PL 176, T, p. 166].
On this island, in 1788, were wrecked two French frigates, and, amidst thefl«
people, with aU the gallant Frenchmen, perished La P^bousx — whose immortal
name ennobles this archipelago. The accounts of Captain Dillon, and of
Dumont d'Urville— who himself, after braving unharmed the perils of the sea in
three voyages round the world, was burnt up in a rail-car at Meudon, together
with his wife and son — furnish all particulars. '
No. 4L — TANA-ISLANDER.
[*< Man of Tmnft, New Hebrides:"— £r8KI1cb, Onte, de. in WaUm Bxci/te (1849), H. if. & «Bi^
vanneb ;" London, 1863; PL III« p. S26.J
For an admirable ** Tableau synoptique des principales variations de tailla
dans les races humaines," which includes all these islanders as well as other
types of man, consult Isid. GKonr. St. Hilaulb (Anomaliet de VorganiMatum^
Paris, 8vo, 1882, I, p. 285).
634 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU.
Vo. 42. — VITI-I8LAVDEB.
I** Habitant de HaTr&Oart«r«ty areo M pelntim de oMmonto :*— IHTmTiUJ^ op. oAL, FL f^ IT,f
446.]
Colored from i<iem, PL 100. AH theM isUndert bedaub their hem, ul
Bt&in their hair 'vrith red and yellow ochres.
VII.
KALATAir [otherwise ''East-Indian"] BEALK.
(ITos. 43, 4A, 45, 46, 47, 48.)
Raffles, Mars den, CaAWFusD, Loo an : — these four names constitiite, anumg the ktait,
oar most reliable aathorities.
The most advanced ground of their researches has been already corered by M. Manry'i
Chapter L
Not haying yet received Mr. Crawfurd's last work (1866), I must present the reader wHk
this gentleman's views (in Hiatory of the Indian ArehipelagOf Edinburgh, 8to, 1820; I pp-
18-28) ; after remarking, that European first acquaintance with the Malay race commenced
simultaneously with that of the American, tik : only at the close of the XVth century.
"The first of these [facts] refers to an original and innate distinction of the habiuati
into two separate races. In the Indian Archipelago there are — an aboriginal /atr or hnw%
complexioned race, — and an aboriginal nfffro race ; and, the southern promontory of Afnct
excepted, it is the only country of the globe which exhibits this singular phenomenon. * * *
*' No country has produced a great or civilized race, but a country which, by its fertilitj,
is capable of yielding a supply of farmaceoue grain of the first quality. * * * Their botti
and canoes are, to the Indian Islanders, what the camel, the horse, and the ox, are to the
wandering Arab and the Tartar ; and the sea is te them what the etqfpee and the daerti v%
to the latter. ♦ ♦ ♦
** The savages of New Guinea, surrounded at this day by the most splendid, beautifol,
and rare objects of animal and vegetable nature, live naked and uncultivated. CiriliiAtion
originated in the west, where are situated the countries capable of producing com. Mtn
there is most improved ; and his improvement decreases, in a geographical ratio, as we go
eastward, until, at New Guinea, we find the whole inhabitants an undistinguished race of
savages. ♦ ♦ ♦
** There are two aboriginal races of human beings inhabiting the Indian Islands, as dif-
ferent from each other as both are from all the rest of their species. ♦ ♦ ♦ One of the*
races may be generally described as a brown-complexioned people, vrith lank hair ; and the
other as a black, or rather sooty-coloured race, with woolly or frizzled hair. ♦ ♦ ♦ The bro^
and the ntffro races of the Archipelago may be considered to present, in their phj:4ical ^^
moral character, a complete parallel with the White and the Negro races of the western
world. The first have always displayed as eminent a relative superiority over the second,
as the race of white men has done over the negroes of the west All the indigenoos civili-
zation of the Archipelago has sprung from them ; and the negro race is constantly found m
the savage state. * * * In some of the Spice islands their extirpation is matter of ^
tory. * * * The 6ro im colored tribes agree so remarkably in appearance themseWes, tk**
one general description will suffice for all. ♦ ♦ • The standard of perfection in color >•
virgin-gold ; and as the European lover compares the bosom of his mistress to the whitene*
of snow, the East-Insular lover compares that of his to the yellowness of the pr€<300»
metal. ♦ * * The complexion is scarcely ever clear, and a blush is hardly at any tii»«
discernible. * » ♦
" The Papua, or woolly-haired race, of the Indian islands is a dwarf AfHcan negro. ^
ftdl-grown male brought from the mountains of Queda * * * proved to be no more t^
EXPLANATIONS OP THE TABLEAU. 636
* 4 fset 9 inches high. « « • The skin, instead of being jet black, as in the African, is of a
■ootj eolonr. * * * The East-Insular negro is a distinct variety of the haman species, and
•ridentlj a yery inferior one. * * * They have in no instance risen above the most abject
fondition. Whenever they are encountered by the fairer races, they are hunted down like
the wild animals of the forest, and driven to the mountains or fastnesses, incapable of
resistance. ♦ ♦ ♦
"The question of the first origin of both the negro and brown-complezioned races,
appears to me to be one far beyond the compass of human reason. By very superficial
obeervers, the one has been supposed a colony from Africa, and the other an emigration
from Tartary. Either hypothesis is too absurd to bear the slightest examination. Not to
say that each race is radically distinct from the stock from which it is imagined to have
proceeded ; the physical state of the globe, the nature of man, all we know of his history,
most be overturned to render these violent suppositions possible."
EEFSBBNCE8 AND EXPLANATIONS.
No. 48. — XALAT.
[<* Native of Solor :"— GRzmTH'8 Cfinoierf Animal Kingdom, London, 1827; I, Plata, p. IML]
See original, with some variation of hue, in P£ron, Voy. avz Terres Australa^
(1800-4); 2d ed. ; corrected by De Freycinet, Atlas Hist, PL Y, <' sold at
d'lnfant^rie Malaise.*'
My brother William, who (with my brother Henry) has transferred his resi-
dence from the vicinity of Memphis on the Nile, to Memphis on the Mississippi^
resided four years in the Indian Archipelago, where his knowledge of Arabic,
familiarity with Mussulmans, and clear ethnological perceptions, enabled him
readily to acquire Malay. He writes me the following on these portnuts:
** Your Malay I consider to be the oflTspring of a Kliriff (low-caste man of Madras)
and a Malay woman. The Mintir6 (No. 46) looks more like a Malay. Inter-
course between a KUng and a Malayan woman is not uncommon."
V«.44.— JAYAHESE.
[^Singo-Sekar:**— Yah Pns, OtM-lndiKhe T^pm; HoUand, ibllo, 1864; 6 aflerlng.]
See Baffles (Hist of Java, London, 4to, 1817, — Plates, frontispiece & I, p.
92 — also, p. 69) for the fact that, inasmuch as high-caste Malayo-Javaneee
eomplexion is "a virgin-gold color," this '*Singo-Sekar" must be low-caste.
Vo. 46. — XABUHHE-ISLAVDEB.
[*< CUxudiO'Lajo (Indian da race pore)," at Gnam :— Ds Fbrcdir, Ycy. " 117rania;" Parti^ 1826, PL
ei. No. 2.]
V0.4A— Hnmoo.
l**Chaan-Chmma, Yeldhera van Tii:^)apoar:"— portrait hy native artist (tibi tmpra, Cbap. II, llgt^
9^-6), in tba Puutnrr ooUectioD, Dutch catalogue, No. 21 : ~ enlarged, like the preoeding oa%
to match the other heads in this Tableau.]
Compare for characteristic Hindoos the Hon. Miss Edek's PortraiU of tiis
Prinee* and People of India, London, fol., 1844. Although uncolored, there are
none so good.
Vo.47.— MnnnuL
[•*Man of the Mintirft trihe'* (from Ougong Bennun, who lately settled at Rnmbiih near
Malacca:— LooAN, " Physical characteristics of the MJnUrA " — JowrwaJ of the Indian AreM^
pdago, I, No. V, Nov., 1847; pp. 294-6; and SuppUmmt, Dee. 1847; pp. S2S-86» Plata p. aOT,
2d fig.]
Colored by descriptions in No. V, pp. 247-8, 261 ; but no special reference,
strange to say, being made to individual coloration in these critical papers, it is
as well to compare Vol. II, May, 1848, pp. 24&-8, &c. ; with Hamilton Smith,
op. eiL pp. 224-8. As a memento of the changes which some of these iaUndart
636 EXPLANATIONS OF. THE TABLEAU.
are now undergoing, I may qnote from Logav: ** Unlike the Mantawt mk
Niha [described elsewhere], the Mamwi — at least those of Baniak— kl?t kil
most of the proper Niha-Polynesian habits, and adopted those of the AefaiMN
and Malays" {Journal of tiu Indian Arck^dago^ ^gapore, I, new 8erisi» Ha
1, 1856, pp. 8-10).
Vo« 48. — HEGBILLO.
[**A Papuan or negro of the IndUm Isla&ds^— OtAHViJiBk BUL ^Ok JMiam Jre^pAy^
Edinb., 1820; I, PI. 1.]
Compare Pickikiho {Racit, 4to, pp. 170-4, and PL YIII) for good deseriptiai
of these yaried and most inferior races.
Leaying aside the romance of P. db la GiboniIob ( Vmgt tmnSet am FkSf'
jriMif Paris, 12mo, 1858), the best aoconnts of these '*N^ritos, Indiens, TtgiK
Bisayos, Igorotes, Bariks, Itapanes, Tingoianes, Goinaanes, Yfiigaoa, Qaddsa«;
Calauas, Apayaos, Ibilaos, Ilongotes, Isinayes," are in Mallat {Lm PkHtppiim^
Paris, 8yo, & Atlas foL, 1846) ; who, moreOYer, Aimishes abundant exiapki
of hybridity in its most extraordinary combinations. Abore a million of the sb^
riginal Negritot are extant at the islands of Luzon and Mindanao alone.
VIII.
AVSTKALIAH REALM.
(Nob. », 50, 61, 52, 53, 66, 56.)
Among the more recent authorities consulted— aside from the Toyages of Cook, foDowfd
by the whole series of French circumnayigators — such as Flinders, Angas, Montgonay
Martin, De Strzelecki, Leichhardt, Mitchell, Beete Jukes, &c. ; it is from MACOiLuniT,
nerertheless ( Voyage of H, M. 8. EattUsnake, London, 8to. 1852, II, pp. 1^), tkst oM
deriyes a fact really important enough, — always supposing the reader to possess wu
knowledge of the zoological amid other anomalies of that unaccountable continent— tote
here recalled. This fact, obseryed by a yery competent witness, is, that ** The jnsetiaB
between the two races, the Papuan from the north, and the Australian from the sooth, ii
effected at Cape York by the Kowraregas, whom I belieye to be a Papuan colony of Aostnr
lians." Here the fusion of these two distinct types, through amalgamation and at tbcir
only point of contact, is complete. Fiye distinct natiye tribes are blended, in the nei(^b<ff>
hood of this Cape, more or less into a race of hybrids, — those further back on the mainks^
being pure Aiutralians, and those across Torres Strait on the islands being pure Papntti
the characteristics of both types becoming contrasted by comparing Nos. 41, 42, withKoa
49, 50, 51. No accounts pretending to identify the now perhaps extinct Tatmaniant (Nos. ^
54) with either; or to suppose communication eyer existed between the helpless ssL^tp^^
New South Wales and tho^ of Van Diemen's Land ; we thus discern at a glance tbt
Papuans, Australians, and Tasmanians, are animals as distinct as the yarious ** species""
kangaroos found upon the same continent and island.
REFEKENOES AND EXPLANATIONS.
Vo. 49. — KOBTH ATJSTBALIAH.
I" Nemart (Saayage des enrironii de U riylire Nepean), NoQTelle Hollander** — Dl TuxOf^
Voy. d IHoouv. aua JVrrtf Awtrakit <* rUranie " (1800-4); PL 100, fig. ft.]
Vo. 60.— WEST ATTSTBALIAK.
[" OuroH Mari^ Habitant de la Nonyelle Hollander"— Cuyna, Rigm Animal^ Mammiflrm^l^^
fig. 1 r — the original (aim nnoolored) is In Pisoif, op. etf.
Colored from Pickering, Raett, U. S. Explor. Exped., IX, 1848; PL V,pp
187-8. Compare Hamiltoh Smith, op. dL, PL 17, & p. 460.
EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU.
637
!•. CL — SOUTH AUSTEALIAH.
[** JftOilie, a man of Um Battara tribe bqrond Fort Ltneofai:"— >G.f. AxKABf &mlk JmdnMa Bbo-
tnied, LoDdoo, IbL, 181 ; PI. XYUI.]
re. fiS.— TASMAHIAV.
I** Jemmy, Natlye of the Hamplia HlUa :*— ftrttBMiTlT, Fli^. Duar, ^Ifem AhAIPUm and Fta
DiemeiCa Lamd, London, 8n>, 184S)p. 888. j
Colored bj desoriptionB.
!•. 58. — TASMAKIAKS, ICan and Woman.
["IndlgteM dM deux mxm (Van I>lam«ii) :*— DnTsnui, op. dl *'Aitrolaba,'' PL 188; Y, p. 191.]
Colored from original in PiBON, op. a(. Compare CmnsB, Mammyhttf
and the ^/to« du Voy, d la recherche de la Pirouae, Nos. 7, 8. See other
examples in Captain Cook's Voyages, equally disagreeable.
In the parallel line of our Tableau is a Bknll fh>m the Mortonian collection
npon which Dr. Meigs has enlarged {Chapter m, Fig. 78). I was with the late
Br. MoBTOH when he receiyed this specimen, and saw him note in his MS.
Catalogue (Hid ed., 1849, No. 1827), that this "sknll is the nearest approach
to the orang type that I hare seen.**
More than 20 years prcTionsIy, Dumort d'URTiLLB (« Astrolabe," 1820-9,
^ I, p. 408) thns describes, on the spot^ the hideonsness of these, now all but
extinct, types of mankind : — ** Plnsieors ont les m&choires tr^pro^minentes,
et Tnn d'enx, nomm4 le Ticnx TFiron^, eilt fort bien pn passer poor on Orang-
outang."
I believe that our ETHNOGRAPHIC TABLEATT establishes wbat
Baron de Humboldt has so eloquently deprecated — and Count de
Gk>bineau so strongly insists upon — viz.: the existence of iuperiar
and inferior races.
In these last two specimens of Nature's handicraft upon Profc
Owen's "sole representative of his [man's] order," we have reached
the lowest.
But, inasmuch as within the "Australian Realm," amidst other
soological anomalies, the Orang-utan has never existed, I proceed,
in my final section, to examine where some of the highest nmirn
and some inferior types of the "genus homo" may happen to find
themselves in geographical contact
638 EXPLANATIONS OF ICON K£ Y-CH A RT.
SECTION n.
ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE SIMI^ IN BELATIOK TO
THAT OF SOME INFERIOR TYPES OF MEN.
( With a Map containing 54 MonkeyM, and 6 kwnan pwtraiU,)
** The monkeys are entirely tropieaL But hem agaiii we notioe » nrj
intimate adaptation of their types to the partionUr continetits; as the ■«-
keys of tropical America constitute a family altogether distinct froB tk«
monkeys of the old world, there being not one ipeeiee of any of the g«Mn
of Quadrumana, so numerous on this continent, found either in Asiaor AAiea
The monkeys of the Old World, again, constitute a natural family by then-
seWes, extending equally over Africa and Asia ; and there is CTen a ekin
representative analogy between those of different parts of these two eooti-
nents — the orangs of Africa, the Chimpanxee and Gorilla, correspoodiog to
tho red orang of Sumatra and Borneo, and the smaller long-^rmed speciM of
continental Asia. And what is not a little remarkable, is the fact that thi
black orang occurs upon that continent which is inhabited by the black
human race, while the brown orang inhabits those parts of Asia over which
the chocolate-colored Malays hare been doTcloped." (Agassis.)*
I first read the above paragraph, at Portland, Maine,— where
chance threw me in the way of Prof. Agassiz, within a week or two
after its publication.
Time passed away. I was then occupied with other pursuits;
until, in March 1853, another, to myself most welcome, chance
again cast us together as fellow-travellers by car and steam-boat from
Atlanta, Ga., to Mobile, Ala.; — the Professor ta deliver a course
of Lectures at the latter city, — myself to continue, at our*' "ritiro"
over that bay, those studies which resulted in the issue, one year
afterwards, of the precursor}^ volume to the present.
Distance, and my own avocations, precluded my enjoying the
advantage of listening to more than three of those six discoursea
which will, for a long time, render the Professor's name a "houpe-
hold word" among Mobilians; but, I made it a point to attend the
last; inasmuch as Prof. Agassiz had kindly forewarned Dr. Nott
and myself, that this lecture was to be " for you.** Pencil and note-
book in hand, I went prepared to take down some memoranda for
individual reminiscence : but, very few minutes elapsing before, en-
tranced, so to say, by his easy flow of language and swiftness of
black-board demonstration, whilst uncoiling a chain of facts, m
Natural History, such as no other man can link together through an
■•• Christian Examiner, Boston, July, 1850: — Typft of Mankind, p. 76.
*•• Capt. Howard's — Dnphne, Mobile Bny — where Mrs. Gliddon, our little boy hkJ ■/"
self, eigoyed for many months a most delightful residenoe.
EXPLANATIONS OF MONKEY-CHART. 639
equal number of English words, — ^what I heard became photographed
upon the leaves of memory instead of being scribbled simultaneously
upon paper; and, next day, I re-crossed the bay, • • . . to muse.
This was on the 13th April, 1853.
On the 14th idem, some gifted penman (unknown to me even by
name, although known to Dr. Nott) published " The Lecture of
Agassiz"*" in a form, — as to mere verbal utterance condensed, but
as to accuracy of fact so extraordinary (even to a " lecturer" blasi like
myself) — that I feel it to be no injustice to Pro£ Agassiz to subjoin
a citation, just as if the "reporter's" phraseology had been literally
his own : —
** My own Tieirs on this subject differ widely from those of others, who hare before main-
teined an original diversity of races. In my opinion not only did different racet^ or types
of mankind, as the fire races, so called, have a distinct origin, — ^bnt ea<5h distinct na/ibntf/tVy,
which has played an important part in history, had a separate origin. Men were created
in natioiu.'^ » » » if there was snch a commnnity ef origin among men, why had each
region peculiar animals, — why did they not transmit the same domestic animals which they
had already subdued 7 On the contrary, these animals are as distinct as the races among
whom they were found. • • * If then we compare the physical facts in respect to the
different races — giving each its proper yalue — if we consider that in the earliest times,
different languages were in simultaneous use — as unlike as the notes of different species of
animals ; if we regard the subject of hybridity in all its bearings, allowing the dissimi-
larity of species in animals in different localities its proper weight, we shall be drawn
faieritably towards the conclusion of a diyersity of origin and separate centres of creation.
* « * Diversity has marks and evidence of plan and gradation among races as among
animakt We find an original physical type distinguishing the races, at the same time
showing a community from the lowest to the highest
*' There is no such resemblance between the ape and man. Animality and humanity are
entirely distinct. While, then, there are traits of resemblance between the colored races
and these animals, they never could have arisen from apes. But we see in the races a
gradation parallel to the gradations of animals up to man. Tet the colored races, though
separated from animals entirely, in many traits resemble them more than they do the
highest types of man. The inferior races, by successive gradations, are linked to a higher
hnmanity. How could climatic influences produce these results ? How could all physical
causes combined ? It would be to make an accident produce a logical result ; in short, an
absurdity.
** In the whole world of life we find this gradation. It is not alone in the animal kingdom
as it now exists, but in the antecedent ages, as far back as the oldest fossils, we see the same
distinct order and gradation ; and we find evidence that, in those early ages, a plan was
already laid out: we find the first expression of the same thought developed in the suooe*-
livo structures of all animals and plants. *'
The next enlargement (known to me) of this fundamental idea
occurs in Prof. Agassiz's "Provinces of the Animal World."*"
** The East Indian realm is now very well known zoologically, thanks to the efforts of
English and Dutch naturalists ; and may be subdivided into three faunas, that of Dnkhun,
«> Mobilt DaUy Tribune, April 14, 1858.
•n Typti of Mankind, pp. 74, 82.
•■ Op. eit., p. Ixxi-ii.
^^
640 EXPLANATIONS OF MONKEY-GHAR
that of tho Indo-Chinese peninsula, and that of the Sanda Islands, Boi|iea,g^Bid jhe
pines. Its characteristic animals, represented in the serenth colnmn of our AfaMk,
he readily contrasted with those of Africa. There is, howerer, one featare if \tlua
which requires particular attention, and has a high importance with reference
of the races of men. We find here upon Borneo (an island not so exte^ire aa %^
of the hest known of those anthropoid monkejs, the orang-ontan ; and i^B him ■•
upon the adjacent islands of Java and Sumatra, and along the coasts cli ~ ~ ""
peninsulsB, not less than ten other different species of Hylobates, the Ion;
— a genus which, next to the orang and chimpanzee, ranks nearest to man.
species is circumscribed within the island of Jara, two along the coast of Coroi
upon that of Malacca, and four upon Borneo. Also, elcTcn of the highest
which have performed their part in the plan of the creation within tracts .of
in extent to the range of any of the historical nations of "men I In accordance
fact, wo find three distinct races within the boundaries of the East Indian
Telingan nice in anterior India, the Malays in posterior India and upon the island^ IM^
which the Negrillos occur with them. Such combinations justify fully a comparisoa fMb
geographical range covered by distinct European nations with the narrow limilp oep^M
upon earth by the orangs, the chimpanzees, and the gorillas; and though I atill liesitatt U
assign to each an independent origin (perhaps rather from the difficnlt j of divestinf ik|*' 0
of the opinions universally received, than from any intrinsic evidence), I must, in pn «n
of these facts, insist at least upon the probability of such an independence of vn^ja^ti si
nations ; or, at least, of the independent origin of a primitive stock for each, witii'
at some future period migrating or conquering tribes have more or less completelf
gamated, as in the case of mixed nationalities." ^
It may well be supposed that repeated assertions like the abot^
proceeding from guch an authority, stimulated the curiosity, to»iy^
the least, of an archeologue towards their verification. 1
As in tlie discovery of Lake Moeris by my old friend and colleajkie
Linant-Bey,®" this leading idea continued to float in my mind — "i
pouvoir m'arreter k une conception satisfaisante, lorsqu'eafin
circonstance presqiie fortuite determina en moi avec precision si
pensee qui s'y agitott dcpuis long-temps d'une manifere confuse. ,
This circumstance was my departure hence for Europe, in Oct<
1854, witli the view of collecting materials for the present voli
I reasoned with myself that, if such be the facts in zoological oi
ism, the "proper study of mankind'* will have to be commenc<
capo. With no hostile intent, but with a sort of constituti<
impulse to eradicate error, — as Bacon says, "the traveller cuts d<
a bramble in passing** — I have subjected Prof. Agassiz*8 theoi^to
an archeeologist's experimentum crticis.
Ho will be the first to acknowledge that the earliest notice he kad
of any such intention on my part, was the reception, at Cambrir
^ffil October (1856), of a lithographic and uncolored proof of uie
annexed "Monkey-chart,** — which, together with those of sAie
<B* Mimoire 8ur le Lac MctrUy prStenti ti lu H la SoeiSti Egypt\enn9 [founded et Cairo, BS6^
by himself, Alfred S. Wulne, James Trail, Peter Taylor, and myself]; Alezandrie, 4tt,
1848, p. 18
>
EXPLANATIONS OF MONKEY-CHART. 641
othJHlAf our plates, and a prospectus of this volume, I had the
pleJi|Te of enclosing to him.
On jftie 15th of the same month, during a brief interview in his
libra^, Prof. Agassiz pointed out to me two errors in this chart, viz. :
jince corrected), that I had placed the habitat of the chimpanzee
\) tod^for to the south in Africa ; and second (which I have not
I), that, in America, the black line of circumvallation inclosing
le species " simife " is carried too much towards the north.
"Notwithstanding the enormous pressure of his engagements, —
ihcreascdlas they are by the production of a work, as honorable to
his sci^&as unexampled in the annals of our common republic for
tine popillar suppDrt it so deservedly receives — Prof. Agassiz was so
'^iplaiaant as to say: "if I have time, I will send you a letter upon
Bul^ject." Well, — time or no time — that letter came, to the
exffeme gratification of Dr. Nott and myself; and the reader has
alreadyd^^ it in our " Prefatory Remarks" {supra^ pp. 13-15).
Everytfflng that follows hereinafter rests exclusively upon my indi-
*^ vidaal responsibility.
SEsr riFrmir of kohxet-chaet-itotes ahd refeeekces.
The mrp itself has been drawn to the conyonient scale of my friend Da. Boudis's admi-
rable, Cer 'iphysique et mfAforolngique du Globe Terrettre.^^ The black line, surrounding
ril thJOBet'egiofts where monkeys are found, has been traced chiefly in accordance with the
geographi^l distribution of Schma^da,*^'^ — compared with that of Bsrohaus,*^ of Keith
JoH]rBT<^^i''<r of Petbbmann,** of Humboldt,** and of another anonymous geographer. •*•
Of th&4 figures of the monkeys themselyes, 41 have been borrowed from the plate of
Jf AohiSe Compte;^^ and the remaining 13 copied, at our Academy of Natural Sciences
of Phila olphjjft, by my wife, — to whom the tinted original given as pattern to the oolorist
is also d le. i^ufi reference to each figure indicates the source whence such colors were de-
rived. ^^pendefl^F^^ these works, and those cited previously {tupra. Chap. V, pp. 459-65),
j— -^ '■
«H ga^ edition^ chez Andrivcau-Goujon, Paris, 1855.
•* tfhertiehtskarte der geographiaehen Verbreitung der Thiere, Wien, Sto, 1858, vol. iii.
^ Pl^tikaligcher Atlas, «^Qeographie der Thiere," Band II, PI. 1; Text, pp. 187-8;
Gothi4l848. "^
V ^^tical AtUiMy '* Geographical division and distribution of the Simia and Protimia;'**
and D 9|tpp. 2-8, Edinburgh, fol., 1848.
^^ Aila$ of Physical Geography , "Zoological map, Mammifers," PI. 11, London, 4to,
1852.
*tBROiitt-*&^* Atlas in A. v. Humboldfs Kosmos," — Geographisehen Verbreitung dst
^tonuglijfierm^ugjth^e auf der Erde, Stuttgart, 1851, PL 82.
"* 4HlMP^^*^ t^otcing the distribution of Animals over the World, London, Reynolds,
1864. r^ '"•- <%.
*^ Sfpns mtimal deJf.le Baron Cuvier dispotS en Tableauz mithodiques, Paris, fol., 1882.
*41
iV-
642
EXPLANATIONS OP HON K£ Y-CH ABT.
D'Obbigkt,<i< HroHE8,<i' and especUIIj Schihk.**^ have been consulted. And ImtbI^
remark that, while all these inTalaable books adorn the library of oar Aeadeny, I In
gratefalljr enjojed, in common with others, the benefit of Dr. Thos. B. Wilson's BuiiBW
towards this home of the Natural Sciences.
I proceed to catalogue the series exhibited on our *< Monkej-ehart ;" after indicitiit
the reader that, as each figure is accompanied bj its number, aU that is neoessaiy, ii «ii
to find its centre of creation in geographical distribution, is to look at the
number on the map itself.
SIMIJE 0BBI8 AVTIQXri, CATABBHIVJB.
Vo. L — Troglodytei Gorilla.
[RoussKAD ET DevCru. Phoioffraphie Zootogiqutf
Parifl, Miu. d'Ui5t. Nat, 1854, PI. XIII —
** indirklu adulte enroye da Gabon par M. la
Dr. yranquet, 1852:*^— colored by direcUonB
in OiKTAiB, I, p. 28.]
8. — Troglodytei niger.
[Lissozf, JOustratiom <U Zoologie, PL 82.]
8. — Simla Satyrui.
[CHE>ru, PI. 4, "poM natorelle:" oolored bj
Waoxxe, pi. I.]
4. — Eylobates tyndaotylus,
[F. COTIKB, Mammifiraf PL III.]
5. — Eylobates albimanus.
[AuDKBKBT, SingtSt I, PL 2.]
6. — Eylobates Eoolook.
[Chxnu, Fig. 62, pp. 6&-4:— Jakdihs, Nat Lib,
PL 3.]
7. — Eylobates Leuciscns.
[ScHRKSXR, Saugthiert, Tab. HI, B.]
8. — Eylobates fonereus.
[Waoner, p. 18 : — Archiv. du Mut^ Y, p. 532,
Tab. 2tt.]
9. — Eylobates agilis.
[Qervaib, p. 54 : — Jabdutk, pp. 109-14, PL 5.]
10. — Colobus Onereza.
[RUppel, Werbithiere, II, Tab. 1.]
11. — Colobus polycomos.
[ScmuBEa, X, D.]
12. — Semnopithecus Entellus.
[AUDEBERT, SinfffS, PL IV.]
Ho. 18. — Ceroopitheeiifl ruber.
[SCHBCBKB, XTI, B.]
14. — Ceieopitheciii Fanmii.
[ScHBrnSyXIL]
15. — Cereopitheens pygeijtkwa
[CuTm, Mammi/tres, *• TerrefJ
16. — Cereopitheens Mona.
[AUDKRUT, IV, 2, tg. 7.]
17. — Cereopitheens oephns.
[AUDUIRT, IV, 2, fig. 12.]'
18 — Cercopitbeens nietitans.
[AUDKBKET, IV, 1, fig. 2.]
19. — Semnopithecus eomatns.
[SCHRKBER, XXIY, A.]
20. — Macacus aureus.
[Zoologie dtla"^ Bonite,** PL 2.]
21. — Macacus silenus.
[AUDEBXRT, II, 1, fig. 3.]
22. — Macacus nemestrinus.
pF. CcviER, Jfaw., XIII.]
23. — Macacus Sbesus.
[AUDEBRRT, n, 1, fl^. 1.]
24. — Macacus Maimon.
[P. CuviER, J/am.]
26. — Macacus ecandatus.
[AUDEBERT, I, 3, fig. 1.]
26. — Cynocephalus sphinx.
[ScHREBER, VI, or XIII, B.]
•1^ Dictionnaire univeraelU (Tllistoire Xaturelle, Paris, 1847, " Quadrimanes," X, pp.6G8-
•" Storia Naturale delle Scimie e dei Afaki disposta con ordine^ Milano, fol., 1822.
•^* Systematuchen Vcrzrichniz, &c., five Synopsis Mammalium, Solothum, 8to, 1844, vd
pcutim.
EXPLANATIONS OF KONKE Y-CH ABT.
643
Vo. 87. — Cynoeephalni Hamadryas.
[80HBXBIH, X ^-Ob&tau, V :— Cbbhu, flg. 143 :
^VnoHift, pp. 36-6: ~ Wagivkr, p. 62: — ]>■
BuDfTiLU, (MtoffraphMy p. 23.]
Vo. 88. — Cynooephalui Mormon.
[Jaiddtx, pi. 17.]
89. — Cynoeephalni lencophflena.
[CUTXB, Ann, du Mut^ LX, Tab. 37.]
8I1CI2 0BBI8 VOY£, PLATTBEIV£.
Vo. 80. — Xyeetea nninna.
[AUBXBBBX, y, 1, flg. 1.]
81. — Cebns robnstna.
[Snx aod Martiks, PI. ** Thierfbrmen det Trop-
ifeben America," flg. 12 ^-Jakduii, PL 2L]
88. — Myoetna barl>atna.
[Snx, {biiLf 17: — Wagkib, Supplement, I,
XXV, D.]
88. — Atelei araelinoidei.
[Gkopf., Ann. du Mu*., XIII, PL 9.]
84. — Ateles Belxebnth.
[SCHSZBKB, XXYI, B.]
85. — Atelei Faniicni.
[Ja&dihe, PL XX.]
86. — Cebns Aiara.
[AUDXBCRT, Y, 2, flg. 1.]
87. — Chrysotbriz leinrena.
[lyOaBiasrT, Voy^ Jfomm^f., PL 4.]
88. — Pitheoia milTenter.
[AUBEBKRT, VI, 1, flg. 1.]
89. — Pitheoia melanooephala.
[Spix, Sim^f PL Vm :— Qmpf., Aim., XIX, p.
117.]
40. — Callithrix peraonatna.
[SCHKEBER, XXX a.]
41. — Nyctipitheons trivirgatna.
[jAKDCfX, PL XXIV.]
48. — Eapale Jaeohna.
[AusmxBt, VI, 2, flg. 4.]
48. — Eapale penieillata.
[WAQHn, SuppL, XXXIII a.]
44. — Callithriz Ingena.
[jARDnri, XXm.]
46. — Hapale (Edipna.
[AvDmaXf VI, 2; flg. 1.]
46.— Chrysothrix nigrivittiata.
[WAQim, XI.]
47. — Hapale roaalia.
[jABDuac, xxvm.]
48. — Lemnr oatta.
[AUDXBKBT, Maki, flg. 4.]
49. — Lichanotna IndrL
[AusKBiBT, Indri, fig. 1.]
60. — Stenopa tardigtadna.
[AUDBBKRt, Loris, flg. 1.]
61. — Oalago aenegalensia.
[SoBRiBxa, XXXVIII, B.]
68. — Taraina ipeetnim.
[AunsBBT, flg. L]
68. — Innna apeeiosna.
[WA0XKE, PL v.]
64. — Cereooebna aabaraa.
[ jABom, PL xm.]
But, that the above 54 specimens comprehend but a very small
portion of the varied "species" of Monkeys already known, is made
evident through the following table from Waqnkr: — "*
•** Die Sdugthitrt in AbbUdungen nach der Natur mil Bttchreibungen von Dr, Johann Chris-
tian D, von Schreber, Leipzig, 4to, 1853, p. 8.
644
EXPLANATION^ OF MONKEY GHABT.
c
•I
S
o
1
2
8
4
6
6
8
9
10
11
12
18
14
16
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
28
24
25
26
M0NKKT8.
NamsofOrdor.
Siinia
Hjlobates
Semnopithecus.
Colobas
Cercopitheous..
Inuas
Cjnocephalus.
Mjcetes
Lagothrix
Ateles
Cebus
Pithecia
Number of tb* Ua^
In
1840.
Nyctipithecus.
CaUithrix
Chrysothrix ..
Hapale
Lichanotus ....
Habrocebus ...
Lemur
Galeocebus ..
Chirogaleas .
Stenops
Microcebus ..
Perodicticas.
Otolicnas
Tarsius
Sum.
2
7
14
7
16
11
7
2
8
2
6
1
6
1
16
1
2
8
1
2
1
1
4
1
1883.
8
8
25
5
82
10
10
7
2
9
10
7
8
11
8
26
1
2
14
1
5
8
2
1
6
1
i44h
128 210
53
Hence, then, including additions since 1852, we possess already
more than 216 distinct animals of tlie monkey-tribe. These are
thus classified, — after a lament regarding the difficulties of 9ifstem$
— by Gervais: — ^^^
*'This first tribe of the Mammifera will be partitioned, as follows, into fire seeondaiy
groups : —
Ist. —The ANTHROPOMORPHS {Anthropomorpha), comprising the genera Troqlodtti,
Gorilla, Orano, and Gibbon.
2d. — The SEMNOPITHECI (5fmno/)iM««an«), divide themseWes into Nasic, Simmopi-
THECi properly so called, Presbtte, and Colobus.
8d. — The GUENONS {Cfrcopitheeiant)^ or the genera Miopithecus, and CcBCOPiTHcrrt.
4th. — The MACACS (Afacaeiaru), who partition themselves into Maqot, Mahoabkt,
Maimon, and Macac.
5th. — CYNOCEPIIALI {Ct/noeephaliam), or the Ctnopitheci, Mandrills, Papions, and
TUEROPITHEOI.
Of these five groups, the third alone is exclusively African : the four others, on the con-
trary, have each particular genera in America and India."
The reader's eye, following the black line of circumvallation on
our "Chart," will perceive that, except at Gibraltar (whither De
Blainville^^' considers the magot to be an importation), there are no
*« TVoM R>gnf9 de la Nature^ Mammiflretj !*• pnrtie, Paris, 4to., 1854, p. 12.
*^^ Ottioffraphie, p. 21. But see Gervais, pp. 95-9.
EXPLANATIONS OF MONKEY CHABT. 645
monkeys in Agassiz's European realm, — none in the Polynesian, nor
any in the Australian. In the American, the Professor told me that
no simia are to be found northward of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
Prof. Spencer F. Baird, however, obligingly pointed out to me t\\o
passages which seem to leave the exact degree of latitude an open
question.®^®
But the strangest puzzle of all is, how to explain the sharp line of
demarcation beheld between island and island, in the Malayan
realm ; which a great naturalist has forcibly embodied in the follow-
ing language : — ^*'
<* The [East-Indian] Archipelago forms, as it were, a world apart, as much by its geo-
graphical position, as by its relation to ethnography and natural history. Situate betwixt
the Indian continent and Australia, the natural productions of this maritime world resemble,
for the greater part, those of the limitrophic lands ; and it is there only where the transition
pronounces itself the most distinctly, where one obaerrea a small number of peculiar beings.
This line of transition is marked by the islands of Celebes, Flores, Timor, and Boeroe. It
finds itself, consequently, between the ISoth and 145th of east longitude of the meridian of
Ferro. At the Moluccas, all nature already wears an Australasiatic {Papou) character ;
because, beyond some chiroptera which stretch as far as New Guinea, and the genus of
hogs, all the mammifera originating in that country belong to the order of the marsupials
[eTery other animal haTing been imported], * * * * In general, the botanical and zoolo-
gical character of Australia commences at Celebes and at Timor ; so that these two islands
may be considered as the limits of two Faunas altogether distinct. * * * * The Indian
Archipelago divides itself, therefore, in the direction of west to east, as concerns geography
and natural history, into two parts of unequal extension. The occidental part, which is
the largest, contains the islands of Borneo, Sumbawa, Java, Sumatra, and the peninsula of
Malacca ; whereas the oriental portion contains but the islands of an inferior order,— ^those
of Celebes, Flores, Timor, Gilolo, and, to take the widest range, perhaps even to Mindanao."
MiJLLER then goes on to explain how those larger portions that are
nearest to the Hindostanic continent resemble, in their Faunsej the
southern parts of India, — just as Maury (supraj Chapter I.) has shown
it to be the case with mankind. He counts about 175 mammifers
throughout the entire archipelago, Malacca and New Guinea inclu-
sive ; of which scarcely thirty belong exclusively to the eastern side,
where, chiroptera inclusive, there are but fifty species in all.
In this singular arrangement of nature within so small an area,
and amid islands so very proximate, the Orangs^ the Gibbons^ indeed
all true Simise^ appertain solely to the western side ; and are totally
<^ *' The Monkeys which enter into the southern proTinces of Mexico belong to the genera
mycttet and hapale*^ (Richardson, ** Report on N. Amer. Zool." — Brit. Attoc. adv. Sciencf,
V. 1837, p. 188) : and "apes in the southern provinces of Mexico" (Waonxr, Bayeriichen
Akndfmie, Mfinchen, 1846. p. 51.)
«» Salomon Mijlleb, *' Cosmographie, Zoologie oompar^e," — Siehold't Moniteur det Indet-
Orimtalet et OceidentaleM, Batayia, 4to., 1846-7, pp. 129-86. M. Miiller, as member of the
Commission of Physical Researches, spent in the Indian Archipelago ** onze ann^es des plus
belles de ma Tie."
646 EXPLANATIONS OF MONKEY CHART.
absent in the eastern : Celebes and Timor being the most easteriy
isles producing monkeys, and these only Macacos and Oynoeephali
Hence, the anthropoid apes, highest of the series, are met with only
where Telingan, Malay, and Negrillo races dwell : neither those, nor
even the lower monkey-forms, being encountered amid the homes of
Papouas, Harfoorians, — far less of Australians. Now, what is essen-
tially noteworthy, if depressions of temperature may explain why the
natural limit of the monkey-range does not extend itself outside of
our black line of circumvallation elsewhere, such explanation has no
force here. Its cause is inherent in some other law of nature.
HUMAN HEADS IN MONKET CHART.
(Figs. A, B, C, D, E, F.)
Haying sketched, in the preceding pages, the relative positions of 64 '* species'* of the
tmiada, out of some 216 known, amid the xone appointed for them by Nature; I pass
onward in the endeavor to indicate to the reader, through m human headM^ the sort of ^rpes
co-resident with monkeys within the same geographical area. These six heads, howerer,
can merely serre as mnemonics ; because, had space permitted, and did we possess the por-
traits of numberless races with which wo are acquainted solely through descriptions, il
would not haye been a difficult matter to draw, on the same spot occupied by each quadra-
mane, a bimane illustrative of singular correspondences ; and then the eye could have per-
ceived that the colorations of the human skin, within this self-same zone, are almost ts
varied, and as diverse from each other, as the forms and colors of the monkey tribes are
now therein seen to be different. This experiment may, in the future, be tried by others.
In the meanwhile, tlie letters placed beneath serve to indicate the habitat of each of these
six individuals, whose likenesses are very roughly traced.
REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS.
A — AHERICAV . * * PurH-PurU** nation.
[Spix and Mariics, Heise in BratUien:— oolong by Dk Cahtelnau, AmMtpu du A«i, " PL XUL
Chiotay, fameux chef do Cberentes qui a long temps d6w>16 la provincv de Qojas. * * • H hlA
anthropopbage.")
To convince oneself of the untold varieties of these South American races^ —
see De Castelnau {passim) ; Auot. St. Hilaibe {Rio de Janeiro, 1, pp. 42^7;
n, pp. 49-57, 137-231); D'Obbiont {Voy., Atlas); Debret {Voy. Pittor. n
Br/sil, fol., Paris, 1834, II, and plates); — especially Ruoendas {Voy. Pittor. n
Brisil, transl. Golbcrry, Paris, fol., 1833, II, "portraits et costumes," pp. 2-84) ;
and Darwin, Wilson, and Fitzrot {Surveying Voyages of H. M. S. *• Adventure**
and "Beagle" — London, 8vo, 1829 — 11, pp. 129-82; appendix, pp. 135-49;
III, pp. 619-33).
B. — WEST APBICAW . «« Nlgre de la c6te d* Or" — in Braza.
[Choris, op. a't.f Mr. 7»«, PI. VI : — colored by datcriptioiu in Rmnnua.^
See Chapter Y, tupra, pp. 545-6. •
EXPLANATIONS OF MONKEY CHART. 647
0. — SA8T A7BICAH. ** Mozambique* nepro, in BranL
{THauaj tup. dL^ II, PI. 37 — " diflSrentM nations n^gret,** flg. 8:— colored from his dMoriptionf
(pp. 114-16) ; u compared with jome of !>■ Fkobirtiuje's eaats, and with Chous's aocounta, Wf
1", pi. lU, Ac]
Salt (Voyage to Abymnia, London, 4to, 1814, pp. 88-41) spoke about the
Monjou negroes on that coast as ** of the ugliest description, haying high cheek-
bones, thick lips, small knots of woolly hair like peppercorns on their heads,
and skins of a deep, shining black :" and again, that the Makooa^ Makooana,
who are negroes, and not Kaffrs (an Arabic term, only meaning "infidel"), whilst
possessing excessiye deformity, and ferocity of Tisage and characters, did not
possess any name for **God" except wherimb, meaning the **sky," — any more
than did the Monjout themseWes, among whom ** molungo" signified both Odd
and 9ky, Compare Typu of Mankind^ pp. 609-10.
D. ^ SOUTH AFSICAH. '* HoUmtot Vmut:*
[From a photograph by M. RouiMao— fiUcKs JntftoiofMloi^rfgiMe, Pari»— of h«r oolorad foUndse tuX
In that MuMum.]
Compare her portraits in Cutiib's fol. Mammifh'a; and my remarks, iupra^
pp. 628-9.
S. — KALAYAK. ** SerehU Dyak,"
[M AMiTATT, Borneo and the Indian ArchipdagOf London 8to, 1848, PL 79 >-tintad ** eopperoolond,"
op. ciLf pp. 5, 78.J
My brother William, long stationed at Sar&wak (tupra, p. 686), tells me that
it is an excellent sample.
7. — **BI8AYA iouvagt, ou da montaffnet,**
[Mallat, PhOij^neMf Atlaa.***]
Compare the obserrations of Chamisso (In'YoN Eotsebui's Voy. « Rnrick,'*
n, pp. 861-98); and of Lksson and Oarnot (in Dupbrrbt, Voy. "Coquille,"
Paris, 8yo., 1826; «*Zoologie,?' I, pp. 8-106).
The hotnine* eaudati have been already treated upon (tupra^ Chap. V, pp. 468-9 notes
188-4). Mallat (La Philippinet^ p. 129) neither believes in them, nor in the reported
anions between human and anthropoid genera; on which Blumbnbacb (De Oeneria Humani
varietatey p. 16) indignantly wrote *♦ Hybrida homana negantur," while Vibet (Hut. XaiurelU
du Oenre ffumain, 1824, III, p. 491, &c. &c.) denies that such experiment has been fairly
tried.
Had not an account of the ** Oraug-Jirti^," and of the "Orang-(?i/^tir," been read before
the American Geographical and Statistical Society of New York, and receiyed the Society's
** imprimatur" in pamphlet form (Report **on the East Indian Archipelago; and a descrip-
tion of the Wild Races of men," New York, 1864), I should have as little dared to refer to
Capt Walter M. Gibson's most enchanting adventures (The Prison of Weltfverden; and a
ffhmce at the Eaet Indian Archipelago^ New York, 1866, pp. 120-8, 180-2), as to have cited,
on African questions, my friend Mr. Brantz Mayer's entertaining "Captain Camot." As
it is, the responsibility of publication, in the former case, reposes entirely upon la critique
of the honorable historians, diyines, lawyers, doctors, and merchant-princes, who in council
assembled to hear the Captain's eloquent address, on the 24th March, 1866, at the New
York UniTersity. As I receive it, so I pass it on : with the mere remark that, the authentic
descriptions science possesses of real men — the Orang-henua^ to wit — in Malayana, have,
quite sufficiently for my anthropoid analogies, brought down humanity, in that Archipelago,
to a grade not many removes from the mbescent Orang-utane ; so that, should Mr. P. T.
Bamum ever be so lucky as to import for his Museum a live specimen of the genus ** Orang"
(Malayic^ fnan)^ like that one figured by Capt Gibson in wood-cut on page 180, I shall
tbankftiny accept^— just as I should be equally glad to see one of M. d'AsBADiB's ** Dokkoe"
(Peiohabd, Nat, Hist.^ p. 806) — such a wonderful ** confirmation" (not to mcntioii
•ondry dwarf ** Axtec children") par deeeu* U marehi.
648 EXPLANATIONS OF ICON K£ Y-CH ABT.
FINAL OBSEBVATIONS.
Thus, I think, we have ascertained that, in Continental Asia^ Africa
and America, — leaving aside Madagascar — no leas than amidst the
thousand islands of the Indian Archipelago, there are scattered
immense numbers, and many varieties, of Monkeys ; that^ in some
places, different "species" occupy contiguous habitats, whilst their
specific analogues are only met with at very remote distances ; that,
no two tracts of mountain or valley, hardly two islands, poeaess thf
same "species" of Monkey; in short, no spot within the Tropical
zones, however circumscribed in area, which does not, if it has any
at all, possess its own simia or simies; and, finally, that such " species"
is rarely to be found anywhere else. This (if recoUecrion serves) is
the substance of what I learned from Prof Agassiz's memorable 6th
lecture, delivered at Mobile.
Now, does any naturalist claim that each "species" of monkey
was not created within the particular province, zone, focus, or centre,
where we find it ? Will any naturalist hazard a denial that such
monkeys were therein created, not in single pair, but in " nations*' ?
On ascending to Man, viewed as the " sole representative of his
order," after taking the preceding survey of his more or less anthropo-
morphous precursors, — whether in relative palseontological epochas,
or in respective station at a given link of the spiral chain of beings —
is it, I would inquire, by accident that the highest approximations to
the human form dwell closely along the Equinoxial line, almost in
antipodean juxtaposition, — viz., the red orang;Utan8, with black and
brown gibbons, in Malayana, and the black gorillas and chimpanzees
in Africa ?
And, is it again through accident, I ask, that the converse of this
proposition is true, viz : that the lowest forms of mankind in Africa,
as well as the lowest forms of mankind in Malayana, vegetate, to
this day, precisely where the highest, most anthropoid, types of the
monkey "species" respectively reside?
Others may believe in "accident." I do not, — ^where nature mani-
fests to my reason such harmonies in the action of Creative Power.
Still, notwithstanding my own belief in a CREATOR, there are
such things — things which the brothers Humboldt suspected and
rejected — as ^^ myths^ fiction^ and pretencled tradition.'* All animals,
Man inclusive, are said to have spread themselves over this planet's
superficies, during the last (2348-1857) 4205 years, dating from the
EXPLANATIONS OP MON K E Y-CH ABT. 649
period when Noah's Ark grounded upon Mount Ararat, in Armenia,
whose geographical position and altitude are well known.®*
By way of archaeological experiment, under the generally accepted
hypothesis that the parents of all these simia descended, peripateti-
cally along that mountain, and genealogically fix)m that "single pair,"
what species of monkey now extant is the one which is most likely
to satisfy the conditions required ?
Premising that such an unique couple •^ must have travelled down
that mountain with amazing celerity,"^ in order to attain warmer
latitudes, and in quest of food and a home, — it is only the Of/tKh
eephalus Hamadryas^ that fulfils every necessary requirement. His
present habitat — ^Arabia, and perhaps Persia — is the nearest in geo-
graphical approximation to Mount Ararat; and we know that he
lived thereabouts, near Mesopotamia, as far back as b. o. 885 ; because
his effigy is sculptured on the Obelisk of Nimrood,®* assigned by
Bawlinson to that date, under the reign of Jehu.®* I propose, there-
fore, that a male and female "pair" of the "species" Oynocephalus
Hamadryas [No. 27] be henceforward recognized as the anthropoid
analogues of "Noah, Shem, Ham and Japheth ;" and that it must be
from these two individuals that, owing to transplantation, together
with the combined action of aliment and climate, the 54 monkeys
represented on our chart have originated. It is, notwithstanding,
sufficiently strange, that, under such circumstances, this "primordial
organic type" of monkey should have so highly improved in Guinea
and in Malayana as to become Gorillas and Chimpanzees, Orangs and
Gibbons; whereas, on the contrary, the descendants of "Adam and
Eve" have, in the same localities, actually deteriorated into the most
degraded and abject forms of humanity.
•a See above, Chapter V, pp. 672-8.
<" The KopuIm, apes [tupra, V, note 341], are not mentioned in Hebrew writings nnti]
the recent manipulation of Kingt and ChronicUt by the Esdraio schooL Being always "un-
clean " to the Israelites and Massnimans, however dear to the Brahmans, monkeys must
have been taken into the Ark **two and two" {Oenesit, VII, 9); and not **by sevens "
(ibid., verse 2).
*» They are celebrated for their agility, and are the only " species " trained in the Levant
for gymnastic and dancing exhibitions.
*^ Supra tub voce : — Ainswobth {Retiarehet in Attyria, Babylonia and Chaldaa, London,
8vo, 1838, p. 37) observes, " The monkey, whose country begins about 38° N. lat, is un-
known in Assyria and Babylonia ; but it is not certain if it is not an extinct animal, for an
able Hebrew scholar has stated to me, that the doleful creatures which are prophetically
announced as tenanting fallen Babylon, ought to be read as monkeys or baboons.'* ,
•» Latabd's folio Monument*, 1849; and his Nineveh and its Remains, 1848; contain
accurate copies of this monument. For the archeology of Various monkeys, see Dm Blaiv*
VILLI (OtUographie, pp. 28-49), and Gbbvais (op. «/., pp. 107-8).
■• Tifp€$ of Mankind, pp. 701-2
C50 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU.
Ill hi<l(ling farewell to the reader, I would invite his attention tr
one more Bingularity, and to one now established fact, suggested bj
inspection of this Monkey-chart, viz : —
1. That, within the black circumvallating line which surrounds the
zone occupied by the iimissy no "civilization" — except possibly in
Central America and Peru — has ever been spontaneously developed
since historical times.
Europe, since the ages of fossil remains {supra^ Chapter Y, pp. 528
-4), has not contained any monkeys, save a few apes imported from
the African side to skip about Gibraltar rock. The line runs south
of Carthage, Cyrene, Egypt-proper, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Ariana,
and China. We know that Hindostanic "civilization" was due
exclusively to immigrant Aryoi ; and that of Malayana, primarily to
the migratory sequences of the latter, and secondarily to the Muslim
Arabi*
2. That the most superior types of Monkeys are found to be
indigenous exactly where we encounter races of some of the most
inferior types of Men.
O.B.G.
Pbiladblpbia, JMmarp, 1867.
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G«o. 8. Harding, Esq., SaTannah, Ga.
Col. Jesse HargraTe, Sussex Co., Ya.
James Harran, Esq., Bladen Springa, Ala.
Joeeph Harrison, Esq., Philadelphia.
B. H. Harrison, Bf. D., Holly Springa, Misi.
W. H. Harrison, Esq., New Orleans, La.
Alexander Hart, M. D., New Orleans, La.
Charles Hart, Esq.. Proridence, K. L
Thos. W. Hartley. Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
W. H. Haxall, Esq., Richmond, Ya.
Hayes A Zell, BookseUers, PhUadelpbia, Pa. (6 e.)
Geo. Hayward, M. D., Boiton, Mass.
E. H. Hasard, Esq., Proridence, R. L
Geo. G. Hasard, Esq., Warren, R. I.
Rowland O. Hasard, Esq^ Peacedale, R. I.
WiUis P. Hasard, Bookseller, Philadelphia, Pa. (5 o!)
J. T. Heald, Bookseller. Wilmington, Del. (3 copies.)
Charles H. Heath, Esq., Morristown, Lamoille Co., Yt
Julius Heissee, Esq., Mobile, Ala. (2 copies.)
J. H. Helm, M. D.. Eaton. Preble Co., Ohio.
Thomas Helm, Esq., Philadelphia.
A. Henderson, Esq., Frederick, Md.
C. G. Henderson A Co., Booksellers, Philada., Pa. (2.)
Bernard Henry, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.
Wm. C. HensMy, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. •
Joeeph H. Herron, Bookseller, NewTille, Pa. (8 a)
Alexander Hersen, Esq., London.
John C. Heylman, Esq., Harrisburg, Pa.
Sir Benjamin Hey wood, Bart., Manchester, Eng.
Bei^Jamin Higgins, Esq., Mobile, Ala.
O. 8. HiUard, Esq., Boston, Mass.
Wm. B. Hodgson, Esq., Sarannah, Oa.
Professor van der Hoeren, Leyden, Holland.
ProC Jno. Edw. Holbrook, M. D., Charleston, 8. C.
Chsffles Holland, Esq., Pres't Lirerpool Chamber of
Commerce. Liverpool.
J. F. Holland, Esq., Mobile, Ala.
F. Hollick, M.D., New York.
O. W. Holmes, M. D., Boston, Mass.
Pbiletus H. Holt, Esq., New York.
Sidney Homer, Esq., Boston, Mass.
J. J. Hooks, M. D., Memphis, Tenn.
Hopkins, Bridgman A Co., Booksellers, Northampton,
3IaKS.
Thos. F. Hoppin, Esq., ProTldenee, R. L (2 copies.)
Henry Horlbeck, Esq., Charleston, S. C.
Leonard Homer, Esq., F. R. S , London.
Mrs. LaTlnia E. A. Howard. Daphne, Mobile Bay (2.)
8. S. EoweU, Siq., Charleston, 8. C.
Leon Huchei, Esq., New Orleans, La.
J. A. Uuger, Esq., Charleston, 8. C
R. W. Hughes, Esq^ Richmond, Ya.
8amuel I. Hull, Esq.. Charleston, S. 0.
Thomas Hun, M. D., Albany, N. Y.
Leigh Hunt, Esq., London.
Prof. Thos. Hunt, M. D., UuIt. of La., New Orleans, La.
T. a Hunt, Esq., Nstchitoches, La.
Ariel Hunton. Esq., Hyde Park, Lamoille Co., Yt
A. H. Hutchinson, Esq., Bladen Springa, Ala.
W. M. Hutton, Esq., Memphis, Tenn.
W. Ivory, Esq., Edinburgh.
Samuel Jackson, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.
Henry Jacobs, Esq., Proridence, R. I.
N. R. Jennings, Esq., New Orleans, La.
Edward Johnson, Bookseller, Alexandria, La. (6 e.)
F. Johnson, .M. D., Natchitoches, La.
Alexander Johnston, Esq., Baltimore, Md.
^Monsieur Jomard, Pr&u de Is Soc. de G6og., Paria.
George Jones, Esq., Ssrannah, Go.
Geo. N. Jones. M. D., Savannah, Ga.
G. R. Jones, M. D., Memphis, Tenn.
Prof. James Jones, M. D., Unir. of La., New Orleans
W. Jones, Esq., Riceboro, Ga.
Henry K. Kalussowski, M. D., Washington, D. a
Robt. E. Kelly, Esq., Versailles, France (2 copiee).
L. C. Kennedy, Esq., Spartanburgh, 8. C.
James Kennedy, A.M., M.D., New York.
Edward M. Kern, Esq., U. 8. N. Pacific Explor. Exped.,
Washington, D. C.
M. M. C. King, Esq., Sarannah, Ga.
Hon. Judge Mitchell King, Charleston, 8. G.
Wm. F. Kintzing, Esq.. Philadelphia.
Stephen D. Kirk, Esq., Charleston, S. 0.
F. Klincksieck, Esq., Paris (2 copies).
Charles Kochersperger, Esq., Philadelphia.
P. M. Kollock, M. D.. Sarannah, Ga.
Lonis Kossuth, London.
Miss Lace, Beaoonsfleld, Lirerpool, Eng.
Mrs. Laing, Edinburgh.
Abbate Michelangelo Land, Prot LL. 00., Rome.
W. G. Langdon, Esq., Glasgow.
F. Lanneau, Esq., Charleston, 8. 0.
The R. H. the Marquis of Lansdowne, K. 0., F. R. 8.,
Eng. (2 copies.)
H. A. Lants, Bookseller, Reading, Pa. (3 coplet.)
Henry Laurence, Esq., Yatoo City, Miss.
Samuel Laurence. Esq., New York.
Learitt A Allen, Booksellers, New York (4 copies).
Robt Lebby, M. D., Charleston, 8.C.
Charles Le Cesne, Esq., Mobile, Ala.
Yictor Le Cesne, Esq., Mobile, Ala.
John L. Le Oonte, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.
The R. Rer. the Lord Bishop of Manchester (Ds Lea),
Eng.
ProC Joseph Leidy, M.D., Philadelphia, Pa.
^Monsieur Lemereier, Biblioth. Mus. d'Hist Nat,
Paris.
^Cheralier R. Lepslus, Berlin.
J. P. Lesley, Esq., Philsdelphia, Pa.
Geo. H. Levis, Eisq., Philsdelphia, Pa.
J. C. Levy, Esq., Savannah, Ga.
8. Yates Levy, Esq., Savannah. Ga.
Ellsha H. Lewis, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.
Baondera Lewis, Siq., Montaoaaaiy Ool, Fk
654 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.
Library of the Colonial Bepartment, London.
Library Company of Philadelphia.
Library of the Society of Writers to H. M. Signet,
Sdinborgh.
Lord Lindsay and Balcarree, Colinsbnrgfa, Fiftshire^
Scotland.
Adolpbus Lippe, M. D., Philadelphia.
Livermore ft Rudd, Booksellers, New York (8 oopleaX
Robt. S. LiTingston, Esq., New York.
Edward Lloyd, Jr., Esq., Manchester, Eng.
Charles A. Locke, Esq., Boston, Mass.
Lord Londesboroagh, K. C. H., F. R. S., Eng.
Andrew Low, Esq., Sarannah, Ga.
Henry A. Lowe, Esq., Mobile, Ala.
Uermann £. Ludewig, Esq., New York.
John Luff, Esq., New Orleans.
J. L. Brown Lundin, M. D., Camp, Crimea.
H. M. Lusher. Esq., Memphis, Tenn.
Mrs. Lusbington, London.
Lt-Col. Lyell, Hon. E. Ind. C. S., London.
Sir Charles Lyell, F.R. S., London.
Wm. Mackay, Esq^ SaTannah, Ga.
*K. R. H. Mackenzie, Esq., F. S. A., M. R. A. S., Lond.
Charles Madaron, Esq., Edinburgh.
Charles Magarge, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
James Magee, Esq^ New OrleanH, La.
W. G. Malin, Esq., for Library of Penn Hosp., Philft-
delphia, Pa.
Mrs. Mallet, Belmont, ITampstead, Eng.
J. C Mansel, Esq., Bland ford, Dorset, Eng.
Wm. B. Mardre, Req.y Windsor, N. C.
^Monsieur A. Mariette, ConserT. Muste dn Louvre,
Paris.
J. H. Markland, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Francis Markoe, Esq., State Department, Washington,
D.C.
Wm. T. Marshall, Esq., Mobile, Ala.
F. Marx, M. D., Richmond, Va.
Prof. L. Q. Mathews, Lynchburg College, Lynchburg,
Va.
G. M. B. Maughs. M. D., Fulton, Mo.
James Maury, Esq.. New Orleans, La.
B. F.May, M.D.. McKinley, Ala.
H. R. May, Esq., Memphis Tenn.
Joseph Mayer, Enq., F. S. A., Liverpool, Eng.
A. H. Mazyck, Jr., Esq., Charleston, S. C.
Alex. McAndrew, Esq.. New York.
Wm. McCabe, Ejiq.. Whitby. C. W.
Hon. Judge Theo. H. .McCaleb, New Orleans, La.
J. H. B. McCiellan, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.
J. H. McCulloh, M. D., Baltimore, Md.
R. R. McDonald, Esq., Memphis, Tenn.
R. 8. McDow, Esq., Liberty Uill, S. C.
Thoe. F. McDow, Esq., "
McDowell ft Co., Booksellers, Ptoubenville, 0 (2 c.)
A. M. Mclver, Esq., Riceboro. Ga.
John McKee, Sr., Esq., Chester C. U., 8. 0.
John McKee, Jr., Bookt«cller, Chester C. n« 8. C (6)
P. B. McKelvey, M. D., New Orlesn^i, La.
F. E. McKenzie, Esq., Charleston, S. C.
M. C. McKing. Esq., Savannah, Ga.
Hon. Lewi.4 McLane, Baltimore, Md.
Middleton ft MrM aster, Booksellers, Mobile, Ala. (25)
Sir John McNeil. G. C. B., F. R. 8., Edinburgh.
Colin McRea, Esq., Mobile, Ala.
James MnSherry, Esq., Frederick, Md.
Mercantile Library, Baltimor« Md.
A. P. Herrni, M.D., Memphis, Teno.
Minor Merriwether, C K., Memphia, TeuL
Prof John MilUngton, Memphis, Tann.
Charles S. Mills, M.D., Riehmoad, To.
Clark Mills, Eati^ Washingtoo, D. 0.
Chaa. Millspaugh, Esq., St Louis, Mo.
The Dean of St Paul's (Dr. H. EL MilmanX ^H>
J. B. Mitchell, Esq., Philadelphia, Psl
M. Monro, Esq., London.
Jno. W. Moore, Bookseller, Philaddphia (I cofii^.
Thos. Moore, Esq., SchuylkiU Falls, Pft.
Thos. a. Morris, Esq., Baltimora, Md.
ProC W. B. Morrow, M.D., Mempfaisy Ttea.
P. A. Morse, Esq., New Orleans.
Robt P. Morton, Esq., Garmantowo, Pa.
Mrs. Samuel Geor|^ Morton, German (on, fk
Thos. Geo. Morton, M. D., Philadeli^da, Pa.
Alex. Moseley, Esq., Richmond, Va.
J. M. Moss ft Bro., Booksellers, Philadelphia, K (f)
Prof. James Moultrie, M.D., Charleston, B.C
Wm. Mure, Esq., H. R M. Consul. New OrisaB^
Dr. Max MUller, Taylorian Profisssor, Oxlod, Isf.
Jennings Murphy, Esq., MoUle, Ala. (2 eopin)
The H. Lord Murray, Edinhuixh.
G. A. Myers, Esq., Richmond, Ta.
W. H. Myers, Esq., Loudonville, a
W. Nelson, Esq., Edinbnrgh.
Alexander Nesbitt, Esq., London.
J. West Nevins, Esq., New York.
New Orleans Club, per R. IL Chilton, Siq^ HivwOh
leans.
J. P. Nicbol, Esq., ProC of Astronomy, Glaico* C9>
Miss Nightingale, Embley, Hants, Eng.
B. M. Norman, Bookseller, New Orleans, La. (10 a.)
Edwin Norris, Esq., F. R. S., F. R. A. S., London.
Prof. Gustavus A. Nott, M. D., Univ. of La., NtwO^
leans.
Robert W. Ogden, Esq., New Orleans, La.
Samuel Ogdin, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Jno. W. O'Neill, Esq., PhUadelphia, Pa.
Edward Padelford, Esq., Savannah, Ga.
W. B. Page. M. D., Philadelphia.
I. H. ft John Parker, Booksellers, Oxford. Bng. (3 c)
Parry ft M'Millan, Book.«ellers, Philadelphia, PiL(lO)
Edward Patterson, Esq., Baltimore, Md.
Robert Patterson, Esq., U. 8. Mint, Philaddphla.
Geo. Pnttison ft Co., BoolLsellera, Memphis, Tenn. (I)
Monsieur G. Pauthier, Paris.
Abraham Payne, Esq., Providence, R. L
8t George Peachy, Esq., Richmond, Ta.
Miss Mary Pearsall, Germantown, Pa.
Jno. Penington ft Son, Booksellers, Philadelphia (&X
Hanson Penn. M. D., Bladensburc. Md.
Penn Mutual Insurance Co., Philadelphia.
J. Pennington, Esq.. Baltimore. Md.
Hon. John Perkins, Jr.. Ashwood, La.
E. W. Perry, Esq., Richmond, Va.
Thomas M. Peters, Esq., Moulton, AI^
R. E. Peterson, Esq., Philadelphia. Pa.
T. B. Peterson, Bookseller, Philadelphia. Pa. (10 c)
Gen. Robles Pesucla, Mexican Minister, Washingiaii^
D.C.
J. G. Phillimore, Esq., M. P., London.
Hon. Henry M. Phillips, Philadelphia, PSl
James PhUlips, Esq., Washington, D. a
Wm. W. L. Phillips, Esq., TMnloo, M. J.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OP SUBSCRIBERS.
655
Phinney di Co., Booktellen, Buffalo, N.T.(10 ooplet.)
Martin Pickett, Kaq^ Mobile, Ala.
Hon. Albert Pike, UtUe Kock, Ark.
Jamee Piilans, Esq., ProC of Humanitj, Bdinborgfa.
John Pitman, M. D., Memphis, Tenn.
J. N. Plait, Esq., New York.
G«orge Poe, Esq., Georgetown, D.O.
Geo. F. Pollard, M.D., Montgomery, AU.
M. Polock, Bookneller, Philadelphia, Pa. (2 copies.)
William 0. Pond, Eaq., Mobile, Ala.
Jamee Potter, Bnq., Savannah, Ga.
Philip Ponllain, Eaq., SaTannah, Geo.
Thomaa U. Powen, Esq., Philaddphla« Fa.
William S. Price, Enq., Philadelphia, Pa.
ProTidenoe Athennam, ProTidenoe, B. L
Pnblle Library. Boston, Mass.
Isaae Pogh, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
O. P. Putman A Co., PabUshers, New York (20 a)
John Ralg, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
B. Howard Rand, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.
Bandall A Williams, Booksellers, Mobile, Ala. (10 a)
Her. Wm. Porter Ray, Lafliyette, Ind.
James B. Read, M.D., Savannah, Ga.
J. Rehn, Esq., PhUsdelphia, Pa.
John K. Ri>id, Esq., New Orleans, La.
A. R. Reinagle, Esq., Oxford, England.
•Monsieur Ernest Renan, Biblloth. Imp., Paris.
Wm. Rhett, Esq., Charleston, S. C
A. Henry Rbind, Esq., Sibster, near Wick, N. B.
R. C. Richardson, M. D., Natchitoches, La.
Prof. John Leonard Riddell, M. D., Univ. of La., New
Orleans.
Oca W. Riggs, Esq., Washington, D. a
Kising Star Groupe, Greenville, 0.
W. Lea Roberts, Esq., New York.
¥. M. Robertson, M. D., Charleston, S. 0.
non. Judge Jno. B. Robertson, New Orleans. La. (3)
T. G. itobertson, Bookseller, Hagerstown, Md. (3 o.)
H. Robinson, Esq., Mobile, Ala.
O. M. Roblson, Esq., London.
Thomas W. Roblson, Esq., Kingston, G. W.
Oh. W. 8. Rockwell, MilledgeTllle, Ga.
Wm. B. Rodman, Esq., Washington, N. 0.
John Rodgers, Esq., U. S. N., Washington, D. G.
George Rogers, Esq., M. D., Clifton, Bristol, Sng.
Prot Henry D. Rogers, Boston, Mass.
Edward RomlUy, Esq., Audit. Office, London.
Howell Rose, Esq., Wetumpka, Ala.
Andrew M. Ross, Esq., Savannah, Ga.
Pr. R. Roth, ProC of Sanscrit, Canterbury, Eng.
James Rush, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.
Mrs. James Rush, Philadelphia, Pa.
Buasell A Jones, Booksellers, Charleston, S. C (25 o.)
J. Rutherford Russell, Esq., M. D., Leamington, Eng.
(2 copies.)
Charles Ryan, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
The R. H. Sir Edward Ryan, Kensington, Eng. (2 o.)
Joae Salatar, Esq., Mexico.
•Monsieur Aug. Salsmann, Paris.
W. 8. Sargenson, Esq., Pall Mall, London.
B. F. Shaw, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Philip T. Schley, Esq., Savannah, Ga.
Howard Schott, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Budolph Schramm, Esq., London.
Mrs. Sails Schwabe. Manchester, Eng. (2 copies.)
H. W. Schwarti, Esq., New Orleans, La.
Charles Scott, Esq., Trenton, N. J.
Thomas J. Scott, Esq., Montgomery, Ala.
W. E. Screven, Esq., RIoeboro, Ga.
Alexander S. Semmes, M. D., Washington, D. a
Trot. George Sexton, M. D., Lambeth, Eng.
Lemuel Shattuck, Esq., Boston, Mass.
J. W. Shepherd, Esq^ Montgomery, Ala.
Charles Sherry, Jr., Esq., Bristol, R. L
Miss Lydia Shore, Meershrook, near Sheffield, Bng.
Nathl. a Shurdel^ M. D^ Boston, Mass.
S. U. Slevelling, Esq., M. D., London.
Franc SImenes, Esq., Mexico.
W.Gilmore Simms, Esq., Woodlands, 8. a
0. U. Slater, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
John Slavens, Esq., Portland Mills, Ind.
L. Slusser, M. D., Canal Fulton, 0.
J. C. Small, Esq., Toronto, C. W.
J. 8. Small, Esq., Charleston, 8. 0.
D. S. Smalley, Esq^ West Roxbury, Mass.
A. A. Smets, Esq., Savannah, Ga.
Smith, English A Co., Booksellers, Philadelphia (6)^
David C. Smith, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Howard Smith, M. D., New Orleans, La.
J. B. Smith, Esq., M. P., London.
J. Gay Smith, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. «
John Smith, Esq., Wilkesbarre, Pa.
Joseph P. Smith, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Lloyd P. Smith, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Stark. B. Smith, M. D., Windsor, N. a
Madame Smyth, London.
Jas. Solly, Esq^ Toll End, Tipton, Eng.
Mrs. Si>efar, London.
Osborn Springfield, Esq., Catton, near Norwich, Sng
Hon. E. Geo. Squier, Fonseca, Honduras.
Thomas Jefferson Staley, Esq., Savannah, Ga.
T. 0. Stark, Esq., New Orleans, La.
Holmes Steele, M. D., Savannah, Ga.
Albert Stein, Esq., Mobile, Ala.
Lewis H. Steiner, M. D., Baltimore, Md.
John Stoddard, Esq., Savannah, Ga.
•M. le Dr. Here Straus -Durckhehn, Jardin dss
Plantes, Paris.
Stringer A Townsend, Booksellers, New York (10 o.)
T. W. Strong, Esq., New York.
George Sutton, M. D., Aurora, Ind.
Samuel Swan, Esq., Montgomery, Ala.
J. A. Symonds, Esq., M. D., Clifton, Bristol, Eng.
Rev. Edward Taggart, Wlldwood, Hampstead, Kng.
BeuJamin Tanner, Esq., Baltimore, Md.
Rev. John James Tayler, London.
A. K. Taylor, Esq., Memphis, Tenn.
Franck Taylor, Bookseller, Washington, D. 0. (10 &)
Henry Taylor, Bookseller, Baltimore, Md.(2& oopiss.)
J. K. Teirt, Esq., Savannah, Ga.
W. H. Tegarden, Esq., New Orleans, La.
J. C. Thompson, Esq., Mobile. Ala.
Samuel Thompson, M. D., Albion, 111.
John Thorn, M. D., Baltimore, Md.
Tickoor A Co.. Booksellers, Boston, Mass. (12 copies.)
Alexander Tod, Esq., Egypt
Hon. R. Toombs, U. S. Senate, Washington, D. a
D. Ttorrey, Esq., Davenport, Iowa.
H. R. Troup, M. D^ Darien, Ga.
D. H. Tucker, M. D., Richmond, Ya.
J. C. Turner, Dr. D. S., Mobile, Ala.
T. I. Turner, M. D., U. S. N., Philadelphia, Pa.
Prof Wm. W. Turner, Washington, D. 0,
656
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.
J. Kolffht Uhler, M. D^ Sehiiylkfll Tftllv, Pfe.
Wm. M. Uhl«r, M. D^ Pbllwlelphta, Pft.
J. K. Clhorn, Baq^ N«w Urimiu, La.
WUUiu Updllw, E*i., Kinpton, R. L
Pro! OIIK 8. VaDot, M. D^ UdIt. of Ia, New OrkuiiL
Hnify VanderUDftert Kaq.. N«w Orkaii^ Lik
\l'ilUani & Yauz, Kmi^ PbiladalphU, P».
f . r. Walsamntb, Enq^ Philadelphia, P^
Sir Joshua WalmiiU^, U. P., London.
J. Haaon Wamn, M. D., Beaton, Uaai.
Janet 8. Waten, BooltMllar, Baltimora, Bfd. (10 &)
A. L Wataon, Kaq., U. B. If ^ Waahlngton, D. a
Ilawatt 0. Wataon, Bnq., Thamea Dltton, Sjxmj, Knf.
John G. Wayt, M. D., Kkhmond, Ta.
Thomaa H. Webh, M. D„ Boaton, Uaai.
PtoC J. G. P. WadMratnodt, M.D., UnlT. oC La« Nav
Orleana.
Wm. Walghtman, Kaq., Phtladalphia, Pfe.
J. R. Walah, Bwi., Philadelphia. Pa.
Mn. 0. S. Wejman, Brooklyn, N. Y.
IVn. W. White, Keq., Ooncreta, Tezaa.
Jamea 8. Whitnej, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Jacob B. Whittemore, M . D., Cheater, N. B.
Morrin 8. Wlekemham, Kaq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Pn>£ Oeorse D. Wllber, M. D., Mineral Point, Wta.
W.a WlkK ■«!•> Mew Orleans Ja.
Wflejr k na]al«d, BotAiienevB, Nev York (IS ooplM;.
Wm. WUklna, Eaq., Chariaaton, 8. a
Robt D. WUUnaon, ISaq^ Philadelphia, Pfe.
W. A. WUklnaon, Emi^ M. P.. London.
lUrk Wlllooi, Kaq., Philadelphia, PiL
G. Clinton William*, Baq., WaablnKtoo, D.C
W. Thome WUllama, BookaeUer, SaTannah, Oa. (91)
Prof! Daul. Wilaon, LL. D., Unir. Coll., Toronto^ a W.
Thoa. B. WUaon, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. (S coplm^
Wm. WInthrop, Jfiaq., Loodoo.
Hon. W. II. WItte, PhUadelphla, Pa. (1 eoplaa.)
Frandii Wood, Eaq. New Orleana.
Pruf. a«o. & Wood, M.D., Philadelphia.
II. D. WoodliUI, Karj., London.
Jamea Woodhonaa k Co., BookiaUen^ RJrhmimd, T&
(10 ooplea.)
8. W. Woodhonaa, M.D., Fort Delaware, Dd.
J. J. Woodwafd, Baq., Weat Philadelphia, Pb.
8. M. Woolirton, Em}., PhUadelphla, Pa.
Thoa. IL Wjnna^ Baq., Klehmond, Ya.
J. A. Yatea, Eaq., London.
Jamea Yatea, Eaq., M. A., F. R. 8., Higfagnta^ Aig.
The Mlfwa Yatea, Uverpool, Bng.
Riehard Y. Yatea, Eaq., LiTerpod, Xng;
Eaaton Yonge, U.D., SnTannah, Ga.
W. a Zeibar, BookaaUar, PhUadalphta, P>.(tnnplM)
ADDITIONAL NAMES.
Andrtw H. Armoor A Co., Bookaallera, Toronto^ 0. W. (4 ooptaa)
Charlea A. Brown, Baq., <*hiladelphla. Pa.
Thoman Hartley, Eaq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Ilenry Bteeirman, J&nq,, New York.
B. M. Smith, M. D., Athena, Ga. (2 eoplaa.)
THK END.
656
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.
J. Kni^t Ubler, X. D. Sdmylkfll T^Ot, FH
Wm. M. Uhler. JL D., Philadelphia, Fm.
J. £. Clborn, Eaq^ Nev Orlemiu. Im.
WDldas Updilu, Eaq^ Ktngrton, R. L
PnC GQh. S. TucM, M. D^ Unfr. of U^ JStm
Henry TandcriiDdar, B«i« N«v OriauMb Ia.
WUUam & Taux, £«i^ Philadelphia, Pa.
r. F. WalgaButh, E«iq^ Phfladriphia, F)k
Sir Jo»haa Walm^cj, H. P^ Loodoo.
J. MaaoQ Wanem M. D. Borton. Mmm.
Jmmca S. Water*. BooliMllcr, Baltimore^ Sid. (10 e.)
A. I. WatDOo, Ei«i., U. & N., Wariiinftoa. D. C
IleweU C. Waiaoa. Emj^ Thamea Ditton, Smxaj, Bdc.
Joho G. Waru M. D. Kiehmond, Ta.
Thomas H. Webh. M. D. Bomoo, Maa.
ProL J. C. P. Wedentrandt, 3L D., Unlr. of La« Xaw
OrI«aiUL
Wm. Weii^htman, E«q., Philadelphia, JBk
J. R. Welfh. Efq. Philadelphia. Pa.
MrL C. E. Wejmao. Brookljn, N. T.
Wm. W. White, Esq., Concrete. Tezaa.
Jamea S. Whitner. Efq.. Philadelphia. Pa.
Jacob B. Whittcmora. SC. D., ClM#ter. N. H.
Monris 8. Wickert ham, £*}. Philadelphia, Pa.
Pro£ GcoriEe D. Wither, M.D. Mineral Point, Wii.
W. a Wilde, Sail., ^•^ Orlaana, Ia
rnkft
WB.WilkiM,
Bobca
W.A.
Mark
6. Cliaum WinbiM.
W,
Pro£ DanL WQam. U.D.
Thoa.B.
Wm. Winilimp. biiT
Hon. W. EL Witta,
Ftaad* Wood. Biq. Xcv
Prot Oto. B. Wood. X. Du
H. D. WoodfidL Baq.
Jame* WoodhoMi * Oa.
nOeopiciu)
eLW.WoodlMnn
J. J. Woodward*
9. M. WoolAoo. Eaq. Pkil
Thoa.H.
Ta
Ta.
Jame» Tale*. £aq. M.A, F
The MiMes Talea.
RicfaanI T. TaSccL
Ea*ion Tcnfe, ILDt.
W.B.
1.3^
ADDITIONAL NAMES.
Andicv H. Armour k Go., Bookselkn, Tonmto^ C
Charles A. Brovn. Esq., ciiiladelphia. Pa.
Tbomaf Hartley. Eaq., Philadelphia, Pa.
Henry Steefman, Em}., N«v Tock.
B. M. Smith, M.D., Athena, Ga. (2Bnpiaa)
(*
THK END.
STANFORD UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
CECIL H. GREEN LIBRARY
STANFORD, CALIFORNIA 94305-6004
I415J 723-1493
All book > may be recalled aFler 7 days
, '<"-'' DATE DUE
DOC ^V 0 31995
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